March of Patriots

Medieval History of Nadavara

The stretch of thousand years from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth
century to the fall of the Eastern Roman empire in the fifteenth century is referred to as
“medieval period” in the European History timelines. The invaders from the western and
central regions of Asia sporadically attacked the North-Western India from the turn of the
first millennium. During the early part of the medieval period the warlike sects including
the militias of Jats and Rajputs were formed to oppose the invaders. Later in the mid
medieval period Rajputs of Rajputana as the nation builders started travelling to the
southern India. All through the medieval period India was split into many kingdoms and
was ruled by numerous dynasties. Religions controlled the constitutions of kingdoms and
the people’s lives. The Nadavara history during the medieval period was associated with
Rashtrakuta, Hoysala, and Kalachuri dynasties. In the sixth century, the earliest
Rashtrakutas, who belonged to the Rajput clan, ruled the Malwa Region. The Chalukya
King, Pulikesi II, defeated Harshavardhana of the Vardhana Dynasty in 620 AD and made
truce, which expanded the Chalukya Empire up to the south of the Narmada River.
Rashtrakutas assumed feudatory responsibilities of the southern Malwa region. In the
seventh century, Rashtrakutas moved southward into Maharashtra and made Achalpur
(Elichpur) their capital. The feudatory kingdom spread from Narmadapur in the north to
Nanded in the south and Bargi in the east to Bharch in the west. Rashtrakutas were
fortunate to control the most fertile region of the Chalukya Empire, which was irrigated
from the Tapi, Godavari and Narmada rivers. Akola and Akot became the commercial
centers. Rashtrakutas financially backed the Chalukyan wars. Gradually, due to their
financial muscle, Rashtrakutas gained prominence. In 753 AD, Dantidurga conquered the
Chalukya king, Kirtivarman, and established the Rashtrakuta Kingdom. He ruled
Maharashtra and parts of Karnataka from Achalpur. His mother, being the Gujarati
Chalukya princess, Dantidurga, had access to insider information regarding internal

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conflicts within the command of the Badami Chalukyas. Moreover, his influence was
bolstered by the wealth accumulated from the land rich province of Vidharba.

The present argument of historians labeling Rashtrakutas on a linguistic basis is

unreasonable as at different times in the history, they were Rajasthanis, Maharashtris and
Kannadigas. Historically, invaders imposed their own values and way of life on the country
they occupied whereas drifters or immigrants embraced the ethnicity of their new
homeland. Like modest immigrants Rashtrakuta invaders seamlessly merged with the
cultural fabric of Karnataka. Due to the conflicting historical data, still it is not very clear
when Rashthikas became Rashtrakutas. Was it in Achalpur or Manyakheta? The earliest
mention of Rashthika, the rulers of Malwa, was found in the extant inscriptions of the
seventh century in Manpur. Another seventh century inscription of Achalpur mentions
Rashtrakutas as the rulers of Kanauj, a city in Uttara Pradesh. Perhaps there were a few
closely related Rajput families that ruled parts of the northern India, ranging from Gujarat
to Uttar Pradesh and interchangeably they were called Rashthika or Rashrtrakuta.
However, in Achalpur and Manyakheta the clan was known as Rashtrakuta, which meant
“union of countries” and also “head of a country.” In the ninth century the Emperor
Nripatunga for the first time coined the term Nadavara for the Rashtrakuta sect.

During the glory days, the empire was divided into sixteen Rashtras. Rashtra was
autonomously ruled by a Rashtrapathi. Even women were appointed to head Rashtras. The
taxation system was dependent on the production of material goods and affluence of
Rashtras. A progressive welfare system was instituted to support the deprived regions.
Commendably they encouraged cultural pluralism, which was the acceptance of all
religions and ethnic groups. Sulaiman, an Arab merchant who visited Rashtrakuta King,
Nripatunga in 851AD referred to the realm of Rashtrakutas as the empire of Kanauj.
According to him the Balhara (Rashtrakuta king) was the fourth greatest ruler in the world.
Rashtrakuta king appointed Musalman magistrates to implement certain Islamic laws.
Trimurti, the representation of the earliest pluralism was the badge of the Rashtrakuta clan.
The Trimurti Narayana Temple in Bandalike near Shikaripura, Karnataka built by
Rashtrakutas suggests their sectarian pluralism. Their capital was Manyakheta, present day
Malkhed, Karnataka.

The Rashrakuta Dynasty belonged to the "Digambara" branch of Jainism. The Jain Sadhus
who in recent years performed Nadavara religious rituals belonged to Digambara sect. The
Rashtrakuta period marked the boom in the Sanskrit and Kannada literatures. The
legendary Rashtrakuta Emperor, Nripatunga (Amoghavarsha I, 814- 878 AD) was a great
poet. He reorganized Kannada literature into prose, poetry, drama, rhetoric and critique in
his book Kavirajamarga (Poet's Kingly Path). He also wrote Prashnottara Ratnamalika in

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Sanskrit. The literary scholars in his court compared him to the Mouryan Emperor, Asoka.
But, in his own writings, Nripatunga associated himself with Jimuthavahan, the hero of the
Naganada epic. In his famous book Kavirajamarga, Nripatunga portrayed the Nadavara
clan in a majestic style, “Nadavaras are brave soldiers, shrewd kings, handsome people,
people of merit, great poets, philosophers, civilized, formidable and distinctive.” In his
descriptions of Nadavaras, Nripatunga proudly acknowledged himself being the “Shrewd
King” and “Great Poet”. The earliest mention of the Nadavara appeared in Kavirajamarga
but who were the Nadavaras before Kavirajamarga? Were they Rashtrakutas or Rashthikas
of Malwa? Nadavara might have been a linguistic rendition of Rashtrakuta or Rashtrapathi.
However, is there any connection between the ancient Nadavaras of Kavirajamarga and
Nadavaras of Uttara Kannada?

In the army of Rashtrakutas not all soldiers were Kshatriyas; able men of all social orders
were recruited to armed forces. A small group belonging to the Rashtrakuta clan was the
recognized brand of Sat-Kshatriya (noble warrior). The Sat-Kshatriya cult did not belong to
the Hindu social stratification (caste) system. During the Rashtrakuta era, the Gurjars of
Rajputana and a few other Jain Rajput warriors also called themselves Sat-Kshatriyas.
Throughout the Rashtrakuta reign, Sat-Kshatriya marriages outside the faction were
forbidden. The marriage with another Rajput Sat-Kshatriya clan was accepted. However,
with the king’s consent, a Sat-Kshatriya woman could marry a Brahmin, but the children
born to them were not considered to be Sat-Kshatriyas. Rashtrakutas were almost fanatical
on preservation of their genealogy. Capital punishment was common, but Sat-Kshatriyas
were exempt, probably to safeguard the small population. Certain laws and practices of
Rashtrakutas were biased to sustain their own clan. The regal description of Nadavaras by
Nripatunga suggests that they were the Sat-Kshatriyas during the era of the Rashtrakutas.
Sat-Kshatriya men wore white turban and clad white fabric, a few yards long in a "toga"
style. The white turban was obligatory for Sat-Kshatriya men but no one other than the king
wore ornaments on turban. Parading on a palanquin, accompanied by lit lamps in broad
daylight and escorted by Pancha Vadya (Band with five musical instruments) was one of
the privileges often displayed by Sat-Kshatriyas. The ancient lifestyle in bits and pieces
prevailed among Nadavaras, especially in their customs of marriages and festivals till as
recently as a century ago.

During the time of the Rashtrakutas, the Nadavara clan might not be more than a handful
of families. The Rashtrakuta King, Govinda III, successfully clinched the Banavasi Nadu
(region) in 800 AD from Alupas. The Rashtrakuta prelude to Banavasi (Uttara Kannada)
was in the ninth century when the Banavasi Kingdom came under the rule of Rashtrakutas.
The great Jain poet of the tenth century, Pampa in his famous book, “Adi Purana” wrote
about Banavasi with dramatic descriptions. Jinasena, a poet in the council of Nripatunga,

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initially wrote Adi Purana in Sanskrit. Pampa translated the book of 12000 slokas (verse) in
Kannada. Adi Purana, which is the life story of the first Jain Tirthankara, Vrashabhanatha,
was the holy book of Rashtrakutas. It was one of the two ageless books belonging to the
Kangal Parameshwari Temple and the other book was Ramayana. The antique books were
stolen by a mischievous young man of Torke and sneakily sold it in 1932 to a museum. He
was caught, and his own cousins tied him down to a mango tree for a day. Little kids
walked by calling him a thief. He had to leave the family and was never again seen by his
family members. The temple’s effort to retrieve the book was futile.

The South Konkan Shilaharas under Rahtrakutas from Chandor, Goa governed the Konkan
region of Goa and Uttara Kannada for more than two hundred years. Mirjan and Karwar
were the main cities in the southern district of Konkan. Shilaharas were deemed to be the
descendants of the mythical prince, Jimutavahana, the main character in the Sanskrit epic,
Nagananada. Shilaharas had established a virtual linkage to Jimuthavahana, probably to
please the Rashtrakutas who were the diehard fans of Nagananda epic. The play was
written in the seventh century by King Harshavardhana of the Vardhana Dynasty. The
character of Jimuthavahana, was created as a manifestation of the persona of Mahavira
Vardhamana. Nagananda was a favorite play of Nripatunga and time and again it was
rehearsed for him in the royal court. The play is about the self-sacrifice of Jimutavahana to
save the life of a serpent (Naga) from the vicious attack of a mythical giant eagle (Garuda).
The Shilahara kings used the title Tagarpuravaradhishwara meaning the supreme king of
Tagarapura. Torke in Uttara Kannada, a Nadavara village was supposedly called
Tagarapura where some apparent relics of the Shilaharas can still be sighted.

The Kengala Parameshwari temple in Devarabhavi is the main temple for the villages
around Torke. The statue of Kengala Parameshwari sitting on Garuda presents a valuable
opening to investigate the Nadavara history. Garuda is the vehicle of Goddess Laxmi,
Vishnu’s wife, and Parameshwari, Shiva’s wife journeys sitting on a lion. Who is Kengala
Parameshwari? According to an anecdotal story, the South Konkan Shilaharas built the
temple of Kengala Parameshwari in the tenth century. The original Kengala Parameshwari
temple was situated in Malali which is a village near Torke. The temple was set two
hundred yards across from the vanished Kotekeri fort which was also constructed by
Shilaharas. A large Garuda statue stood on top of a foothill barricading the fort. Kengala
Parameshwari temple was managed by the Kengana family of Malali. Seemingly the family
was named after its temple of worship. Even now the Kengana family that lives in Malali is
actively involved in the temple affairs. In the north end of the village an ancient fragmented
foundation of Kengala Parameshwari temple can still be seen. Next to the temple is “Adu
Kala” (performance ground) where the “Bandi Habba” festival of Kengala Parameshwari
was celebrated and now it is a mango grove. In early 1940s, two native stuntmen ventured

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to find the hidden treasure under the large Garuda statue erected by Shilaharas on the top
of a hill across from the temple ruins. They pushed it down into the valley of thick jungle.
But they were unable to dig under the big rock on which the sanctified Garuda statue was
seated. The search for the Shilahara’s gold was fruitless.

In the mid nineteenth century, the temple was relocated to Devarbhavi, an accessible
location for more devotees of the temple. The managerial responsibility of the temple was
transferred to the Ramanna Gaonkar family of Torke from Kengana family. The old statue
of Kengala Parameshwari was reinstated with a statue carved in black granite. Murkundi
Gaonkar, a well-known teacher from Hiregutti in 1920s rebuilt much bigger abode for
Kengala Parameshwari. Ornate and spacious temple exposed to larger masses gained
higher divine status. Perhaps for the Hindu converts who were still isolating themselves as
Jain Nadavaras, worshipping in a fresh-faced Hindu temple was novelty of Hinduism. The
disposition of the goddess didn’t matter at all. For many she was Goddess Parvati and
others she was Goddess Laxmi. The word Kenga in Indian languages means river. Kenga is
a name for Hindu baby girl. The literal meaning of “Kengala Parameshwari” is supreme
goddess of rivers. In Monsoon unexpected quick rises of speedy rivers flowing down the
Western Ghats frequently inflicted harms to the riverside settlements. The people living in
Konkan perhaps coined a river goddess of nature who was hierarchically placed along with
Yakshini or Bhoomi Devi and below Laxmi and Parvati. According to the Hindu orthodoxy,
Brahmins only worship celestial gods and not the nature gods. The canonical rituals of
Kengala Parameshwari were carried out by an artisan, usually a potter.

The Garuda was a sacred sign of Nadavara, for instance the holy Garuda Kamba (eagle
post) erected in their homes. In subservience to Rashtrakutas, Shilaharas kept the
Rashtrakuta royal insignia, Garuda as their emblem. Devotees attending the temple
referred to the uniqueness of goddess Kengala Parameshwari seated on Garuda and
because of Garuda many temple goers tentatively branded her holiness after Goddess
Laxmi. According to the conventional belief, the goddess was Parvati. However neither of
the split opinions could be authenticated. The grandmothers of Torke narrated the
Naganada epic to the children as if the narrative took place in their backyard. They told the
legend of Jimuthvahana who to save the life of a serpent sacrificed his own on a large rock
situated on the top of a hill across from Torke. The rock is called “Shoolad Kallu” (spear of
rock) which metaphorically means “rock of death”. In the evenings the rock outlining a
spectacular silhouette against the setting sun is a familiar sight from Torke. Nadavaras prior
to residing in Torke lived in Chandavara and worked for the state-owned exports during
the rule the Keladi Nayakas. They nicknamed their new settlement, Torke after the virtual
Shilahra city of Tagarapura. What might be the reason behind recounting the legends of
Shilaharas, Tagarapura, Nagananda, Jimuthvahana and Kangala Parameshwari etc? Did

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they bring the chronicles of Torke from Chandavara? The questions are many with no
concluding answers.

The Rashtrakuta Empire, after the reign of Krishna III (939- 967 AD) slowly began to
decline. His succession was weak and did not last long. The doctrine of Advaitism, founded
by Shankaracharya (788- 821 AD) was very popular in South India. Advaitism is the
monistic philosophy according to which the self and god are one entity. The Shaiva sect of
Hinduism follows Advaita Vedanta. The Western Chalukyas were gaining the support of
the people because of their clever promotion of Shaivism. In 982 AD Chalukyas overthrew
the Rashtrakuta rulers of Manyaketa. Rashtrakutas of Gujrat, Rashtrakutas of Rajputana,
Rathores of Bikaner, Rashtraudhas of Maharashtra, Shilaharas of Goa, Shilaharas of Thane,
Shilaharas of Kolhapur, Rattas of Saundatti, and Rashtrakutas of Kanauj were feudatories of
Rashtrakutas. They after the downfall of Rashtrakutas became either feudatories of
Chalukyas or independent rulers. The feudatories were closely linked to Rashtrakutas of
Manyketa by association and some by lineage who claimed to be the descendants of
Rashtrakutas. But what happened to the Rashtrakutas of Manyaketa after the Chalukya
victory?

Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta along with the Rattas of Latur who were subordinates of
Rashtrakutas escaped to the Sahyadri hills surrounding Balligavi and Banavasi where they
lived in exile for many decades. However, the Ratta dynasty of Saundatti, feudatory of
Rashtrakuta continued to serve as the governors of Belguam region under the Western
Chalukya dynasty till the end of the twelfth century. The relation between the Rattas of
Latur and Rattas Saundatti could not be discovered. Some historians assume that Rattas are
descendants of Rashtrakutas. The assumption might have been based on the
contemporaneous existence of the two sects and the phonetic resemblance of the two
names, Ratta and Rashtrakuta. The exodus of Rashtrakutas from the Deccan Plateau to the
hills of Sahyadri is a vivid portrayal of the commonly used phrase “head for the hills.” At
the end of the tenth century, when the exiled Rashtrakutas tried to establish a territory in
Sorab, Shimoga, the Chalukya ruler, Tailappa II crushed their brief drive. In Bakkal near
Sonda, the relics of the eleventh century Hoysala establishment suggest the initial
foundation of Hoysalas. Possibly the Hoysala Kingdom as a branch of the Western
Chalukyas was conceived in the vicinity of Sonda and Hulekal, Uttara Kannada. It is likely
that the Hoysala dynasty was instituted by Ratta fugitives of Latur who were closely linked
to Rashtrakutas. Perhaps the Rashtrakuta clan played an important role of kingmaker. Like
Rattas, Hoysalas were also related to Seunas of Devagiri. Seuna, Ratta and Hoysala clans
belonged to the Shwetambara sect of Jainism whereas Rashtrakuta clan was from
Digambara sect.

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Queen Shantala was the wife of the Hoysala King, Vishnuvardhana (1108-1152 AD).
Shantala was the daughter of Honnayya Dandanayaka (Chief General) and Machekka. She
was born in Balligavi, Shivmoga. Shantala was a famous dancing queen who
choreographed her dance routines from Bharata Natyam postures and renditions of Odissi,
which was similar to Yakshagana. Yakshangana was introduced in Karnataka much later in
the sixteenth century. The Chalukya King, Vikramaditya IV, was a secret admirer of
Shantala. He requested Shantala to dance for him, but his request was refused. Allegedly,
the incident led to ill feelings between Vishnuvardhana, a feudatory of the Western
Chalukyas, and Vikramaditya IV. Hoysalas and the Chalukyas fought three childish wars
between 1118 and 1123 AD. Perhaps Vikramaditya IV was enticed by the beauty of
Shantala. A few years later, the Jain king, Vishnuvardhana influenced by the preaching of
the Hindu philosopher Ramanujacharya, accepted Vaishnavism. Queen Shantala, staunchly
believed in Jainism, but respected all religions. However, she could not tolerate her
husband’s conversion to Vaishnavism and committed suicide. The Nadavara women of the
older generations worshipped Shantala. The statues of Shantala housed in little shrines are
found in nine Nadavara villages along the Gangavali River. Some Nadavara kinfolk
originally from the highlands of Honavara and Siddapura, now settled in the villages
around Gokarna, Uttara Kannada, believe that Shantala was related to them. In the
beginning of the twentieth century, two Nadavara families of Maskeri and Agargon owned
the ornaments of Shantala. Bommayya Nayaka of the Banavasi Nadu, chief commander of
the Hoysala King, Vira-Ballal III (1291-1343 AD), died in a war in 1320 AD against the
Hoysala feudatory king of Kampili. His grandson, also called Bommayya Nayaka, was the
Hoysala governor of the Tungabhadra region. After the death of Vira Ballal III in 1343, he
peacefully merged with the newly founded Vijayanagara. Bommayya was instrumental in
pursuing the Salwas of Konkan to join Vijayanagara.