-Y c ~ r 5 f f r r t I l i r ~ l ~ n 1 1 g ct zl rr s

\ f ~ ~ s e ~ r i rf it isr

Cr-

1111ri I : r i i l ~ g c s c . I ~ i c h t pl ' o t s c l n n t

ll;rrt<l 1~'LS;IBPO. Scitc 451-$72

CLirlr. Horwnll, Lor ldorz

The Coastal Factor in the Mesolithic Settlement

of North-West England

111 this paper nortlr-west Englantl is intcrprctchtl as ilrc

irrca that corresponclq \\it11 the rnoc1c'r.n county of CIIIXIIwia. 'l'lris is a rather isolatcd regiorr lying bct\\ccu tlrc
l'ennitie iii11s itrrtl thc sect. 'l'lre grealer part of tht. area
is iwenpictl hy tlic (:amltr.itl~r .\lountnins which ~,cach
liciglrls o l :rl~~iost1000 rr~elres :tl>o\t- c c ~ r lc\ c.1. rilorrg
tlrchir \\estcrn nrargin is a Irarro\\ co;rst:~llonl;tntl (helo\\
CiO rrlctres 0 . 1 ) ) . \\lriclt 1)c~tnectr St. 1 3 ~ ~Ifc.:~tl
s
:u~tl
\\;iltrt.y Islarrtl is rurtbly rrrorc tlratr :3 hrlr. \\itlc. ,U~lrost
tl\~~ry\\lrc~rc
this lo\\l;rnd strip is ct~\c%rcd
by g1:rcial clcl~osit\, ~ i r : t i ~ ~t~ottI(lt~r*
Iy
cl:rys ~ I I I C I fl~i\io-gI:~ci:~l
s:r~itI\,
rctrc;~l il:rgc. of tlic. last glzrciatiot~.
\\llic.lr 1.c.cort1
Sorrrc ;i\pt,c.~s of' rc~st,arc-1%
i ~ r ~tlrc
o T'ostglacial pclr.iotl
in Ctrml~ria:iru \\(41-:1tl\ aricctl. . I I I irnl)rt~ssivci c 4 1 . i of
~)ollcrrtiiagraitrs lias k)tseri oblainrd from orgarlic tleposits
i~rlilliirg1)ogc ;ttrtl l~cttlelioles ;tlong tlrc coastal lonlal~tl
ttrrti in tlrcl Inl\rs : r ~ r t l t:rrt]s oI tlrc~rrl)lnntls, nit11 tlic r.t3stilt t1r:rt ilict \ t'pctalion iristory of tlic last 1 :1.000 ycilrs
i, pr111);rk)IyI ~ I I O \ F11 in ~riort,(1t~t:tiItlrii~ifor ~ I I V:trea of
coir~~):rr;~l~lt~
si/(, irr 131+itairi(1). \\'ulker. 1966: \I-. l'cvtttit~g~ort.I!):(); 1!)'73\. 111 atltlitiorr. s~lrtlicsof I'oi~gl;rci:il
to tlrc coast. partisptlinit~ntii t 1 lo\\-lyirrg arcas atlj:tc~c~nt
c111:trly :irorintl tlic, lilujor cstu;~ricas,Iia\ c I)cg~uito pro\ itlc i ~ n ~ ) o r t a c\
~ ritlerretb
t
for rclati\ c 5t.n Ic\c4 t4ra1ipt.s
tlu~*i~rg
ilrv 1:tst 10.000 >c:rrs (11. .I. ?'oolr!/, 1974 :
1). Illt(l(litl~1.11. J. rroolfy/. t972).
Inqt~iririirrto the Ilcsolitl~icsc~tllcxnc~irt
of ilrc ropiitri
It(q;tn onl? tonrp:tr:iti\ r4y rc~crrrtly. 'l'he fiwt discox tlrics
\31>rcx rn:tclc. I)\, :~m:l!cur collc~ctors nt sites on \i':~hrcxy
lsl:\t~tl:\ncl at I)rigg i n tlrc l!)T,O'i ;P. I3rwirrs. .T. I,. IIoblts,
1950: O. Sic.1, volt. .I. 11. \1rrc./)orzrrlrl. 1 !fT,T,l. O\ c r tlxc
~
sittts I1:ir ~ C C I tlisco\crrtl,
I
tlut:
p;rct 1.7 ytr:rl.4. I I I : I I ~ II(W
Ii~rgt~lyto tIi(. s\ stt~~rr:r~ie
ficltl\\ orli of ,I. Cl~c.rr!j. S o
tlot;ril(~tl :rr(Ir:rt~ologic~:ilr.c~sc~;rr-cl~
\\as it~~tlcrt;rhcrirrrrtil
*t
i'orrlrs tlrt, baqis of this
19'74. \ \ l r t x ~ i t11(. ~ t t ' o j t ~\\liicli
p a ~ ) ~:I\r ~ir~iiiitto(l.
It i i 1101 l ~ ~ s s i l ~ \l\(i l' l. r c * r ~ r . t ' t ~ il\no\\l(~tlgc',
~t
to [)rt3scrrt
:I tltbl;ril(.tl
picttir~c~
oI' \I(~solitlric~
ietll(k~~rcv~t
in tiot'tli-\\(*st
l'rrg1;urtl. 'l'hch p ~ r r l ) o of'
i ~ tlrc. ~,rt~\c~irt
:rl.tic'lt>is to ouilirtc~
l l ~ c1j1vliniiu;11,\rcist~lts of tlte irr\tlztigatio~~
o l otre inl1lrc3

(l

porlnnt gt'orrlr of silci. :HI([ to offer a ti~ritativc interpret;itiolr of t110se silri irr terrrrs of tlrc.ir ecologic:rl setling. 'l'o a I;rrpe cLxtc,nt. thc analysis is sclt~ctive a ~ r d
rc,lics lre;r\ ily rrl?oir lrypotlrcsis and inference. I t is intcrrtlecl only 1l1:tt it slro~rltlIrt-111 to define more precisely
to I)(' iol\etl aiitl s e n t , as a basis for furtlrc l)r.oblt~~r~i
tIrt.18 incjr~iry.
1)istribntion of sites

\s
of

rths111~
of tllts c4Torts of Ioc*alcollcclors, tllc cxistcnce
1c:tst :it?
Itt~solitlriccitt.5 11;ls tto\\ bten cst:~l.jlishtd
i l l ('t~nritri:~.
\\it11 fc\v cxcrlttioris, tliesc ;rrc co~rfinccl
to t11(' strill of c.onst:rl lou 1:tnti hetn ecrr \\'nlney Islntid
;rlrtf St. t3c.c.s IItwl (Fig. 1 ) . Tlre grr:tt majority were
rccogrri~c~tl:is srrrlitct~cor~cc~~rtrntio~is
of :lr~ifactse ~ p ~ j i ~ ~ ( I
by ploi~glrirr~
or co:~<tal(xrosior~.
r ,
llrt-re :Iltptxar to 1~ t\\o irr:tjor. grotrps or sites; orre
i r r ill(* :rr(.:r rrca;rr St. 1 h 1 3 (.I. aricl P. J. ('hrrrg, 197:l).
:urtl a l:t~.gt,~.g r - o ~ ~i p~ itlre :rrc,a :tronntl t l r ~confluent
c~stu;r~.ic~s
of 1lrt1 rivc~rs Esh, \lit(, :rnd Irt (D.Sicksort,
.I. 11. .\ltic~l)or,nlcl, l!)T,T,: .I. ('lz~rr?j, \IT. P ~ n r t i i i g t o n .
i !)(iT, ; J. ( hcl.rg, I9(i!)). 'l'o cortrc extent tlris tlistriljution
putlt%~.rr
is prctlictnbl(~.sirrre tl~i. is tlrc sector in \\lrielr
11;ts I)(TII nrost c~ff(~cti\cly
contcntr:ltetl. \I-lrefic~ltl\tot~l~
tlrt'r t11(lstb t \ i o groups rcy)r.cLscxrrttliscxrctc clus~rr5 oT
sites. or :IF(% s i ~ i r l ) l \ fruptrlct~tso f ari origiri:llly cotrtitltrous
tlistrihutio~r,is :I clucstiotr \\iridr 1n:ry only he resolved
sur\c,y of tlie arra :r~rtl:In :recurate
h v :I rriorc. ~~riiforrrr
~
:IIY, lilc(4y to
~ ~ s s c ~ s s r ~ofr r ~t11ow
~ L l o t ~ t l ~ : I C L I J ~\\lticl~
lia\(. iriflr~cner(lhot11 t h r location :lntl preservation of
site..
pr~c~ic~rt
1.1 itl(,tice. tht first : ~ l t ~ r ~ r e
a tsecrns
i\
tlre
nrol-c lihvly.
.\ti equ:tll\- strilcing fe:lturc of tlrv tlist~*il)utiori
nrnp
is tlrt, :ihst~trc~~
of sites from tlrr ~rltl:critL irrtc'rior. O v c ~
irr~~cli
of this 7onc, thr cornbiri:rtiorr of to~~ogr;rplrv
:rrrtl
c~rosiori pro\ itlcs corrtlitiotrs nlrit~ll :Ire unzuitnhle for
Ilrc. 1)rnc~sc,i,\:~tiorr
of \Ii~soli~lricciitti. ('o~rscclircrrtl\. tlic
~ y c i o r !I:$\
~ : ~ i l r ~ : t ( ~ i (i i~t tl l ( s ; t l l ~ ~ r ~ i i~oI ~O Ir I I ~ ~ t r r : r I ~(~11~~~r.
lt'c.iors. floncx\t3~..ilrc upl:rrrrls alio i~rcll~tlr
art,:rs \\lrr,rc
rc~licf is less prorrouncetl, ori \\lridr bl2111ict peat has
:I

:I[

1:ig. 21

l',\l,

:\ir<l

11i11r t l ~ o win I I I ~ :lri~t

~ I I l):trtic-t~l:~r

t l t of III(> ri\ vr. l\t~it\\11

'11111'. c ~ \ i i t ~ i i ( ~ v
\Ic*,oIill~ic*4it.s at i.:sArrrc;rls a:rs lit-st rt~c.orclcil flu
.I. ( il1~rr.I~1 !%i!)
.
'1'110 I I I : ~ , ~ ~ IlI)+r o l ) l ( ~ i ~1%~l1ic111
s
I I : ~ t i ) 1)o f:~cwl in ti111
i r ~ \ t * \ t i g : l ~ iof
i ~ ~tlr(w
r
sitcb, r<4;1it%to: ( 1 1 ill(> rt,lati\(:itrtl :~l)sol~~tcx
:rgt'\
lltr~cIilTc~rc~rr1sit(,\: ' 2 ) tlic l c r ~ p l l r ~
01 I ~ I I :II I~I ( ~ \ ( ~ t \ o i ~I IsS !It(% J ( ~ t cIii~.i;~g
r
\I I~ivlr tlrt, \it(,\
oc.c,1111ii>tl
: :; LIIV ( I ~ ~ I I ( ~ I I < ~ < I I :i11(1
I < I I L c,ri1l1 tirr:~t~gc~I I I ( * I I ~ 01' i i i ( l i ~icIt1:11 410s i.o. I J I P i l i \ t r i l ) t ~ ~ i o
of~ l 1111ts.
I
I
I
. I I I ~ ~ I tI .. : 4
1111- s i t l ) ~ i \ f e n ~
:r(*fie
\ ~ i i c s ~of
1111, soci:rl rrrortl)i rt~sl)cri~\iltlr
for tllc ~ i t c r ;
.-)
t l r t x r:rc.lor,Y \\i~ic.l~
irrllr~c~~rc.rtl
tlrc. loc':~litt~r of tlrr
si1t.c:
t i ] t l ~ cc\icLrrt l o \\lric-ll t l ~ cprt~scl~t
clislriltutiotr
,011

:I,

1=\1\111c-;1/\.

oi

(b~*(-

r .

1 11(,~>i.c~~c~iit
\\ r,iirr's rr~sc%:t~clr
is c.o~rc~c~r~~c~tl
!)I iilr:~rilv nit11

l l ~ pro1111
t
or

sit(,. loc.:rtc(l

: r ~ ~ c t r r ~ tltc,
rtl

s~nglestte

I<,$! 1 .

l ~ l . l , ~ l l l , , l l t l t l 111<,,>

ir~oulllof llre Ili\ cr.

group of sltes

Ot \l~~\ollllllt\It<,\ I l l llI3ri\l-~\
t,\t

l:l\gl<llll~

fi

land over
250 metres

('ot~c(
11lr;itio11\ of \lt~vbIitlri(*I I I ; ~ I ( , I ~ ; I o~ ( ~ ~ :tIr~ O I I ~
~ I I Ift\:~it~r(,.
~
\\111(.11 is (.I(~:r1.1\I(':ts :I lo\\ (4ifl
in I)i)~tl(L(~t.
(+I:I\. 'I I I V lriglrc~~t
t.i~p~rts:il~lt*
lroit>t\ iilo~rgt l l ~t4iff-litit~l.iw io :~t.orrt~i
15 i ~ i ( ~().I)..
t~~s
;rlilror~glr t l r c x tirc,:rlr Irciplrt OF ihv sit(,\ ;I[ \\ illi:irr~sorr's
\lo,\. Alonl, \loc~r.s :tritl I,:~~rglrvI';~rl, is T..; rtrcbtt.t.s.
,,
1 Iic. ts:ricc~tl sl~trr.clirlt~
c,\ itlt*rltly rcy,rcbic,nts tlrcb I'ostgl:rc*i:il
I i l r r i t : i l o ~ ~tp
l ~ i \p:it,t of the (~11111hriir11
iboast. : I I ~
rr>itri~~(,
nrust I c'l:ttc lo :r sc~r I('\thl k c h \ i,r.:rl iir:ttrc~s lligllcr (rcli~t i \ cl?) iir:trr ~)r.c~sc~rt
s t ~ iIc\ ('1. Its full grogr;rpllic;rl P\k(wt 11:11 rrol Iwcxtr t\st:\f~lislrt~tl.
l)trl ill Llrc, thour.st of rtbc.clni 1,\t.:r\ atiorts ils position \\as ruappctl 0 ~ 1 :I~ stl;\t:irlt3ta
: ~ :tn(I tlltt l<i\(>rI<&.
'rl~
I,t-to\\n tIi\tt.iI)atiou of sitcs :it Esl,tnc.als c~or~t*c~sponcls ol%;rl)or~t*5 LIII. I)~~I\\(vII h l ~ c ~ l dIIill
'I'll(% sit(,\ ~~c~cortlt~tl
in Fig. :\ rnay only h1. :I qrrtitll
\ t r y c*lost:ly \r ith the remairls oE ;i for rnttr slro~*c~lirlc
\:rtrrl)lc* crf ~lrr, oripirr:iI tliitribution. 'Ttrc :trc~lr;tcolopic.:\I
(Fig. 3. ~ l o wclcvatcil ilhovc sen lc~vrl.The rtlort impor-

r.t.flt~c-li 1111% or-igitr:tl ccbttlcrnc>rrt ~ , ; t t l i ~ :~ , r: ~~t r t l T i the'

(,I>\iro~rtt~(~rri:il
cot~tlitioirstllir! 1)r.ck\ i ~ i l ( b ( l ihtri~rg
tlrc* .\Icsolitlrir ot~cu~);~~iorrs.
.
llrt. cttr.ri*trt rt.si~:trt.t~is tllrrcforc. :lirxlctl at provitiirlg
solr~tiorrsto :is nr:rny of tlrcic ~)l.oltlrtrls215 I)oiiil)l(>.'l7Ir(~
1woje(-t i\ itr its early slngtxs, anti tlrc tl:tttt lli:rl ntac
nvui1:rt)lc so far arc s~rrficic'ikt to pcrmii c~niya I?\\ tcstrt:ttivtb obsrrv;ttions ;tilt$ srrggestiotrs to he I H : ~ ~ :C~ f ) o l ~ t
ill(, ir:~ittrc of .\lrsolitlric. occ.rtpatiorr i l l thii :rrc:l.
I I : I ~ I I ~ of
P

{it111
~ l r t b

I ; t t l t l \ t : ~ ~ ~( l~ i ~ ct t .r

nttlemont site

po88ibio site

"")

7.5m/25ft

RAVENGLASS

contour

Fig. '2: I)i\trihution m:tp of Alc~olitliic~

hi~rsin [Ire irucvt aror~ncillrc' c\ir~:rrytrf t l ~ cRi\cr E\h

--

1.

\
f'

/
I

I
I

I
\\
/-\-

12
'A

/ '
/ -

--

/Ir

\,

Langley Park

/A
'-b A

27iA

Monk Moors

>

I
I
/

/
I
/

/
/

A .A

<\J

3.

* ->

/'#

W~lltamsons Moss

'm

/
/
/

/
'

6-A
I
I

Skelda HblI

settlement s ~ t e

d,

poss~ble stte
area w~th masol~tha
and later artitacts

\
/

.- -

Preaent shoreline

former shoreline

Fig. 3: Distribution of Mesolithic sites at Eskmeals, sllowing their relationship to the former
sl~oreline

1 Km

itlt.\,.\

11:1\

11ot I)rr11

I I ~ I ~ ~ I ) I . I I :1n11
I.

I ) I I I I I I I I 01 \ i ~ r \I*I*III>I,~\

tl118

1):1Itvti11 1 f

~ I I C 1)i4(wL~rt
~li\tl-i-

;kcti\ I [ \ . \lost of t l ~ e . f i 1 1 e l \ II;I\ 1 ) 1 ~ c s i 1 111:t(1t~ 1 ) ) \~il.f;t(~'

c.ollrrtir~g \\ lrc.~.cb I i t r ~ t l lrirs I)rcrr ~)lo~tghrtl(.I. ( ltc.r.r!l,
~)cvs.cwlnn~,),
( : o i ~ \ c q i ~ c n ~tI ly ~, c rirrc
~ s \ ~ h i t i ~ t l t i\cc'tiol~~
i~l
of Ilrr 'sl~orrlim~'
\\l~c~r(b
tro firltl\\ori\ Ira\ I)rr11 r:tr~~ic~tl
out: ;tn(l on(> 01 tlic cirirl' ol)jccti\cs of f11tut.c \tori\ nil1
\
to thcsr arcas.
to c\lc~rd tlre i r ~ t,iiigtttions
OIL l)~'cittrk rvitlcnrc. Slirlda Tlill appcnri to n~;rrl<
IIIV ~ouLl1r111I ~ I I I ~ of
L Llrr (listrihi~tiorl: b11l tir(>rv i ~ r r
flint\ ill tlrc form ol isolateil firltls 01 nrtikrttr. t l ~ n thlrsolithit oc*c~npationc.xtt11tIet1 for* coniitlcrrtblc tlistancr
north of 1,ilrlplry I':rrI\ :rtrtl along the L<sl\ altnost as far,
:I\ tht. preirrrt tidal litnit (Figs. 2 n11t1 3). .2 syst~tn:ltic
s u n e y of tlrc 'slrorclinr', in\-olvirrg both lieltl\\ nlking
irrrtl t~xl)lor:rto~*y
c'xc;~*:rtion, \lronltl t1irl.r forc re\ cal
t l ~ rc?iistc~rr(-t~
of many Ire\\ sites, ant1 eorrltl ncll rcsrllt
it1 nn ulnroqt contirrtlous distribution.
Otrc of the basic ~ ) ~ * o b l ein\ol\ed
n~s
in stutlying t l ~ c
P\ itlrnrr cc\tttt.es on 11o\\ one defirics n 'iitc'. 'l'l~is is hrst
illrrstratctl I)y rcfrrrrrc~rto tlrt. sitnittion ;it .\Ionl, Slonr,,
\I i~rrc,tiicrr npj,rrrri
to
;t contiii~iorr~
qcattrr of nr-tif:rc,ti O \ C ~i111 area :rt I(~rst230 rn. X 130 In., cotrtainirrg
:it lea\t t i l e t~lnjor c-onc~t~trtratiot~~.
X'rcsitrnat)ly cnc.h
~tlnjor c~ot~i~rntration
~ t y ) r ~ i e l l t:Is Ioc:tli~~(foccupi~tion
;irc:r, but it i\ difficult to line\\ ho\\ nrnny \.;c,rc ocbcrlpietl at one tinrc. SI~oaldthis pattcrli be interpreted as
l l ~ crcmnins of ;$ single complex settlcmcnt iii\ol\-ing a
nuriiher of social group\: or as a series of sitcs rcstrlting
f r o n ~:I sriccessio~lof ocvui)atior-is b y one group of people:
or c\.en in terms of 'settlcmrt~tdrift' o\.c%ralr cxtt~utlctl
pi'^ iotl o~!oc>ctrpation in\ ol\ i11g a \iugle grorrp:' (:lc:r14y.
llrcre :rrc rxrnny altcr.n:t~ivc irrtcrprtst:rtiorli to \\hifir colt\itltsration \\ill ha\ c to 1)e gi\ CII in ftitrrr~researc>lr. For
(3

tlrr p ~ ~ ~ i r \lI IrI t( I \ . I\:I(.II 111:rior ~ ~ I I ( ~ I ~ I

:I ~ r ~ ) : ~ r ittr
i i t r I r t ~ l ) i ~ r \ ~!I\~ ~\oIi~l
tt~~l

t l ~ t t ~ ) I I I ~ ~ of
~ o \ ~

i\ rrg:~t.thil:I\
t i i:r11g111\
i11 l;iz. ::I.

I ( ~ C V J I:~~ g r i ( . ~ ~ l t ~ ~ r~ :I :~I Il ~ I ) I I

\\ i i l ~t l ~ crt.\olir-ccs ;r\;ril;rk)lr. it 11:ts rot i ) r t ~ 1)o\\ilbl~.

~i
to :rttrrrll)t lltr iolirl t\c.ir\irlion of' irny intli~itln;rl iilr.
So firr, iri\r\tig:~tio~ii
11:1\rhec~t~
(Y)II&II~(Ito 1i111i1r(l ;IIT:I\
of ir \III:III 11tttirl)'r of \it(,\, \ \ ~ L I I tlrtl ~ I I L ( ~ I I I ~of~ I 011I
t;lirriiig \ r ~ E f i c ~ i t ~ r i;rmplrs
rt
of :trcl~:teologic;ti ~ l a t nto nit1
tirr i ~ l l c r ~ ~ r r t a t iofo ~ thc
l
sitc iystcXlxr :\s a \\liolc. :t11(1
of t l ~ ca w n for frrrtlrcr
lo hr :ll,it> lo :rsstts~the. ~)otrtrti:~l
~.rsr:~r.clr.I<\t:r\ ittiorrs \\ crtL c a n ictl out orr t\\ o iitra at
1lo11li hloors \\lridr ;rrcx situittctl on opposite siclcs of
:I S I I I : ~ ~t s~ ~ ~ ~ l ) i l > ~in
iit~
t l~i r~tfornler \horrline ,Fig. 3,
sit(.\ I :rritI 21. i t r i t l on :I thirtl sitc at \I-illiamsotr's hlois
[Fig. 3, sitr 3). On cxnel~ site tllc excavation n n s tlcliI)ctbntt4> :tinrrtl 211 tire area \vith tlrc grcatcst tlcnrity of
;rrtifac.ts. 'l'his \\;IS tlcterntitlctl by ~)relinriniri.ysersics of
trit piti t l ~ gat regttlar intt~rvalsntsrois the site. Itlcoli(.:rl tc~clrriic~r~i~s
T \ ( > I . ( ~ eplo>rtl orr tlir thrrc' \ites. ant1 id1
~l
;I rncslr
t l ~ cc\c.:~\:~trtl~n:ttrxt.i:rl \\:I\ \ ~ r t - s i t > \ ctl~rotrglx
\i/r of :I r1i.111.
boil plrosplratc all;rlysii :\lit1 rrr:rgnctic s ~ ~ t . \ c y\ \ir r r
alio trscd ill tlrc>iri\rstig:~tions. in tllc 1 1 o ~ x01~ oltt:rining
inforrtration ;~t)outt l ~ cc)\ rrall clistriblrtion of tlrartl~s.pit\
:~trti f o r ~ n c ~rnitltleri
*
areas. Thi\ is prob:~bly tllr first
time that t l ~ c wtccliniques Ira\ c been nl)j)licd o u hlrsolitlric sites in 13riLain. f-Io\rtkvcr, they \\,ere carriccl o t ~ t
oti ntr i>spcr.inrctltalbasis, ant1 the rc\itlts \\ill rlcctl to be
tcstctl b y fnrthcr eucn\ ation.

S c t t l r ~ r ~ t s~i rx ~c t
111 c~orrritlering tlw tlit~~clisioni
of itttli\itlt~nl\itcls. it is
uscful to try to relate the (1:rta from ~:il~riicaisto tliosr

ESKMEALS
Monk Moors Site 1

I -

I)~.c*sc-~~t(~tt
11> \Irll;rrs for o ~ l ~ c.\fvsoliil~ic.
*r
ii1t.s irr H~ki~tlirl
I['.
,\fe//(~rs.1 !li{i,
'l.:~l)lo11.
of 111csit('$ :tL llolil\ .\loors ancl
I)c*ter~rrinirrgtlrv
1Yilli:~mson's AIoss, i)ascvl on tlw ovn-till tlistr~ibutionof
artif:~cts. prrsents \evchr:tl tliflicirltirs. In tlre firit place.
s
cxr:ronly a Fr:rction of the : I ~ P ; Iof c:ic.l~ sile 1 1 ~ bcfsn
vattd. .It Lfonk Sloors thckrc i i the additional yro1)lrm
~ c ol)scburetl by inotl1:1t parts of Sites I ant1 2 l ~ : i ~hecn
drrrl struc.turcs. (:onseclumtly. it I ~ a snot 1)c.cn possihlc to
ctsl:iblislr the prccisc limits of the nrtifoot scatters. IIoxc>\tLr.rstinlales of t l ~ cmil~iinturrs i ~ cof t\x--o iitr5 can
be mattc on tlics hasis of the arbifact totals rc~cortlcctin thr.
test pits. If the settlcmtwt is artitrnrily defined as the area
over \vhic.ll :it-tif;~c,ldrnsitier c.xcecd .YO per squt\rtBmetrc,
then the approxiniatc tlimcr~siorlsof Jlonk IIoors Site
1 arc, 33 m X 1.5 m.. \vhilc those of tllc bite at 1Yillinmson's lross nrc. 22 In X 21 1n. In both cnsc5 the settlenient :trtla is larger thal that recor(le(l at Star Carr
( I S5 squilrc mctr+es).

The rsc~:n-a~c~ct
sites arca located on boulder cl:~y.beneath
a shallo~vlayer of 'plouglisoil'. The occupation horizon
has suffered consitler:~ble clisturbanco as a resull of
ploughing nntl ;irtifici:ll clminage. Severtllelcss. structural features relttling to the llcsolithic occupation were
identified on all tl~reesites.
I he most intl)ortant cvidencr was recover'ed from
lIonk Aloors 1. The grouucl plan (Fig. 4 ) rrveals a n
elongated oval ar~.;ingcrneutof hearths awl stalie lioles.
covrring a n ;Ires rorlgfil?; '7 nl. X 2.4 m. ( ~ I Uarc-shi~pecl
dtapressiorl near to one encl of thc group may have been
the. site of a line of stalces). The hearths wcre regularly
spaced about 1..5 metres apart, and occupied shallow
depressions between 60-80 cm. across. The slake lioles
\\-ere up to 20 crn. deep and 10 em. across. n;trrowing
to a point. >lost pcnctratcd the ground at a slight angle.
and one hole still held a pointed, carborlized fragment
of wood (oak) - presumably the remains of the originid
stake. Close to tile north-eastern limit of the escnr:~tion.
and. isolated from the main gr.oup of featul-es, there
n-cre further tr-aces of fire associated with stalie holes.
Tlie interpretation of these features is com1)licated by
sampling problems. Only part of the occupation area
was investigated: while the extent of modcrrl clisturbancc
on the site rnay nleatl that only partial traces of thr
original structures ha\ e bccn preservctl. ,i
further difficully is that of knon inp \\lictller the sur\7i\-ing features
relate to a singlc pcrioil of occupation, or to a succession of occr~pations.
'fhere is a ceneral tcndthncy on tlrc part oE arcllaeologists to explain tht: occurrence of hearths. pits :n~cl
sl:tlie lloles on Slesolithic sites in terms of huts or
shelters. tllthouglr the mnge OF po~siblcinterpretations
is 111uc.h grclater. Ethnographic ohsen ationr suggest that,
suth fenturcbs could tlleoretically rcsult fronl a !vide
variety of tlort~esticor cconoinic activities, inclutling the
prt,l)aration. preicrx-ation and storage of food, and the
curing of animal hides.
Io\vr\er, assuming that the fcaturcs on Slonli
lloors J are the product ol n single rpisotli? of oecirpalion. there may be sonic. slight justific~ltion in rcyarding the main group :is the remains of some for111 of
'li\ irrg structure' :

I . 'l'l~e tlistril~utior~of 11e:lrthh :rucl stal\c 11oli.r corr(\sl>on(ls~ i t h~ I I C liiglt~stcfe1i5iti(>sof ilrtif:trts I.CCOP(IC(I
from 11te 5ite. 'rile fil~dsr ~ c o r ( l e ~in1 t l ~ ctest pit5 indic,;rte that the tot:il nlrrnher of artifacts I)clr square metrc
tlvcrc:~ses r:itht,r s11:lrpIy beyond (he 11iai11extavatecl
i1I'e:l.
2. In ;III artb;l wlricl~ iii prone to high windq. there
would I)(. a ccrt:rin adv:lnt:~ge in positioning a hut or
s11eltt.r so that it offered minin~uin rcsistiince to the
wintl. It is pe~bhapssignificant that thc long :isis of tlir
ni:~iri p r o ~ ~ofp features coincides nit11 the direction of
tlie prevailing winds ifrorn south-weqt to north-east),
although the rc~lationslrip ltctween past and present
(+limnticcontlitions can only be inferred.
Structural fcatures of a diflerent d~aractermere revrillctl by linlitc3cl area oscavatious of the other sites.
a shallow, irregular 'pit' 2.5 m.
Jlonlc Jloors 2 ~~rotluced
lorig X 0.6 rn. \\id(,. but no c-learly defioect hearths or.
slake 1101~s..
I
similar ft.sture has heeri partially exca\ ; ~ t e don tlic sitc at \Yilliamsori's Iloss. Further inwstigittions of the iite complex at Eslimeals arc therrforc

r 7

MONK MOORS Site 1

Exc. area 112 rn2

Sample 628

MONK MOORS Site 2

Exc. area 52 rn2

Sample 217

WILLIAMSON'S MOSS

Exc. area 3 2 m2
Sample 139

Fig. 5: IIistogninis of I-elativc fwquencic~or retouctied tools

i n thc csc;i\:ttetl llint assernhlagcs

:t~.(,;ts. tlrch srrggosiion i i tIr:rt t 1 1 ~t \ iricntsc frorrt southliLri\ to ic'l<l :I \\ rtltt r:trrpcb of \It solttlric~ I ' c ~ r ~ r rc,s.
r ;I\\\ ( i t (:trlrrl)t*i:i t.cl:ttc~ \\ llolly to tltc 1,:rter llcsolithic.
tliorrglr !lrr signific*;cnc.r>of tlrocc~on :rn\ orrcl site 111n\7
only I)(, :~l)prtlt.i;~t(,(i
\\ INVI co~np:ir:lti\ (I:rt:r II:I\
I ) ~ ~ ~ ~ I I 'I'lrc ?rotlrtLtbof /lint for ~ l t ef+:sl\tneals inclustries was
s111:rll ~)cltl)lt~s
\\ hiclr occur i r k shingle tlrposits along the
ol)t:titrt~tl 11.o11r:I s(.ritls ol rlrorr. ct\~i,nsi\cL 1,*c.:r\ :rtiorrs.
co:tst. 'I'l~is is tlrc only suitilt)lc raw material available
I llc, iI~sir:il)ilit\ of II:I\ ing (.otlrpl(~tt~
grotrrr(1 1)1:111s 201.
toc:ill> :tlrtl is tountl o n :rll lli~solithitrsiteb along tttc
:I larptk nrtrrrl)cr of st~lllc~rnc
nt\ of sit1ril:tr ngt'. \\it11 lht.
co:tst:tl Io\\l:~i~cl..\t I'shxnrals a \ c r y small percclrtage
1)ossihility of ~c~cogt~isinp
~r~p~sl:ir
l);ittrr~rs ;\itliin LIIP
of :ix~if:tcts is rn:1(1(, frorxt fine-graainecl volcanic tuO, evirl:tt:+. Ir:ts fi)c~%n
;rtrrpl> tl(~rriol~str;rtcil
1,) It'. Sc~u*t~li
' 1!17:1.
dc~rtl? I ~ o n rtllc s;lrnil sourtc.. On sonre of t h t sites near
p. 402 1.1.
St. 1'rc~c.stlrc proportioir of artifacts rnatle from tuff is
1111rc.1111igIlt r i,l. :rnd I '. J. Okerrg, 1973); but there is
sro c\iclcirc.c~ that irilatttl sources of this ~iiaterial were
rr~iliz(.tl i)y thr ll(~solithirjtopulation, as they were for
I!I(> stotli1 itrtlnstric~i Itor11 thc Esltrrrc~itli si1t.5 ilto\\ :tn
the p ~ o t l u t ~ t i oof
r ~ storrc axes in the later prehistoric
o\c>r:tll r<~sc~rrlblnncc~
in tc>rrrrs of typology. tt>c'll~rolog\
~
of tkt(>; ~ ~ s ( ~ n r I ) l ; ~ g (pcr
~ \ ioti.
; t r ~ lr t i ~tr~ittvri:rl. .i s t r i k i r ~l(,:~tt~r(l
1'11t. tl6t)it;tgcz fro111 tilt. c s c ~ ~ v : ~ tsites
e d includes large
frotlr Monk \loor\ :~rrtl \\'ilIi:tmson's lloss is tlrt c.lost'
ntl~nbc~rs
of 'sc.:rl:lr cort%s' (Fig. 7,9.101. Thcsc are corm
of clilit~rcrlt c~itlcsirrtil:~rity in i11(~r.rl:rti\cx f r r c~ut~rrc-ic~s
on fl:rlic.s or split pcahblcs. \ ~ i t htraces of percussion orr
parics of r*t~totrcltc~tl
tools Fig. 5). :\lic.roliths :rrc by far
oy,)osirlg crltls. TIrt, c~ntls arc usually batterecl and
I I I ( ~ 111o5t r~r~tn(>rotis
irnpl~~tn(11t~.
'I'ltf~~(~
are sigrlifi(*:rnt
sylintc~r'c.tl. \\it11 il:tht% rcrno\;rli, \isible on one or both
ptol)o1tior1< of sc.r:tl)(rs: hrtt otllc'r' ~ o o l st~sriitll> fountl
f ' i ~ t ~ ~I.:\l)(~r*itt~c~rr~:tl
s.
stndit's hii\t' 411o\v11 that cores of
on \ I t solithi(*site\. \II(.II :I\ httrins. pitbrc.(,rs :SII(I srrr:rt(~I
tlris l\ind :\I.(, ~ t o~lrrc.i~l
r
1)y ~ l l t .ftipolar ilaking ti~chniyue,
l)ln(li~s.:1t (I 1)rcst\11t in onl) \ PI > , r r ~ : t I l qt~:lrttitie,i. (;OI(x
\\lricIl in\ oL\ 6.5 holtlirrg tllc (.ore vrrtii*ally or1 a statio:rxt>s :rir(l typic.;tl I I I : I I I I I ~ : I ( ~ ~ I I I I:t11(1
~ I ~ s l ~ : ~ r j ) ~ r ~ 11;1I\r,s
irrg
rl:tr'y irrr\il ;111(l striking tilt. top of it rcpeittpcily nit11 n
irrt. c orispic~rrortil?: r t ) i c ~ l r t .
I~;~rrrtrrc~r~~tot~t~
(,I. 1'. \\'/tit<>. 1968: '11. I f . Secvcotner,
,,
I ltc rtticrolitlts 'l:ig. (:Ic*orrrt)ri\c>:i ~~:rrtgc.of -S:trro!\
~,c~rs.c.ornr~r.l.
'l'Ir(. rrt:iiil :t<lvatltage~of this method are
l3l:t(lt~. I'or111s in \\!~i(,li ii~ic.ro-t~i;tt~glt~s
~ ) r ~ ~ ( I o t ~ ~ i:11rtirtt~.
t l i i r t i t ~,~~cxlr~c.cs
Iirrgc ntunbt~rsof usable flakes allows
tllouglr t1rt~r.c. irrc irt\;rr~i:tl)iys~tritll~)crc~t~rltngc~s
of 'l3ro:rtl
\ 1.r.y i,nritll ;iic,c.-s of nr;ltt>rial to he ~vorkecl.
IUlatlt~' rrtic.rolitlrs. inc~lrrtlinp sirrrltlth oirlit~ircly pitr~rtt'tl
I'll(% p ~ c w n t ct t f ical:~r corcs, together \vith a few
points. 'S'hc c,itrlic\t r;itlioc;rri.>ofi cl:i~t.b for 'S:rrro\\
1I:tkt~~
\\lriolt sl~o\\I)rrlt)s OF pcrc8ussion on both proxirnal
~ ~ I : I ( I P ' i nrIr~stri(~sirt nor t t ~ ( ~ r Er>gl;rr~(l
n
(.lnst(br :rron~rd
ant1 tlis~:tl c ~ t i t l s . irl(lic.:ttti titzit the 1)ipotar flaking techof
(i700 b.(*.."ntttl tlrtx~c,; I ~ Pintlit~:rtiorts t11:tt intlrist~it~s
nicjut, \$:I\ :tn irtrportittr~ rlrrrtc~iit in the llcsolithic inlllis typch c'orltirruc~(1to I)(' rl1:111rif:1c~lrrrt'cjtltl~ouglrorrt tlrca
clrrstriei :kt I*:~Lrrtc~:rls. E.:\itlcntly, the ntajor factor rletcr1 : i i t ~ -1)!1:1\t, of I ~ I V1 it~solitltic.( I < . \[. J < t ( 01);. l!E3: l97(i:
~tlitlirrp its list. \\:I\ ~ I I C I I : I ~ I Z ~ Cof the iWat\material I-', .\lcl/rtrs. I!);'t). .\ttc~rrpts to jtro\ itlt. :I rl~orc~
c~Ia1)or:rtt~
~ I I I : I I I j)('l)t)l('s. S(irIirr or(^ O C C I I ~ on most llesolithic
i l l Iir.il;lirr
clrronologic~:rl fr:~rut,\\orl\ to18 tlrtbsts irrtlus~t+ic>s
5itt.s in sou~lr-\\c~it
( ~irrlbri;~.
:inti Ilavc :tlso been recogIi:r\c so far iltt\t \tilt1 littit. snc.1.tLsi H. %r,it.sttr. It. \I.
rtisc-tl in ;~csc~rrrl~iitgt~~
frotn ;\l~.solithic shell middens in
Jctt-obi. 1!)73).
sor~tlt-\\<'stS(.otI:itttl \I'. .\lrllctrs, S. Pizyr~e. 1971).3 I t
sc\orrts liLt4y tllirt I)ipol;lt* fl:tLiirg \\:is ;I \\idt>sprcatl terlt~ricltrc,irt :i1.1~:rsn11i.1.t. pc\ltt)lcs ncrc tlrc rriai~t sonrcc of
fliil,irlg rn;tlr~ri:tl. p:rvlic-rrl;triy itlong tkrr \\cstcXrncoast of
Iiritaitr.
(b

(b

, 7

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\(v-tioir
souof co;ts~lirtc~i ~ rIltit:ritr. t ' \ t ~ ~ l ) tlir:rk bortlt,r.ing
tll<~lllSor.tlr bc~;r.
O I I P :11)1):11t>irt
( ~ ~ ~ ~ r t ~ l i~i I\ Ii ~o:rI>\ \ fro111
II
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I).(). ill( re II:I\ l)ee~i(1
\\IIOI(\ ct,ric%sor \~rr:rll-~c~irlc~
Ilt~etir:rtiorli of sr:\ It\el. This
Ir:r\ rncatrt tIi:it lo\\-I) urg c*o:rst;tl ;tr.c'a\. t.\l)cci:rily tlittsc
:~tl,iitt~b~~t
to t . i \ i > ~
(~\tlt:rr.ie~
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: ~ l s ?i)c(111
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srti)ic~ctt,tl I t ) \c,\c,r.;rl t,l)i,odc\4 0 1 trr:t:t~i(~i ~ i ~ ~ t r d : t t i.\i
o~i.
:I ti~sirlt.i l l tlir~sia:rr.cl;r*
t l r c ril h;r\c It(c>rl repi.at(.tl chaiigcls
iti t*o;tst;d c ~ i ~ \ i r o ~ i r ~ i tant1
~ i r l \ iri tlic, pitiiliorr of th(,
shorclirre. .\]I ~~ritlor~~i:irrtli~rp
of rlrc~\r%ch;lngc.* i n south\\ itst ( ttrrli)r.i:\ i \ tltc~rr'rot.tbc.lrtci:tl to 111r* intcrl)rrtntior~
or tlie c~\itlt*rtcc~
for \ic'\o/~tliic. i i ~ t t l e l u t ~ t;\long
i~
the
coastal Ion ltttltl.
i14

I l r c b

I . \I;rt*irrc~ iwirtlitio~rs\ \ e r r t~st:~bli~lieil

along

tht. ' f o r ~ ~ t c r
~liorcliric~'(luring the early Litl;~nticperiod (zone
YII ;ll. b e t \ ~ c ~ ~5100-4800
ri
b . ~ . .\t this time thc
rl~oi~ttr
of tlir' I\i\er 14:sk \\as lot.atc.tl to the north of
Ytw l)iggi~i.

2. . \ ~ . o t ~ ~/IS00
i ( l l ~ c tficrr~
.
\v;I\ a t;li:rt~gt.to c)~iiet.lx~aekislt
\\;rtcxr. cwntlitioris. 'I'llc growtlr of snntl or shingle bnnlts,
or. t i r t ~ form;rtion of all oll'cl~or-clxlrricr. protected the
'slrorc~linc~'frorrl t l i c ~ t3flrc~s of high entrgy waves,
tli\ rr titrg thc hi\er Esk south\~arrispast Alonk Rloors
i~ncl\Villi:~~nsnr~'s
lo^\. The arcs in front of the 'shorelir~c' thcr~cforc~
Itrcarlre parat of the estuary. This episotlt, \\:I\ ptr11:rps initiatfltl hy a relative fall of sea
It,\ (4.

3, llcgilirling around 4400'4300 b.c. there was a renewed

pti;lcie (or phasei) of marin(. inundation and deposition,
ill the gro\\rlh of a complex series of
\\lricli resr~lt(%il
s a ~ ~ant1
t l sliinglt. ridptx 'r'he r i l e r n a s gradi~allydivert( ct ilortllr~;trii\. and by tlie end of the llesolithic (at
tlie latest) 11;rd r c s ~ ~ m tat l course north of Newbiggin.

4. Strbsequc'xitly, an cstcnsivt system of sand dunes decloprtl on top of thew marine deposits. T h e xnigratiotr of tlic clrincs has contributed to the northward
ilt~tlcctionof ttic Esk - a process ~vhichis still con-

,\I I-:.;Lmcals, 1111%:ri.tx:x I ) c ~ t \ \ c i ~tlicl

r
l)rchsc,titeo;r\t arid tirt.
'ft)r~~tti~r
cliort4inc~' i 4 o ( ' c ~ ~ l ) iI)?
( ~ d:1 \t'rit'\ of l~rico~r\olic / ; r ~ i ~ ( l~cvliltrt~~rt\
.~\hic.ltlr:t\t. :~ci~trn~rrl:1tc~t1
:I\
rc~s~rlt
of
rt,lati\ cs (4i:tirgc-. in s ~ akc,\ el ( I \ cr tli(, 1trs1 7000 y t ~ i r s
stltciy i ~ ftliese
(I;+. 9). 0 1 1 tlitb L):isi, of :I l~relir~iin:r~~y
cteposit\. it is po~<iOlcto prtx\ctrt ;1 tcxtrtnti\ c. outlit~r,of
tilt> nrctirx i ~ r ~ \ i r o ~ ~ r ~~r (~~ 1~ ~
r t :: t11:rt
~ Ir ~ l~:t\t,
g ~ ~ t:~k(,~i
s
l>laco
in the :tr.ik;t (1111,iirgiliib pt>rio(l \.\I. .I. ' P o o l c ~ ! / ('.
. 13ortsc~ll.
.I. .\lntslictll. lorthcor~~ilrcli
:

tinuing.
,

I lii~s.tiit. eviticricc suggests that there was a relati\-ely

ltrief period Ltctnccn ca. 4800-4300 b.c., during which
a c.onsit1erablc scc5tion of the 'former sfloreline' was
p:\rt of :tri c.;tuaiint> enviro~i~uent.
Thereafter, parts of
the 'stlorc~linc' \ \ e r . ~progressi\ely cut off from estuarine
effects.

Years B.F?

Fig. X : Hel<tti\c~ \en Ic\ cl t li.ri~gt'. itr xtt)rtli-\\r~stErtyI,~r,rl i:tftc.r If. J. Toir1r.y. 1976). Thc contllrtiorii line crir\t. \Iron., t l t t s inu.rcinrc.i~1
t r l lrwli titlc Ic\(.l: Ilrt, (lot-(la\l~
line curve s h o ~ s
tlic ~rio\c~norit
v r nit.,tr~tttlc I<.\ 1.1

......................
......................
.....................
......................
.......................
......................
.......................
.......................
........................
........................
\

Langley Park

Monk Moors

...........
..........
...........
Williamson's Moss

break-of-slope on sand or gravel

A g e of tlte s i t e s
];or c.c.ologic.al reasons. it is trmpting to correlate the
Alrsolithic occupatio~~
of the 'formcxr shoreline, with this
c~stuarincpllasc,. Ari chstu:r~.inc situation woultl hitve offc,rect ;I nurrrher of atl\.ant:tges to a tiuntirig ant1 gatllerirlg
j)opul;tlion. In tlte first pI:\ce. it is i l rel:rti\~cly shclterrtl
location where \vi\vtb i~etionis iniriimi~l,in c.ontr:tst lo
the open coast which is exposed to t l l ~full rffrrts of
storm witvtas. Furtlrrrnlore. potrntial foot1 rrsourrc1s
j)robi~C)Iyotbrur in p r e a t t ~ahrrtitl:rnre :rntl \.:trirty in :l
typical estuitry. than in most other c ~ ~ a ~ enviro~trrients.
tiil
In order to tch.;t this hypothesis. r:~diocarbortdale< ar+c.
rqrquir'td for i~ litrgt1 number of sittbs. So far., datt.s i~ro
only :t\-nili~blefor .\lonl\ JIoors I. 'l'hrse suggest thirt
5000-4.500 I~c.4,whir11
tlt' age' of this site falls I)tltw,c~t~~t
p t ~ tfol.\vartl.
i< not inrol~sisicnt\\ ith t lie ir~trrprt-tatio~r
l'hrrr~fol~r,ns ;I working I.iypothcsis, it i s suggestrtl
that tltc rt~nin ~)hastlof .\lcsolithic ocvttpation ; ~ t Eslk~nealsc.oincitletl wit11 the [)(.riot1 tlur*i~ig
u~lticllthe 'formci*
sllon~linc'\\as pitrt of the I;sk wtuary.
Subsistence
Food wpplv is likely to have been the tnajor factor inflrrenc-ing tlic lo(-ation ant1 clur.:ttion of .\lesolithic* setilvntents. ,Illy interpretation of tire site c,ompl(.s ;kt
I:skrnr:~ls rnust thclclfort-. involve. a consitlcration of
subsistcnre. So direct el-itlencc. for the iubsiitenc.c. activities of tht. 31t~solitltirpopul:ttiort, in t11e forrii of ;rniniill
or vc~petahlcrrlttains, has ytXt been revoverctl. The follo\ving disc.nssiort rclics ~rlilinly upon infcrtbnces tlraw~i
froni itn interprcltation of thr ecologic:tl background to
the llrsoli thic ot~cupatiort.

R c h l a t i v e i n ~ p o r t a n c e of
plant resourtcs

arlimal

and

In lhitnin, tlie \vitlely-held view that AIesolithir groups

wercb prim:rrilv hunters who relict1 upon large nlammals
for their food sul)ply, ~veceived its initial impetus from
G. ('lark's interprrtatiou of Star Carr (G. Clark. 1954:
1972). llore ~~ecerrt
work o n prehistoric subsistence has
co~lc~enlr:~tecl
on the rcile that wild plant foods might
have. played in the. ~It~solitliic
econorriy. Some authors
havtb supgestrcl t11:rt plants :*re likely to have provided
thc I)ulli of the food supply of T,ater Mesolithic populations ' I ) . L. Clarlie. 1!)76: P. Jlellars, 1!)76, p. 375 f.).
I hc main arguments that have been put forward arc:
1. 'l'ltat \omtX rnotlcrn proups who are traditionally regitrdctl as 'tin~ltt~rs'(such its the Kung Hushnlen and
the .\ustr;~lian ahoriginri). iti fact obtain most of
tht:ir food fron~plants ( R . U. L,fle, I. DeVorr, 1968).
2. 'l'liat the clrcidr~t>usforesls of the .itlatltic aeriod. in
north-west llurope would have provided an abundance
of potc.nti;il plant I'oods (rools, nuts, berries, fungi,
preens. ctc. - ~ ) c ~ h a as
p s rnany as 300 edible species);
itnci that gathering in this en\-ironment would have
1,cen f:rr t~torc1)roclrt(~tivcthan hunting (D. I,. Clark,
1976, p. 457 f.).
I here is nnlplt documentation in the ethnographic
rcc-ord tliiit the gtthering of a wide range of plant foods
fornretl part of the subsistence activities of the majority
of r8cce1it hunters itnd gathcrsers; ancl archaeological evidcnve from north-\rest Europe suggests that wild plants
\vert. regularly t~iiten by hlesolithic groups. IIowcver,
thr central ihsue is not \vhcther plants were utilisetl by
Jlt solitliic groups. but how much emphasis was placed
upon t l m~ as a source of food!
(:omp:~risons made with groups such as the Kung
r

.,

Table 1
(:onlpoqition of animals espectrd to hare been important in tlte Atrsolithic rcononly at Eslimeals (per 100 g. raw edible
c~nsitler~tl
as wilste i b also indic:lted
portions). l'hc proportion of cncl~foot1 rtor~r~ally
--

'To t:tl

Water
0

J )eer
Wild (luck
.\rzas ltoschcr\

Protein
OI
',

Iiat
0'
0

Carbohydratt,

Waste

O 'I,

--

Reference

('0

68.3

20..i

14.4

'17

53

(i1.L

21.1

13.8

'33

42

fi2.6

2'..5

l3.'i

217

35

78.3

16.6

11.3

168

33

K.2

[!LO

12.2

I91

46

72.G

19.fi

6.9

146

47

$1.3

16.7

0.3

79

67

81.2

J 5.li

0.3

78

6'3

78.6

14.11

2.2

95

80

Sirlmot~
Sninzo scrlar
I.:rls
.Irtguilln angirillo
\ l :tcS(.rc.l
Scortzhc~rsrtr~nbru<

.\I nllrl
.l/ugil c.rphnlcis
1' lountlrrs
IJloticttt h ~ /lrsus
s
(:act

(;crdus n~orrltlrn

>lussc~lx
d M ~ j t i lrrl~clis
~~.s

'l'akcn as Itcin~lrer(I). K . \\-art, it. L. Jitvrrill. I!)63)

1 1). f<. \\.ntt it1111 -1. L. L\lc,rrill. lC)(i:l:2 13. .I. \Ic('~/rtc.r: I I I ~E. \I. \\'i(ldoa,,so~~.
i960

I'able 2
Composition of edible plants occur1,ing in deciduous w-oodlaild ant1 salt marsh hi1)itats
portions)
-

Acorns
Quercus robur
Hazel nuts
Corljlus sp.
~fushrooms
Agaricus rampestris
Blacl~berries
Rubus sp.
Gooseberries
Ribcs uva-crispa
Cnb apples
~VIalussylvcstris
\Vatercrc\s
A7asturtiumoffieinale
Dock
Rumrx sp.
Sea kale
Cramhe rnaritimn

nt

l<skmc,ils 1,l)rr 100 p. raw cdihlc

Watrr

Protein

Fa1

O,b

Oo

O o

---

clrail:~1)le
(.arbolrvdraie
o, 0

Kt*i~ls.

--

\\'astr

Tiefercnre

O n

- -

--

13.9

7 .O

4.G

67.8

053

20

41.1

9.0

36.0

6.8

398

66

91.5

1.8

Tr

'13

82.0

1.3

Tr

6.4

89.9

1 .L

Tr

3.4

81.1

0.4

91.2

2.9

90.9

2.1

95.G

1.4

0.3

Tr
0.3
Tr

17.2

r)8

0.7

15

23

4.3

28

0.6

26

'2

1 D, K. iT7att and A. L. Illerrill. 1963; 2 R. -1. Jfc( once nnd E:. Ji. \I-idtlocr.son. 196% 3 F. S. Hijwnv. 1953
Bushmen are potentially misleading. If ethnographic
analogies are to be meaningful, thcy must ba drnwn
from groups in comparabl~ ecological situations. \vho
have access to a similar range of pottbntinl food resources. There is no suggestion in the t~thnographicliterature thal hunters and gatherers living in cool temperate
areas of the world attempted to subsist primaril?. on
plant foods.
Recent interpretations of llesolithic subsistence llave
not been sequel to the development of a clcar understanding of the nutritional significanc.r of the a\-ailitble
food resources. h comp:~rison of the footl energy
(Calories) provideti by animal ant1 vegetable foods fot~ncl
in cool temperate environments indicates that therc are
considerable differences among the v;~r.ionskinds of animals and plants (Tables 1 and 2).
Most of the edible plants found in tc~inpeiLntetleciduous forests are extremely poor sour*cbesof food r n c ~ g y .
especially fungi, green rt.getat)les ;tntl laost bel*rirs.
Thrir protein content is usually mud1 lower than that
of meat or fish, and much of the carbohydr*:ttc they
contain is often in forms n hich cannot ht, ahsorb~tlb~
the human digestive system. This is the casr particularly wit11 wild green vrgetnbles.
It follows that the quantities of most vt>gct;ihle foods
that \\-ould be rcquirccl to sustain (,\-en small groups
for long periods of time, would hc enorn~ous! For
esnmplc,, in order to at.hievck the necessary r:~loric intake,
an active achllt male woultl rcqrrire cilher 50 kg. of ~ ; I W
sen kalc, 57 kg. of vild nrushrooms, 10 kg. of hlilckber-ries, or more than 6 kg. of crab apples, per thy. 'l'he
amount of energy that would ~leecl to bc' cspt~ndrtlin
order to obtain snch massive q~~;intiiies
\voultl. in lnost
cast3s, bc. prollibitivr.
r
I he oonclr~sion that oncl has to tlraw on nl~tritional
grounds alonr. is [hat unless srr~~plen~cn~c~tl
hy co~lsitlcr:ll)le clu:itltities ol' r11c:rt or lish. :I \xiltl p1:rnt t1ic.t would
7

h:t\.c Iwrn lotally in;lrleqr~:itt. I'lant lootls in north-wst

Kuropc \\oulcl simply not h;\ve ~)ro\--itlecln sufficicwt
i ~ u r o ~ of
~ nprotcin
t
irl the Ilesolithic- diet.
I ho usefulness of thest. tdihle pliints is furlher 1-estricic,tl bv tbc facl that they art, onlv avail:tblr ovclr a li111itcbt1pcriotl of tlrc> ye;Ir-. Sril)plios of vegotnblc~footls
\voulcl ha\ e bcol grentlv rt~tluctvl clltl.ing the ~vintcr
nlonths. r\c.orns and llaztd nut\ ;Ire among tht> few viahlta
foocl plan I S that \\ orrld Ila\ c bee11 11-itlrl\- nvailahle it1
Iiritiliii (1111'inf:the I.atc,r. I\lcsolitl~ic," but they coultl
only Ir:ivc been collt.ctt.cl in cluantity Tor ;I few 11-eeks
of tht. yei~r..Both :warns ;mtl Ilaxt~lnuis wclhe regularly
ten by incliar~tribe5 i n teml)ernt(>Sol*th .\lncritba, but
~ ~ o \ v t ~ ctlitl
~ v rt.i I hrr- I'orr~)a siitplc foot1 (11. E. IDri~q~r,
I\-. C. Jlnssey. 19,571.
11. I,. Cltrrke (1976. p. $58) has prcsc~ntedsomv overof ilrc rtlihle protluctik ity of t e n optinlistic osti~ri;~tes
c~s:~nll,lc. Ilis sugpc.stion th:it
~)cv:\tc%
woodliir~tl.
~~~isrtl-oak-Sorc.hl
will cort~rrtorllyyicltl T,00 kg. of hxzc4
i~(>vitl~ritly
I):iw(I npon st:~tistic.spronuts per Ilc~ctal~c~
\.icletl 1)y I;. S. Ilou~cs ( 1 %33. p. IS4 ). 'T11t.sc figurcs,
Iio\\e\ cr. rc4:ttt' to c.ulti\ ; t t c ~ l h;tzc4 trtw pro\\-n in or~,IIAP(J\ in S ~ I I I ~ I - ( - : I S I E~~glantl.\vllc,rc I ' ( ~ I I I ; I P pruning,
tltnnnting, pro~c~ctiol~
from iiiwrt pest\. : I I I C ~ sclecti\e
l)rcetlinp, 11;tvc. c.orrll)iut.tl to itlcrc~i~st~
l)r~oclr~ctivily
con\itlcr:~l)l?-.Yicltls of hn7t.l nuls ul~der thrscl conditions
r

17013

pc~ctctl fro111shrubs gram ing i 11 rnirturc oak l'ores~s.

i\rgliing fro111 c.tllnopritl>l~ic.rsitrnplc~\. I ) . I,. ('1ar.k~
11i1si \ l ~ ol)ut foi*~ili.(l
tht* 1101 ('1 suggestion ~ltnt1)rackcn
rhizo~nes (I-'tc~*icliur~~
nqi~ilim~nt)
woultl have brcn :in

'V:lblc 3
Subsistmce base of hunterh and gatherers in the. cool temprrate zonc. between latitrides 4,i0-5!)0 (after G. P. Jfurrloch-, 1965;
:lnd 13. B. Ler ( 1 968)

t labitn t

(iilyak
rlinr~
South iimerica:
Yahgan
Oria
;\l:iraltif
.iortIl .l~neric:~:
Kasli;~
Atoll tagnais
Fa11Itearn
'I'sirns11i;rn
C)uilcutr
.(:hinook
l.lingit
I3elb bell:t
COT\ichair
(:hilrotin
Flathead
ITm:jtilln
\ ~ i :a

A.
Ler 11968)
(inthering Hunting
Fizhing
wild pli~nts lautl tlnd
fibh
shell fi5h
qea mammals
sinall
wild fowl
animal.:

ti.

I.
wild plants
.mall
anim:tls

.\l urdutl (1 967)

3.
Iil~ld
fish
irlammals
shellfish
wild fowl
sea ~nammals
'1
-.

t8oast:il
inland
c'ctastal
inland
coastal
inland
inland
illlane1
c.oastitl
coastal
c.oast:~l
c~oastitl
inland
inland
inland
inlantf

vcgctahlr foods in thc. diet. Thew ;Ire also some inacc.ur:~cies: for csiimplc. thc figures for the Tsimshian
givv thc iml)ression that their gathrring activities are
largely c.onfil~etl to ~ ~ l a n t s\vhtxreas
.
thr ethnographic
1itrr:ttur-c clrnrly indicates that shellfish are the Inore
importat~tresonrcc (G. F. Jlac1)onnlrl. 1970).
Sovc~rtl~rless,
the hroatl trends seem clear:
(:ompnrnti\c. sttrt1ic.s of I~untc~is
itrid g;~thel,cbrsitidic;rtc
l . ,\lost groups ~)lacr an empllasis on hunting and
that [?ley tlepc~ntl prinlitrily on tliosc~ food rtlsourcc>s
fishing.
\\hiell are riiosl r ~ h u l ~ t l aan(l
n ~ reli;thlc. ;~ntlI\-hicll h a \ c
2. Fishing is ;tltnost ill\-ariably the dominant mode of
;I high cillorilic, \.;~lur (11. R. D~.ir*er,\Y. ('. Jlccssc~j~.
s~~l~sistcncc~
in c~oast:111oc:ttions: and evc8n among inl9,i7 : R. I<. 1.c~.I. DeI7orr. l$4(38).
land groups regularly cnntrihrltes 20-40 per cent of
1t. 13. Lrc~(1968. 1). 4 2 ) h:~s sho\vt~t11:lt in \var~iltrniihr clict.
[,(.r*aitl,snl)tropic.;11 :t11(1 tropic~i~l
Intitud(~s,the, gatheri~rg
3. Iiur~iir~g
c-onsistcntly provides 30-40 per cont of tho
of wilt1 ~ ) l : ~ n tiss ~ l l eclomirl:~nt ~t~oclc.of subsistencv~.
clict. I)c'illg least ia~portantamong those groups who
r t ~ l ~ ~ tto
e t lthe : I ~ I ~ I I I ( ~ ; I I I Cof~ >
'l'l~is IIII~(>:II-S
to I)(> (li~*tv*tly
rtbly rll;~irilyon lishirlg.
I~iglit.nerpy p l : ~ t ~foo(1s
t
that :Ire :~\~aili~C)lt>
1 1 1 0 1 . ~or loss
4. I'lani foods alScbal\vnys :I mirior t.lemcnt in the diet
itlrouphont t h t ytwr. 'r'hrls Bushm:~u suhsistcl~rris hastvl
:1r1c1 c~onsistcntly contrihutc lrss than hunting. Tt is
Irca\ily o n ~hc.nlolrpongo nut (R. f:. Lep. I9fiX. 11. 33 f.).
1)c.rh;tl)s worth pointing out that :trtiong some coastal
I t 1 contrast, th(* cool teln1)crnlr z o 1 1 ~
11:1s cor~~p:rt.;~tivi~ly gronph, st~itwet~tl
acchounts for rnucll of the 'vegetable'
f ~ \ v high cnc.rgy food 1)lnnlz. :tnil the n ~ i r j o r i i :irr
~
cwnponent. 'The Tsi~nshianare one example (G. F.
i~\,ail:~l)le
o111yon ;I sr:lsonal 1)asis. Conseql~tbntly,th(ly
.\lacllonaltl. R. I. I r ~ g l i s ,1976, p. 50).
of1t.r f:tr I t . 5 ~ rcrtni~etition to other 18esotlrces. :rnel this i s
3. 'l'hcrc, is little c\-idcnce that gathering activities (as
art. more pr~ocluctivethan other
tlc*fintvl ljy R. Ij. L~vJ)
rrroclc\ of cuhsistcnc.r. 'I'his is hardly surprising in
r(.li~tiug to the s~rhsistcrlc*(~
b:ls:\ of 15 societic.~living i l l
\.icl\v of tht. l~utritional signifirancr of pl:~nts and
c.001 tc\~~rpc>r;\tt.
ill.f'i\h
of Sort11 :me1 South .\nlcric.i~ a l ~ t l
shc:lllish ('l';lhles 1 ant1 2).
c~itster-~l
.\si:r (ltt~t\vccv~
littitucirs 4Tt0-.5D0). who tlcpcntl
Or1 ~ h cbasis of Ihest> obst~l.vations : ~ n dprevious statec+~ltirolyor1 I t u ~ ~ t i i ~
gatllcbring
p.
and fishing. .\veri~gc\ ; I I I ~ ( ~ I i11m11t
I~S
the tit~tritionillv a l u ~of plants ant1 aninlais,
ltles :Ire listccl i1c.c.01 (ling to the. sr11)sistrnc~c~
catcyorics
it sec.rns rei~soti;~l)lrto st~ggest that Later hlesolithic
~ [ s c dIty I)ot/l H. I ( . Lcc \l!J681 ;~ncl G . 1'. .\lurrlor.l;
socoit~ticsin 11ortl1-wtssl Europc woultl ilavc~rrliphasizecl
1 1 965'. 'r'I~c\<e
(XII only I)(. cs~ini:rtc~s.
'I'liere :ire 110 prnc.lisliing :~ntl Iluntirig: :inn that gathrring activities, in
011 I I I ( ~ (lt1:1lttitic*4 of food ( ~ o I l c ( 01'
~ ~1.011~ ~ ~ l 11ios1I ~ i ~ l ) i t \v0111d
caiscl ligi~rr~s
irnporiance.
i ~ t ~ . 1i:lve 1)c.ca of scc~ondai~y
Ycgetabl(. foods atbc lil\c4y to Ila\e pl:lyed only a ~ ~ i i n o r
tatiori before the. rntl of tho Atlantic period. In fact,
thc riqe ill the br:tcken curvc~apprnrs to roinciclc wit11
Seolilllic forest cle:~r~anc.cl ~ o ~ ~ i z o(N.
r ~ sGoclcvin, 19,Xi:
\\'. Prnrzir~gton.1969).

5
I

krn

Ecoi~ornirirtterl)relatio~lof the Esknwals sites

1.; n \ i I- o

II rrr

11t ;I I

1)

:I (.

I\ p r o 11 n il

4. 'l'lrc. sty+ i\ s h ; \ l l o w for a c . o i l s i t l t ~ r a t ) l ( ~tli\t:rnc*c, olTslrorc.. ;rrrtl o l l v r s ;I g c ~ r r t ~ r ; t l l y' s o f t \ l r o r t ~ ' cbrr\ i r o r r rrrrrlt.
' I ' l r c ~ r t ~i s r r o r c ~ : ~ \ o r rlo s u l ) l t o s r b t l i i r t t l t t t gi~rrc~r;11( * ( * I ) l o p v of tlrt. \(,:I. t S c t r r : r r y ;rrrtI r,i\t,rc \\:I\ ~ i p t r i l i t ~ : r t ~ t l y
t l i l T r r c . t i t t l r r r i r r g 111th 5111 ~ ~ t i l l c ~ r r i r r l).c..
r r r l'rt~\11111:11)1?. t11('

..

'l7fl(i ir(-trr:rl t ~ , r r ~ i ~ o vr >\ ~ ) I ~ r i ~~I~OIII

I);t\t*
( ~ d :I IIOIII~~
\ \ o u l t l lr:r\t. t l c l ) c ~ t i t I t ~ t lo t r :I ~ r r r r r t l ~ t ~ofr * I:rcato~-\. 'I'ojto-

IIIPIII.

winter

summer
A

M
I

J
I

J
I

A
1

Shellfish

I
I

Plant f o o d s

I
1

Sea b i r d s

/ OdU"

esss

'

1
I
I

Sal rnon

/ inshore

I
I

( estuary

Saltwater f i s h

offshore

1
1

Waterfowt
Land g a m e

N
L

t
[

I
I
I

D
I

J
1

F
i

M
I

Table %
hlrat and <:;tlorir yieltls from all species of wild
\\i thin it sit(, terri tor!- c~btitfivlon Monk Moors 1
- ----- -Site l'rsrri- (.am? i n , ~ I0 (I
.\lcat
. t
i
toq- caitpac~ity(.rap
l\p
supply
km' AF-'Iyr
1
I*p
lip

r r l ~ ,ant
\
clat:~nro pro\ itletl 1)y :I rcwnt stud?; of the
cXstunr+yof thr Iiivt.1. Yth:rn. II(YII* .\l)or(lrc~n, whcre
bt'~l\ O I ~ ( - I I ~~. l n d e rgcogr;tpl~i(-:~l
rollclitions
r~atnrirlIIIUSSCI
lii\
T<sk fI1. .Ililrzo.
similar to thosv 1o11t1tI in
Calorific
C. .\I. Ilrtrcnf~i.1972). 'Site lipore\ pre~ontetll)y I f . Jiilrte
vitlur
:~ntl
C. ,\I. 1)trrtttri in~lic:~tt~
that the S-th:~n cstuary can
Kcltlb 'dav
yit~ltt87.70 Iq. tli\c.n-eight) of ~rrusscls pclr 1icct:trr per
yc.irrs ~ c ~ q ~ ~ i v : t to
l ( ~ n17.50
t
kg. of rn:lw n~rtsst~lmeat),
\vitItout c.:\nsing ;rtry ~ r c , t rc,tluctioi~ of the ruusstl popuI f oritb :1p1)lit*b thost1 [igures to tliv Ksk ( > s t ~ ~ : ~ r y .
lc~tiot~.
thr totill nnnl~;rlyit,l(l \\oultl I)e 437.400 kg. (87,580 kg.
of r:lw 111c>:tt1.
'r'he Iood (%111>rgy
vi1111~of this crop \vo111d
Itr P:).IO(i.000 Ktals. ('1'17.CiSS 1ic:rls. (lay).' This in~plies
t11:tt i f t I l ( - IIIUSSPI
J)(~ls\v(w :I\ t~xtt~nsiv(~
(I~~ritig
the
.\It*solithic.. tl~c'y \I oultl he tnpitblc. in thcory, of pro\ itling tlir to~;rlfood energy ~ ( ~ q ~ ~ i r o m
ofr n
:\ lpopulation
s
These
thtx sizc of '10 Itrmily 1111ith (100 in(li\i(lt~i~Is).
c~stir~~;rtc\
for
thr
I
:
&
III;IV \\ell 1 ) ~
on
thtx
conht.rvati\-e
R e l a t i \ - c , i n r p o r t a n c e of t h o foocl r e sitlo. 'l'hc~rc. is \olntL ( ~ ~ ~ I I c I Ilo~ c s~rggest lhnt the proS 0 11. P ( ' C S
clurti\it\ of ~ r r ~ ~ s shctls
c l on thcs \\(.it coast of l3rit;iin
It has hecn suggestctl that a \vidr variety of' foot1 reis signilicilntly I ~ i g l i (t11i111
~
tlritt of tltv S-thnr~rsttlary.
sources \vai nvnilablt. to llrsolithic groups at Eskn~ei~ly. ocr;liionc~tlhy I\-arrncr \\:rter ;tr~clltctter feeding c.o~~ditions
.\1 this point, i l is pc.rt~irps usc.fu1 to i~tlcmpt a quali1 P. li. \\'11/11~. 19'72. 1). 108 f.: 11. .\Iilrw,
~ s .t%om.).
.l l r ~ ~i ts \\otrlcl \cbetrr tlt:\t. potcnti;rily.p t thc,
t;~tivc;tssesstnent of the rc>lati\c imjtortnncc of the, diffrshellfish
~ ' ( ~ n~ t. ( ~ o u r c~( ~ sI It11~i1C I cu:tpac-ity to support i t hunting
\\cbro c;1[);11)lc~of sr~ppo~.ting
rcsotr~.cc- ol LII(,I<sk cLstui~r?;
ant1 girthering populirtion. For the s;tbe of hre\ity. t11r
;I rrruclr tiight~r .\lcsolithic. populntiori than tonltl he
following commcmts are confinetl to those rcsourccs
sustninr.d l)y IIII nting l:ultl g:tllre !
\\ hich ;we c~onsitleretl to Irm-e 1)een the trtost iniportant.
I to\vc\ t ~ slrt~lllish
.
hit\ e t\j o significairnt tlisn(1v:rnt;rgrs
;I< i r sortrcc~of footl. In the lirst 1~1:1cc.
they are not pnrti1. Herhi\ orcs
cnl;r~~ly
Irig11
in
footl
c.~tt.rgy:
musbt~l
flrsli
11n1 less tlritn
I ~ G. Clarli. rtsctl estirnatc.~
111 his rrasscssrncant ol S ~ ; ICaw.
\ ;tluc>of sitlriior~or \ enison (Table ti.
llnlf
thc
c-nlorific
or thr rlensity of retl deer pol,ulaiions (\\-hi& 11(~corl'I'll(. othvr tlis:ttlvtttrtngc~is t11c' v1>1'?- hip11 wi~stefactor:
~ food) to S I I ~ ~ ( ' tS ~l ~ ~
sitlrrtd to he tlic I I I ~ I ~ ISI O U P ~ I of
on :I\ er:Igca. only 20 p c ~ .ct'r~t of the li\-ex\ cight of tilusmitsinruln size of the group ahich c.oultl hil\cb occ-upictl
st-l* i h c>tlihlc.flcsh. 'flris rncl:tns thitt ;r sirrglr f:unily group.
sit11 (C. ['lar/i. 1972).
i~tt(~ri~l>ti~rp
t o li\-(~rntil.rly o n ~nrlssc~ls.
\\ortlti nectl to
.'Isimilar rserc-ise can 11c carl.ietl out for th(1 sit0 terri(-01
lrct ht~t\\,ot~nTt2 ;\n(I 63 kg. pcr tl;ry (otBroughly
tory ccntretl otr JIonk Jloo~*s1. The cli~ta in tiil>lr 4
1300- 1600 ~ ~ r u s s c ~ lIst~follo\vs
).
that the cluantities reintlientc thtl footl yic>l(l \vIrich might ht. exported fro111
it11 spctcies of hrrbivorrs. 1)asetl on .Il~ll(trs'.ssugg(>stion
for the. cat.rying c~apacityo f cleoitluot~sforcst (1'. .llellars,
In vicw of th~hir rlutritional sigrlific;~nc~ct~ornpitretl
19'75. 1). 51). Estimat1.s :un(>rnatle for, two i~ltrrtiativrtcrto
other foocls, shc~llfislritrc likcbly to Ir:r\-c 1,Inyc~cl:I far
~.i~oric's:(I) the toti11 Iitnd itrra within ;I r i ~ d i ~OF~ s
less \igt~ilic.antr6lr in p ~ ~ t ~ h i \ l oc.o:tct:~l
rit
t~c.otior~ties
thim
10 lin~.: :ttltl. 1'2) the> la1111artb:\ I)(.lo\v 60 rrlc.trcts ii.c..
is \ornt~tirtlcs sny)posc.tl or1 tilt. I):~sis OF ii1.cli;icologi(.R1
ili~.co;tstal lo\vl:~ntl). Thv cnlc-~tlationsitr~.bitst~tl or1 thc
c~\itlcric*c~
ic1.p. \\'. .Sltcrc\*c.ros.s. 1!)701. Sotnt, supi)ort for
follo\ving :~rsurrrptions: i t st:tndinp stock t~iorn;~sso f
thii \it.\\ is pro\ itlctl I)? tlt~ti~ilrtl
i \ n i \ l y ~ ~ofs ;\l(~soli~hic.
1,500 kp.~krri.~yc~:~r
(1'. .llcllnr.s, 11155) : i111 :~nnu;~l
crol)
sllcll
rnicltlen\
c.rr~.~.t~ntly
I
~
e
i
~
r
c.:~r~.ietl
p
out in south-\\tXst
rate of 10 per cc>nt jl<. L. Bla.rter. 197.2 : a mc-at yicxltl
(
P
.
;\Iell(~r.~.
S.
~ ' ( I U I I ~ J ,197 1 ). .\~nong rccbrrlt
Scotl:rntl
c-c~uivi\lt.ntto 4'7 perBcent of live-\vt1ighl (I<. I,. Rltr.rtcr.
Irurrtt~rs :~ntl pntlrc~~*ers
li\ itrg i t 1 co;i\t;tl situ:ttion\ in
1975): nntl an a\-(,rage calorific \-aluc, for 111r.irt of
tt~nlpt~r;~tr
Sor't11
:trrtl
South
.\ti~cric:\. thv g:~tlttvirig of
2 170 I<ilocnlorit~sfkg.(D.li. \\'att. it. I,. .1lerrill, 1963).
\ht~llfislt\\;I:, ;I rthprrlar 'oftc>tr d:tilyi irrtirity c;~rrieclout
Usil~gthe \alrlcs ~jrovitletl I)y (;. .I. llarrison cxt nl.
in the
n t : ~ i ~ ~l)y
I y \ ~ O I I I I ~hnt
I I : thor(, is I I O i~~(Ii(~itliot~
( I 965. p. 4 14) lor the errc.rpy nectls or n I~ypothrtic.:rl
c.th~~ogr:tl)hiclilr~*:tlurt~
th:~l an? grortp n l t r n ~ p k ~tol
f:unilv composc(l of t\vo :i(lults :tti(I tl~rv(' ctrildrrrr
suhsi\t prin~iirilyon tliis rt*~our(-(*
(.I. 11. S i e w t r ~ l .1946:
( 1 0.000-1 2.000 Ucal. 'day). t h results
~ ~
i t t d i a ~ ~t hc : ~ tthe,
11.
P;.
Driver.
\\-.
.\i(t.s.se~j.
19.57).
gitmc re~.sou
toc.tbsof thc~coas tnl Iowlii~ldalone \voultl hirvt.
1)c.etl c-:~pabl(*
of iust:~inings stirall .\Iesoli~hicpoptrlation
(tile sinc: of thrcbcb f;tr~~iliy
units) througllout the ycilr.
r
I Irc, sigrrificnnc-(1of salnlon :I\ :I sorrrc*rbof foocl is errh:rnc . c ~ l by its r ~ l i \ t i11Iv
\ 11ig11 food \ itlnr~c.onip;trctl to tlrnt
2. Shc4lfish
o f ot11e1.fish c-orrlr~~or~ly
loirncl ;trourrtl tht. lisk cbstu;~ry
sl~c.llfish
liussels (I\l!ltilu.sedrtlis) ;rl3ethv mo\t :~l)~rndrttrt
;tti(l r(*ilch \ ~ ~ r\t~ltsti~nti:rI
y
i \ ~ ~\\:I\II\
~ y f:tt210r.
\'l'i\b1ts 1 1 . i\11(1 1)s :I t ' t ~ ~ i ~ l lo\\
fountl it1 t 11(. I'sk t.st~ra~y,
tl~~r~sitic,s
01 cbr :r Iirrgt. iIrril. The. tot:~l estc>rltof thc tnu\c,tlil)lt. p o r t i o ~is~ :t~.outrtl65 pcbr c h ( bo~l~li\c~\veipl~t.
t
cao~nsc.1 hctls is i~rout ~ t l.50 I~rct:~rc.s.
~):~rc'tlto only :30--;!3 111'r c ~ n tfor llo~tntlrrs:~rrtlcbotl.
Pul,lishc.tl c<tim:ttc.s o l tlir yicltl\ of n~lrssds from
'I'nLir~p into :\c.c.otr111 thc, \\ itstr f:rc.to~.. n \inglcl snlnron
fi\l~e~-iths
in l3ri1:1iri :tr-c gt~tierirlly of Iin~itcvl vn111~it1
\\ o111d p~,o\
ido i11)l)vo\i111;11~~ly
111cs\ : I I I ~ P I I I I I I I ~ ) (of~ ~ (::\lon\\c~ssiiigtlrv crol) potc-nti;~lof tlrc F:\L c.stri:rr?. The, mo-t
~ t ~ t or It:rzttl nut\ (o11(5of the
~*ics;\\ I I I I ~~ ( l t ~ i v : i l (nt~iglit
hrr1)ivorch

tti(1

(I.

'r11tb

lrig11I~p ~ ~ o ( l i c ~ :r(>\ot~r(-t~ I ~ l e :tn(I rol:1ti\(4y t ~ s yto c:1tc11.

h i ~ r (\ stctl in \-c.~.y 1:o.q~ nurrrtllry c*ot~ltlalso II:I\ (, ht~111
l)(>r, - in\ ol\ illy tI~ou\;ttrd, of fish par. 1 (>:rr. \\'ithorrt
1)1;wi11gloo I I I I I ~ I( ~ t l l ) ~ t i l \Oi IsI t h ini~)or1:111~~(~
~ ~
of ~il~111011.
;I p ~ u c l ? itrttiili\-c* ;IsscLssnlrtrt \\ooltl cii~gc'ct tlr:rt tire
~ot:rI fish I V ~ O I I I + ~ . ol'
~ ~ ~ tl1(. 1<ik111t\itls
i ~ r r iMOIII(I
~
I~ir\(,
I)ro\ i t l r t l ;I sor~rrtlt.~.
I):tsic for :I .\l(~colitllicc,torrolll?- tll:tn
i ~ n yOIIIC>I* siuglo rc~\ourc.o!

r .

~)rc,\ior15 scbrtiorrs \\ rrt. c.onc.rrnrtl \\ it11 intliratinp

Iilngcl ; ~ r ~ t l~(-l:tti\c~irnl)orta~r(*t*
of t11(. c~c.onotriic~
r( < o t ~ ~ ct11:tt
. : ~ \\OIII(I 11:1\e 1):
:~\;~iI:tt)lr
to ~ I ( ~ s o l i t l r i r
tllc. silt.. it1 1:sl\r11t~:11s.I [ resn;tins lo
grorll)s oc~c~r~pyirrp
c.orrsrtlt~r~ ) o s s ~ l )~);rttt-t
lt
11s of c,\ploit;i~iorl. ittrd II( ncc tiltx
( c~orrornic.irllc~
l)rt tittion 01' thc. sitcbs.
Slri,lit>c o f I ) ~ C ~ ( ~ I I LIlrlnt(-rs
- ( ~ : I V alrcl prllrercrs slrow
t l ~ i r t 111vir i~(.~i\itivh
i11v clos(bly l i l r I i ( d lo c11:111g(>s
~ I It11v
ir;ttc~~:rlt ~ ~ r \ i ~ . o ~11t
r r nthrouglr
c
tlrc. yt':tr: in p;r~tiru1:tr.
111c-irsrrl~sislrnc~c~
stri~l(lgi(%
;IIY> (It,sign~dto titIi(\ o p t i n ~ u l n
ir~rlayc,of sc ;rso~r:~l
c.l~;rilgcsin foocl suppl? (1). 'rhortt~)s o t i . l!)3!): I*. 13. 1 ~ ~ I.1 . or^. I$)eS).' ~ I I I I ~in
. w(.lii~lg
ilc.

ill(

:~\-:ril:~l)ilit>.
of' S ~ I I I I I O I I
i l l I I ~ ( > ~ > s t r ~ i t(~
I v.Iy) ( ~ I I ( I ~
I;ttyc~ly otr \vc.:~tlrt,r ( . o ~ r ( l i t i o ~ ~Is).I I I . ~ JtIr(~
I ~ S111111111'1'
i r r o ~ ~ ~ l Sr :sI .~ I I I O I I it;>l)(\ir~.
10 ; r ~ , ~ . i \ . t - I I I O I T
or Ivss (-onti'l'l1(5

I . s~~:lsoil:ll
IklO\

( l l l ~ ~ l I L\)(st\\
\
V f 11 lo\\ l 2 t L l ( l i t ~ i ( lu~)l:lrl(l
j)o\\it)l(- strattkgy i i ,rrczp:~stt~tlb y G. ('1nrL's intcrl)rvt:rtio~~
of tit(- s(tt11~111t-nk
:tt Stitr C:iir. i l l \\l~icll 11e
V I I \ is;rg,rcvl 11rc. .\lc~solitl~ics~ ) o p n l ; ~ t i o fno l l o ~
inp :I suh\istc~rlc
I ) ; t > c ~ l upon tht, a~r~rrl;rl
t~~igl:rtiolrsof rt,tl
(It%<r [G. (~1(1rli.1972).
,
I I I ~sitr~t~tiotr
at l * ~ s I ~ ~ r ~~ e: I:ItIl1~
~ (3onlp;tred io that
i1nporl:t~rt r ( > \ p ( ~~ t I ~ I Vsitw ~ ( T I I ~
: ~ t St:tr (lirlnr i l l
c.loscs to thcx c.orrt;lf.t I),-:n:-*r
lo\vl:tri~l nLrd ~rpl:rncl.
(;. ('ltrrk snggt~stctl that Star C;II.I,\\.:IS ocsr~upictl c.sc.1~\ i \ cxl? clrrrinp the- \I intrr ~ l r o ~ r t h st t,l i t l that clur ing t h e
sunlrrlc\r t11(. p l ~ o t ~ Followt~tl
;)
tllr' t~rigr:~tiorrof r t ~ ltl(1c.r
into t l ~ ul)l:t~rtl
t
r. .ions of tllc. So1.tI1 Yo1.1isllirc .\loor\ or
tllv sont11(~1-11
I ' ( ~ I I I I ~ I I ( > S11pl)ort
~.
Sol. tltis \ imv is pro\-i(I(d
t)y tllc. f:rc.t ~II:I! ~lrie~.olitlric,
in(lrrstrit>s :+itnilat. to that
SI,.)III S t : t ~ (:;II~I~
II:I\X> I)(V,IIr ( , c o \ ( * ~ ~frortr
vl
site< in I)otl~

( )II(\

lb

(.\c.Itb

sllorrltl I)(, c.o~rstrnc.tl is i t 111:1tter o f c . o ~ l j e c t ~ ~ r e .

firs[ ~)luc..\it 1r1:1yIr(, tl~iltthis Iitrk o l ( \ \ ~ ( I P I I ( T
i, tlucx to irr:tclccln:rtc. lic~l(l\vot~l,.111 tile +outlrcv,n I'c.nni~rt>s.
\l(-,olitlri(- ;11*1iftt(4\()(b<niIr
\vitlti~i ilr(\ nri11(~1.:1l\oil ])I,I I :till
~
~ ) ~ ~ 1 1 1 1 ip(h;tt.
('l
i l l l ( 1 ~ l l l l l l ~ ~ r <li~c'O~~~l'i('<
o~ls
lltl\ (' !)('PI1
III:I~IV i r t ; I ~ ( ~ :i I~\ l ) o \ (:NO
~ 11rt~irvs0.1). \\11'r(% tbrosion
OF tlrv 11($:1t is \\itl(.sltrt.ittl 11:. .ll. .l(cc,obi. .I. 11. Tnllis.
I!)i(i. 1). :{OX]. 11 i\ tlrc~;)rc~scbrtc-cL
of c.rosion
I). \I~~llrtr~a.

I lo\\

111 111t.

\\II(\I(\ tIt(1 111;11rk(*ti)eb:tt (lot , trot :11)0(~;rrto 1 ) (,ro<Ii~lg

~

to :Ill) gltT:lt 6 \It~llL. ~ : o l l s ~ ~ l ~ t l t ~tlllh

l l t l )t.l j ) l : t l l ( l : t r . t Y l Y
I\;\\ t. larprly l)c~rxr~
ignor.cvI I I Ilinl
~ c.ollrc~tol.s.
On tlrc otlirr I~;tncl,C. (/nrl,'.s :rssch\snitX~~t
of Star. (:;rr.r
\v:I\ t):~st~(l
011 1111' i~sst~~rrl)tion
t11ilt r t ~ I I P C ~ \VI*I'I* I ~ ( V I I O \ I
irrrport:t~~t
cortl-c.t, of footl.
I<climc.:tls. ho\\ r r . t l1r1.c\V:lS it11 : l ( ~ l ~ i ~ i O l lf:: l l~b ~ 0 l ' r101 ~ ) I ' ( ~ s I ~ Iit1
I I still' (;:trl8 - lkl(\
c.o:\\t :tn(l itc rc~sourc.(.c. I f t h r \Iccolithic. pol)ulntiori :I,
I<skt~~c~:tls
hiltl rrlo\ctl into tlrc 11[)1:111(1s(Iirring t l l ~\11111rnt%rrrlo~~ttrc.
it T\OIII(I h:t\ I I I ( ~ : I I ~I( ~a \ ing tl111 c.o:tct :II
~wcv.isc'ly t h r tinw of Y('i1r \vllc~rlit h : ~ t l 111o\t to o l f ~ l in
*
tcLr.rlisof pottlnti:~lfootl recotrrc.c,c - I . C ~ S O I I ~ ( ' Ptllnt
S
I\ oultl
II:I\.I> p~aovitlrtl :I f ; t ~ . rnor.c1 st:iI)I(. slrl~sistrncc~I~asc. th:ln
1110s~of t h ~ I, I ~ I ; I I I ( I int~>r.ior.
c b \

(%

2. \-e;tr.-r.o~~ntl
c.o;tstal ocrlrp;ttior~
111 tlw i ~ I ) s t ~ or
n ( ~illiy
~ I.I(\~II- ~>\.i(I~~tio~b
fo18 *I~:IWII:~I
OIY~IIp:~tion. it cc,cxn\ inor.(, rr;rsonal~le to ir~tcrprc~t
the, I<sl\111c~ils5itt.s i ~ s~~orr~potl(\rit\
of ill1 ~c.onorni('syst(\ln \vhic.l~
i n \ 011 c ~ yc~:ir-ro~~nd
l
occtrp:~tion of the c.o;tst;ll lo\\ l:rn(l.
r
I h r ohser\.:~tions thnt h:lvc> t ~ t t w~u:ltlr:tt)out t11v pt~nt~r.:il
t'('ol0gy of till' iII'l'i\ ([)ilst :llltl I>~<'St'nli
sugg<'Sl 1ll:lt . \ ~ P \ o lithic gr'ottl)c cor~ltll ~ : t \ cohtitint*tl r.c.gul:t~.footl s ~ r ~ ) ~ ) l i t ~ c
tl~r~ottgl~out
the y(vtr., \\it110111 tile 111~r11s\ily
of rni~I,i~rg
f r c qr~c'nt n r o v ~ ~ors of tr;t\ c llinp long ( l i s t : ~ ~ ~ r(:h;tr~gi~~g
e\.
p:ttt~>r.ns of ~ I ~ S O I I I ~ I(1Yi5tri
~ t n tion
~
t t11*otrg11 IIIC y ~ ~ r
(Fig. I I )
otrltl prcwrtn:rt)ly h;r\-c oc-c.:rcionrtl shift, i l l
s ~ ~ l ) s i s t ( ~ nt~niph:tsis.
c.(~
111 very g(b~~f>rid
t ~ \ r . n ~ sfisliir~g
.
(~);~~'tic~t~l:lrly
for c:tlnron I is lilic~l\,to Irnv(>I)t~r~n
tht, ~ r ~ n i r l
;~rli\-itytluring tht. sumlnclrb months: wl~ilt. in wil~tcr.
\\it11 ;I redttc-tion i n ttiv urtrnhers of fish in thr. c ~ c t r ~ i t ~ ~ y
: I I I ~ inshor.(> \vatelSs. 111or~o~brt~phi~\is
I-OIIIII l l i ~ \ ~ I>CI~II
t~
pl;~c'ctI on I:tncl panlcx anti \\:~trrfo\\l. (:ntl~c'rin~:tc.ti. - for shr~lllistr.pli111t Eoo~l*.0 1 . gt1ll4' tygs - :II.(~
\.~t~c,.;
7

Der Kiistenfaktor in der mesolithischen Besiedlung

Nordwest-Englands
1)er l i c i ~ r c ~1)c~scIriiftigt
g
\icJt trrit tlcr rirc~soIitlrisrlrt.n Besictllrtr~gciric,r I3rgion (;roiJl~rit;rrrtrirtrs. tlicx I)islrchu nenig
crforqc-lrt i \ ~ . Scrrc I'cltl:~rb(~itc~tr
11at)ett ~ l r ri'rrttlechung
(*irrt>r~ ~ t ~ t l t ~ r r t(irrt1)l)t~ ~ t ~ i l\~o n
~ t ~1~11trtl~)liit/(~t1
i x i l*lqh~trth;tls tt:rIrc t l ~ r . lliit~el~rtrg
(I(,\ I:lttss(~\ l<\k g ~ f i i l ~ r t .
%uniic.lr\t \\ctetL(~nl,ttr/ tlic IicTrtntit~;In tlicsf.tr Pi61~t.11
L)c~irarrtlclt.die. ;III t ~ i t r t . :rufg(~itit~gr.t~i~
F ) o s t p l i ~ ~ i :fiiistt>rr~lt~
litric pt~trurrtlc~n
sitrtl. 1)rc.i or^ ihnc~rr sintl ;rtr\pcpr:rbcir
\\ortlt,rl uncl Ir;lht>rr ctrr1litr11~~11t~
I 3 t + ~ r r d ~- \ \ i ~ 11tril<tellen. Grul)crr rrrrd Pfostenliir~rt~t
- t,rgebcri. 1)ie Flintitrt1ilstric.n gt'hiirtri typologiiclr m r t r 1)r-itisrl~etr Spiitrnc~solithikurn trntl ~ ~ n t f a s s ctrrrtcr
r~
nnrli~rcnrgrolJr Jlerrgt31r sclrni:rllilirrgig~~r
Slilit~olitltt~tt
nrltl I';r:tt/c>r. (;thtrc'plttc
S u k l r i Irahcrr ttnttr tlcl~r \Yt~rk:thf;tIl cirrc~rt Irolrc~rr .\]Iteil. 1hr \'or.hortrrrlc~n ~icIcrq)icgt4t(lie 13cvIcut~inp tier
Iiipol;~rtedlrrih, tlic nrit tlcr Xr~tzrtt~g
\\-on Str;~rrclpt~riillen

Elitrtc~rgrtttltltlcr \ ~ c ~ ~ ~ i i t r t l c r t ic1t.s
~ ~ gSlc~t~i+c~shl~ic~pc.Is
rr~
ilnd
t l t ~ I<iistc~trgcogr.al)lrit~
\ c ~ ~ ~ i ~ a n\v\r(~r.elt~r~.
t i t ~ r ~ (lit, i n tlicserir f;cshit.t viilrrc~ntl tlcr Ict/tt,n 7000 ,J:rl~rc \.or sir11

"rXrc ~ x c \ c n t\trrter's rc'iearcii owt>.s~rruldr to Jlr. Chrrr*'~

original ficltl norh: :rnd tilr cl;\t;c presented in l'rg5. I-:$
itre ctrn\\n i:trgc~l\ fro~riitrtorn~:itictnprovitlecl b\ ltinl. For
this. : i ~ t c t Irclp 111 ok1lt.r \ \ a \ \ . l ;iin tierpi\ 11rtlrbtc.d to
\Fr. 11crrt/.
?

Eilyolt~ Ue:rcon. Dnrh:tm iQ1474 = 6.810 b.c. f 140) :

\\-;tn.ork 1lIill Site 3. 1Ve.t Yorksl1il.e /C) 789 = K.6fiO 11.c. f
110): Broornlrrntl Jloor Sitc 5. Sorltlt Yorkslrir~r~'(,800
I =
ti.(i'LO 11.c. & t l O i .

'1'. Jltdlnrs anti S.

'I;rrnt,\ i.c;tilli.s'.

l'ns/rlrtc

'1971) reter to tlresc artifacts ns

QIJf 1216 = 4.8O';! l).c. & 136;

1336 = 3.420 b . ~ f
. 370.
Both (1atc.s relate ti) chiirconl samples from the largest
Irc*;irttr. (21:331i was collectecl in the Aeltl, bnt proved to
be rtn in:tdcqrrnte sample. BJI 1216 is for $1 larger sarnplc
c~xtr;tctetl tlrrctcbr l;tl)or;rtor?- rontlititrris. ant1 ii tllerefore
cor~sitlc~rctl
to he tlrc' rnorc accttr;\lcbdate.
nrbo~ri/cclhn7el nut shells have rroyv beerr recortltd front
rriore tttan 30 Jlcsolithic sltes in Brrtain. 1'. .lIi,llnrt 11!176,
11. :HR) 11\15 man? of tlic Inore important oceurwncc5s. The
c.nrl)on~zetlremains of :tcorns have been recorded fro111 at
lcnst t n o sites (Sutlbrooh. 1.rncolnslrire: T,i~ssaNi\ el: Jrrra) :
1)rrt itr neither cabc is tlre ns\ot*itttiotr nith \l~~solitIric
artrftrc'ts rert:rin.

j(

to L1. B. \\7(~rl)~o.tt)rz
\\1ro ~~11)plit~rl
't'l'l~e writer i~ g~lrt~frtl
rnuch of the il~fonuation on \\lricll this wction is ba\ct1.
l<ii\t(~t~Iitri(~ i'rl~ic :tssr~n~cca r:rlorifir \;tltrc for I.:\\\ lnrr\st.l fltbslr (nett
\\;tr(>tr. ;11\ Irier t b i t t t ~ \ott (Ivr :rr~fg(~\ti(~gt~tri~r~
1~c~pr.errztr~
llrc~r~c~chttrlrt
1tt.st:tntl.
ir~eat)o f 9*50 f<(*;il. l,g. (11. ?<. tvtitt. *I. 1,. LiIrrrill. $96:3~.
111 tlt.11 i~t~sclrlic~i~rr~tIt.rr
4hsdrnittcn ilcs Ilc~irrngcsvrirtl
l)r\ fle.11 c.:rlcttl;rtiort. 11). I. 1)trrc. I). N. I~:tlu~nrclt,1973,
I :rl)lt. 1 i suggclst some\%-hatlrigltclr \ alues, brrt tlrezck :rrv
tl(hrq I.ct.)cr~~tir~tc~rl~;tlt
t1f.r J l ( ~ s o l i ~ l ~ i hi111
t ~ r J":ikrnr;rliIra?. dirt.c.tl\ co~ny)ar;tblrto tlrc tl;tt;r pi\ clr t r r ?';rl)lc I .
(;i'l)it,t tfisl\r~ticrt. 1)t.r. . \ ~ r t o rs ~ t / tsir11 kritisch rrrit rietrtx-

..

'"l'lrii asstt~nc\t11;tt t11c ntrrapc Irvc~\\c~ipltt

or mussels. in the
libel\ to I)c troppecl I)> nlnrl 'lerrgtlr = 4.5
~i/c~-rartpc~
rrr.nr. +).is 40 prarrrs - 1)ascd 011 rlntn from 1'. J . Unrc, ;ttrd
1 ) . 13 f<(l\v~zr
d\ f l97%5.t ig. 1 ) .
trrnliqc;t~t*nurrtl \-c.gt~t:tl)ilist.I~t~~~
I'~csioorc~c.n.tlic tlcti nrt.~ o l i t l r i s r l ~ t(irt~pl)t>tr
~r~
it1 S o r ( l \ \ ( ~ s t t ~ ~ ~
~vr ol r~Y(~fugutrg
)i~
\t;lndt>n. nic.lrt. .\iriStrtlt~rn giht c,s c~thrtoprnplriich kcirrcr1c.i Helcgc~clafiir. tli11.l ,Jiipi.t. rrri(l Sirntmler~tlcr pcmii8igtcatr Xotrc' tllt'lrr ( ; c ic'ltt
~
i t r r f tl:rs S;~trrrrrc~trt
;)Is auf (la\
,lagen otler I<sd~i*rr It'gtcrr. I)ic Rctr:tt~lrrurlg tlcr tlitn~:~ligc>rr
t r r r t l tlcr pt~pt~rr\\~irtipt~rt
Ol\oIogit~ilcbs 1<\hnrrirls(:(lt)ict\ t~rrniiglidtt (,in(, I':irrzc~ktiit/tirrg ( I t > \ S~)it~lr~:rurns
tlcr s:risorrirlcrr X : ~ l ~ r u r ~ g \ ~ ~ o t \\iilrr~c.~~tl
c ~ ~ ~ / c t r tlcs Jlcsolit hilirrrn\. .\rrr 1%
iclttigitcn Liinrrtr~n Fiscltr~ r kt,iontlr~rs
I.acqhi). j:tgclt-t:rrc- i.;trrtttict~c. JIolluihcr~ trrttl \Y:r\sc>rpc~tliigcl gt,v\cicn st>irr. f.:i ist \\:~lrr,rhcinlicl~. tl:~i$ (lie
I<shrnt~als-L'l&t/t i,irrt, g;rir/jlil~rigc Ol\l,up:rtion tler Kitstc~acbc~nc~
durrlr (tint hlt~irrc~m~solitlrist'hc F'optrlation,
tiic, l ~ ; t t ~ ~ ~ t ~ iirur
i c ~(Itxtn
r l i cX~i~r l t ~ ~ i ~ r ~ g ~ ~ ~(ies
ot~
1<ii\1(>11~r~ti;rl

l r o Ir;i\ e piirticrpatcd 111 the. c=irrrt~rrtrc5se;trc.lr proltvt rrt

l<ikmc:tls. rtr p;rrticrili~r \liis. (:. k;rqnrts and \IT. J . *\for\Itcall. 1 slro~rltl ztlso iihc to thirnh ,\fish. .\. Corilcorr, Dr.
f . <;:-igvor~.l>r. 1). M~Zlnr\. Dr. if. Ailtlrtt,. Dr. 3f. Yi,<s*c.ornisr.Dr. It.. I'cmnirzgton. Dr. R. ./oncr. Dr. !,I. J. 'f'oolc,c/,
\Ir. .I. 71. \\'cirD~irton. ;tnd Ilr. H. 1Vfvzloc.k for bcipfnl thyc~ts<rons.1 am alst~inclehted to Miss I). Cltnrlrtwortlr. Lfr.
J . ( Itctrtj. JIiss C . Ftall. Dr. P. Jiellnrc. Alr. I3. Spear~tlur~
il~idto III? C O I I ~ : ~ ~ I IaCt\ the llritislr Jluscum for their hclp
;rncf rrlcouragcnrr~nt. Sltcjila (otiltort rtwtl and t.olnrnerited
orr tire orig~rr;rlrn;rrrr~~eript.
'l'htb
illrt\totions in big. 7 ;Ire
thc. \$ orh c,f Jlr. t'. (oncptort :rrrcl Mrs. K. Illcghc~.
,"
thc rxc:rvattons at Jlonl\ \loom \\(,re finnncecl I)? pr;rnti
oE tile En\ ironment, thc TTni\rrzr IT
From ttrc l)e~)art~rrctrt
of Shcffieicl 1ic.scart.ii 1-tind. and tlrt' i~soc~:ttio~r
for (111tttr:rl Ext4r:1ngcx.
\\

Bibliography

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of tiit, ('tr~rrl~erI:r~rrl
:rirtI \Vestr~rorl:tntl .\i~tii~ri;rri;rrr: I I I ~ I
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A\..

(Ir(~rr!y. ,I. : I I I ~ P.
~
.I.. 1973: lle~olitlric Ital)itiitior~ silt,\ :I{
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l!)(i::
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I ; c ~ c . R. B.. l!)ii8: \Yh:rt

hunters (lo For :i li\ing. or, hot\

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l!ffiX. jtlt. :io Sf.

1,r.r.. R. I,'.. I)t.\'orc.. I.. l%i8: 3l:rir tlrc ITtrtrti~r.(:lrit.;\po I9fiP.

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lopi(*:rI rc~iborrstrtrc~tioir
l97fi.
\It(cotc.c~. H. .\.. \17itldou~botc.E. Jl.. 1960: Tire (:omposition
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~II

(1(1r/~r>~
I). I'.. 1976: XIv>olitl~ic+
l<t~ropc,:tire t~cort(~trric
t)irsi\.
111: I'rol>lc~rrsi r r I:c.otrortlic* arrrl Soci;rl .\rtl):rc~oltrp\ !l<tls.
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Ihrrc*. P. .I.. F:tI\x~rr(l\ 11. f3.. 197.5: Sf>:rsorr:tl tlr:rrrgi.\ in Rix\li

ibornpoiitir,~~O F nrrt+it.li ('\it~\tchipht : r t r ~ I ltroc~I.~cm~c~~rl
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18. 1!375. trp. 89 Sf.

/ ) r i x ~ ~/I.. E.. .\/(r\.\t>;/*\\.. ('.. l9,5i: ( otrr~):rr~~ti\i~

Stt~clir*s
of S o r t h .\r)rc~ric:rrr Itrtlinrts. '~r:iirs;~ctio~r~
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.\lcIlrrr~. I).. 1975: t'ngol:ttt. poprilations. c~conomic pattern';,

:rncl the Xlrsolithir landsmpr. In: Tllr Effrct of Man
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Itr~~cb:rrc.lr
I<csi)ort I I . I.c~rrtlorr 1!)7.5. pp. 4!) ff.
.\lr~llnrs. I).. 1971;: Settlcmt~~it
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1. I f . Lor~g~r~orilr.
\Iollt/r.c. I'.. I'tr,i/~>c'.S.. !!)?I: I~uc~:rvntionof two \lcioliilric~
shell rnidtlcns on the islarrtl of Oroili:r> (lnncr Flcl)ritlc+).
111: Y : I I I I231.
~ ~ 1971. j)p, :$!I7 f.
\!ilrri*. 11.. I)rtrzrtc~t.( i . 11.. 19'7'2: St;rrrtliirg crtrlt. protltrcti*.it>
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R. S. li. Bnrttvs.
In: 'l'hr Estttnrint' I<n\ ironnrc~nt
1972. 1))). 86 ff.
.I. G r t ~ , Ir, ~I,ctr~tlor~
\Itrrrlocl,. C. I).. 1967: 'l'lrc. ettrnc~pr:rl~lric~
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I n : I<tlir~olop\6 13). l9fi7.

\\.t~iizt>r. .T. S.. Tnr~rz(~r.-1. 11.. f3trrtziIlcirrictnz. G.

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S~~.tttrrr.
I:.. .lncobi. t { . .\1.. 1975: f\:ttliocarl)on dates lor tiie
I't~ri~rrnt~
Jiesolittiic*. Lri: Xaturc, 256. 1975. pp. 32 ff.
I'c~rtiitngtort,\\ .. 1970. \ c ~ g c ~ t : r t Iristor\
~ o ~ ~ i l l tlrc trorth-west
of I'npI:~ritl: :1 rtyrolr:rl s\titlrc~irs.111. Stntlicq rrb tlir \-t.gr,tatitrn:rL Ilrstor\ of i l i ~Ilrrti41 Isles; Ilcs;~\s III Iionorrr
of Il;rrr\ (;trtl\rin (l<tl\. 1). \\'nlhcr, R. (;. \\'c,ati. <.ant.
1)rrdgc~1970.
Pr~rtriirtglor~.\\'.. 1!37.5: Tlre rffcct of Scoli~hicnr;tn on the,
cii\~ronr~ir~rit
in nortlr-\\c~zt l<rrgI:rrrt1: the. usc of absoItrtc, [)ollt~11t1i:rgrartrs. 111: 'l'ht. I-ffect of ,\Ian orr the
I,;t~~tlscapr:ttrv I-lighi:tnd %ont. iEtls. .I. (;. I:'r-rtris.
S. IAirnlit.c,tl.IT. ("lr.t,rci. 'I'lit (:ouncil for Ikitish &\rcli:ir~oIop\ l-l(~\c:rrc.ii Kcport I I. 1,ontion 1!)7.3. pp, 74 ff.
linrllc~.tj..7. .I!)fi!): l'tic. >lc\olitlrit ~)rrioctiri r~orth-t;tst Yorlislrrrc.. 111: Yorksliire \rt.hat.ological .lo~~rti;tl42. t!)ti!).
1'1). :I I4 ff.
lin(l/~~tj.
,I.. \l(~li(~r\.
1'. l!)ti4:
lf~~solitlric
strtrctrtrc> ;it
l)ccapcar, Yorhshire. Eriglarici. :tnrl ttir alfirritre~ of it\
irssit(*i:iti~tlflint iridrtstries. Iri: Vroeccdi~~,v\o t the
lrrstor~cSocit-t\ 1.S. 30. l!)(i4. pp. 1 ft.
Shnc:.cross. \\-.. 1!)70: 1:tliriosraphic economic\ ;~ntl thc
\t~rtt\ 01 popul;itiori in prehistoric St%\\%c;rl;trrtl: -\ic\rc,tl
tlrroug'ri ;rr.el~:tt~olog\. 111 : llurthirrtl 7 ( 4 I . 1970. pp.
'T!) ff.
Stetr~trtl. .7. 11.. 194fi: 1Iandl)ooh of Soutlr A.lnreric*:rt~Irrilisrr\. Yol. I. Tlie ,\lz\r,vinal Tribes. S1nit1rst)tiiarr Iristitutiori. Rurcvrri o l .\nic.rican Et1inolog?- Nuiletin 143.
IYashingtoxl 1946.

Tltorttaort. I ) . . I!f:3!1:
'l'lrt. srasonal factor iri hinrran c~trlttrri~.
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I){'. 209 ff.
7'0olc~!~..\I. .I.. 1 974 : Sr:r-lr\~t~l
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140. 1954. pp. 18 ff.
'I'oolcg. JI. .I.. t!fili: Flanclrian sea level cl~anpes in west
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7'0016vJ. 31. -1.. RorlsnEt. c.. lfnrsf~nll..l.. forthcoming: Sea

lert.1 ch;i~rgcs ant1 niesolithie settlerr~ent ill north vest
Er~lrlancl.
I\-(tiller. I).. 1l)fifi: 'l'l~rIdate Quatcrriary Iiistoy of the CumI)crialrtt lo\~lancl.l n : Phiiosopltie;tl Transactions of the
Ho? nl Socitkty of I.orldon B 251. 1966. pp. t ff.
\\'nlrtc,. 1'. R.. 1972: 'The irnportnnce of cstuaric~to commisrti:il fishcrics. 111: 'l'lic I<stuarinc Envirorunent (Ed. 1-1. S.
fi. Ntrrrtc~c,.I. (;rerrr). I.ondon 1972, pp. 207 ff.
\T7rrtt. I ) . Ii.. Jlrrrill, -1. L.. 1963: (:omposition of Foods:
r;t\r. p ~ ~ t ' e s w i pr~pawtl.
i.
I'nittd States Department of
.\prictrlture ttantibooli 8. \\ asttingtoli 1!)6:i.

\l'hitr. J . I'.. 1968: liabricators, outils 6saillQs or scalar cores? In: ,\[ankind 6 112). 1968. pp. 638ff.