Chapter No 5 Stratigraphy of the Area

44

5.1 Distribution of Various Unconformities in Salt Range:

41

I.

At the base of Permian:

41

II.

At the Base of Tertiary:

41

III.

At the base of Lower Miocene Rawalpindi group:

42

IV.

At the Base of Kalabagh Conglomerates:

42

5.2

Permian

51

5.2.3 Wargal Limestone

52

5.2.4 Chhidru Formation

55

5.3

Triassic

56

5.3.1 Mianwali Formation

56

Kathwai Member

57

Mittiwali Member

57

Narmia Member

59

5.4
5.4.1
5.4.2

Paleocene:

59

Hangu formation:

59

Patala formation:

61

5.5 Eocene:

62

Eocene rocks in the Upper Indus Basin are collectively known as Charat Group which consists of
following formations (Shah, 1977)

62

5.5.1 Nammal Formation:

62

5.5.2 Sakesar Limestone

63

5.6

Miocene:

52

5.6.1 Kamlial Formation

52

5.7 Pleistocene:

54

5.7.1 Kalabagh Congolomerate:

5.8

54

Structures

55

5.8.1Fault

55

5.8.2 Fault line:

55

5.8.3Thrust fault:

55

5.8.5 fold:

55

5.8.6 Slickensides:

56

5.8.7 Fault gouge:

56

5.8.8 Spheroidal weathering:

57

5.8.9 Ripple Marks:

57

5.8.10 Cross bedding:

58

5.8.11 Hummocky and swaley cross-stratification:

59

5.8.12Flaser and Lenticular bedding:

59

5.8.13 Drag fold:

60

5.8.14 Dome:

60

Chapter No 6 Mapping

62

6.1.1 Regional mapping

62
39

6.1.2 Detailed mapping

62

6.1.3 Principles of mapping

62

6.1.4 Required instruments

63

6.2

63

Structure of the study Area

Chapter No 7 Slope Stability

68

7.1 Objectives of Study

68

7.2 Research Methodology

68

7.3 Discontinuity Survey Techniques

69

7.4 Plotting Techniques

73

7.5 Modes of Failure

77

7.5.1 Circular Failure

77

7.6 Software for Slope Stability Analysis:

80

7.7 Detailed Line Survey of the Study Area

83

7.8 Data Collected

83

7.9 Analysis

84

7.10 Result

84

40

Chapter No 5 Stratigraphy of the Area

The Salt Range is a hill system in the Punjab province of Pakistan,
deriving its name from its extensive deposits of rock salt. The Salt range of Pakistan
forms part of sub Himalayan Mountains which stretch more than 180 Km East-West
between the Jehlum and Indus Rivers, along the southern margin of the Potwar
Plateau. A thick sedimentary cover of Precambrian to recent deposits overlies low
grade Metamorphic and Igneous Rocks with an unconformable contact. (Gee
1989).The Salt Range contains the great mines of Mayo, Khewra, Warcha and
Kalabagh which yield vast supplies of salt. Rocks of Salt range was uplifted by a
thrust fault called Salt Range thrust, which emplace older rocks of salt range upon
younger rocks of less deformed tertiary rocks of Jhelum plain.
The lithostratigraphic units range in age from Infra-Cambrian to Recent and
mainly consist of sedimentary sequences are found in Salt Range, which are
punctuated by unconformities both of local and regional extent (Qadri, 1995).
Sakaser and Tilla Jogian are the highest peaks of Salt Range. The area displays
some excellent geological exposures in valley and gorges representing geological
history from 600m years to recent with the absence of Ordovician, Silurian and
Devonian over a distance of few kilometers. And therefore is known as field
museum of Geology.

.1

Distribution of Various Unconformities in Salt Range:

The distribution of the various formations in Salt Range is governed by four
major unconformities. (Fig 5.1) and Satellite Image is Shown in Fig 5.2.
At the base of Permian:
The conglomeratic Tobra Formation oversteps the Cambrian westward and

I.

northward, coming to rest directly on Salt Range Formation of the western

part of Salt Range.
At the Base of Tertiary:
At the base of tertiary in the extreme Eastern part of the Salt Range the

II.

Paleocene directly overlies the Cambrian sequence, Jehlum Group.

Westward and northward it rest on the Permian and Mesozoic sequence.
41

III.
At the base of Lower Miocene Rawalpindi group:
Generally this unconformity intensifies southward, as a result Upper Miocene
Formations Occasionally rest directly on diminutive Eocene or on Triassic in
the southern repetitions of the western part of the scarp.
IV.
At the Base of Kalabagh Conglomerates:
This unconformity lies in the Western part of the Salt Range, at the base
of Kalabagh Conglomerate.

Figure 5.1 Diagrammatic illustration of major unconformities in Eocambrian

toTertiary sequence in Salt Range (After Gee 1983)
42

Table No 5.1: General Stratigraphy of Salt Range

43

Chapter No 05
List of Observed Formations
Age

Formation

Pleistocene

Kalabagh
Conglomerate

Lithology

Lithology
Description

Conglomerate

Kamlial Formation
Miocene

Sandstone

Sakesar Limestone
Limestone, Marl
Eocene

Nammal Formation
Shale,
Limestone
Patala Formation
Shale
Paleocene
Hangu Formation
Triassic

Mianwali Formation

Sandstone,
Laterite
Limestone,
Shale and
Dolomite

Wargal Limestone

Limestone

Warchha Sandstone
Sandstone,
Shale
Permian

Dandot Formation

Sandstone.
Shale

Tobra Formation

Tilitic Facies,
Fresh Water
Facies

Table No 5.2: List of Observed Formations

40

Chapter No 05
5.2 Permian
5.2.1 Tobra Formation
Salt Range boulder bed" of Teichert (1967) is now known as Tobra Formation. The
type locality is located near Tobra Village in the Eastern Salt Range. The Tobra Formation
depicts a very mixed lithology in which the following three facie are recognized (Teichert,
1967):
i).

Tillitic facie exposed in the Eastern Salt Range. This rock unit grades into
marine sandstone.

ii).

Freshwater facie with few or no boulders. It is an alternating facie of siltstone

and shale containing spore flora. This facie is characteristics of the Central
Salt Range.

iii).

A complex facie of diamictite, sandstone and boulder bed, the unit increases
in thickness in the Western Salt Range and Khisor Range.

During our fieldwork, it has been observed in the South Khura village. The formation is
composed purely of tillitic facies. It consists of boulders of granite. Cobbles and pebbles
are present. Matrix of conglomeratic bed is generally clayey, sandy and at some places
calcareous. Boulders are smaller in size and mostly are matrix supported.
Tobra Formation is well exposed in the Western Salt Range, where it is more than 133 m.
In eastern Salt Range, it is about 33 m and in the central Salt Range
The age for the Tobra Formation is considered to be Early Permian (Shah, 1977).
5.2.2 Dandot Formation
The name Dandot Formation is formalized after the Dandot Group of Noetling
(1901) and includes the Olive Series, Eurydesma beds and Conularia beds of Wynne
(1879) and the Speckled sandstone) of Waagen (1879). The type locality is near Dandot
Village eastern Salt Range.
The lithology at the type locality consists of light grey to olive green yellowish
sandstone with occasional thin pebbly beds and subordinate dark grey and greenish
splintery shales.
The Dandot Formation is well exposed in the eastern Salt Range and thins out
westward. It is not developed in the western Salt Range and Khisor Range. The maximum

Chapter No 05
thickness of the formation has been recorded in the Makrach Valley where it is about 50 m
in thickness.
The formation has a gradational contact with the underlying Tobra Formation and is
terminated in sharp but conformable contact with the overlying Warcha Sandstone.
The Dandot Formation is fossiliferous and the basal part in the eastern Salt Range has
yielded brachiopods including Discina sp and Chonetes, bivalves include a rich fauna of
Eurydema and several species of Conularia. Many species of Bryozoa and Ostracoda
have also been described from the formation. The age of the Dandot Formation on the
basis of this fauna and its superpositional order with the Tobra Formation of early Permain
is considered Early Permian.
5.2.3 Wargal Limestone
The name Wargal Limestone as approved by the Stratigraphic Committee of
Pakistan was introduced by Teichert (1966). The lithology comprises limestone and
dolomite of light to medium grey, brownish-grey, and olive grey colours. The Formation
in Zaluch Nala is 183m thick. It is not present in the study area. The contact of the
Wargal Limestone with the underlying Amb Formation is well-defined and is placed at
the basal sandy limestone of the Formation above the uppermost shale unit of the
Amb Formation.
The upper contact with the Chhidru Formation is transitional. The fauna
consists of abundant bryozoans, brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, nautiloids,
ammonoids, trilobites, and crinoids.

Chapter No 05

Figure 5.2 Wargal Limestone (Road section near Khura village)

Figure No 5.3 Wargal Limestone (Road section near Khura village)

Chapter No 05

Figure
5.4 Trilobites in Wargal Limestone (Road section near Khura village)

Figure 5.5 Sponges in Wargal Limestone (Road section near Khura village)

Chapter No 05

Figure 5.6 Petrified Wood and Bone aral Pens in Wargal Limestone
(Road section near Khura village)
5.2.4 Chhidru Formation
The name Chhidru Formation was introduced by Dunbar (1932) which is now
formalized. The Formation at the base, as described by Kummel and Teichert (1970)
has a shale unit of pale- yellowish grey to medium dark grey in colour, the thickness of
this unit ranges from 6 to 13 m. It contains rare small phosphatic nodules. Overlying this
unit are the beds of calcareous sandstone with few sandy limestone.
The top most part of the Chhidru Formation is a white sandstone bed with
oscillation ripple marks. It is not present in the study area. Total thickness of the
Formation is about 64 m. The Formation

is fossiliferous containing Ammonoids and

others. (Shah, 1977).The age on the basis of the ammonoids considered to be Late
Permian (Chhidman Stage)

Chapter No 05

Figure 5.7 Chiddru Formation (near Surakkhi village)

5.3

Triassic

5.3.1 Mianwali Formation

The name "Mianwali Formation" was modified by Kummel (1966) after the
Mianwali Series of Gee (1959). The Formation represents a great wedge of varied
facies consisting of marl, limestone, sandstone, siltstone and dolomite which is thickest
in the west and wedges out towards the east. It is not present in the study area. The
following three members have been recognized by Kummel (1966) in the Salt Rang.
(Shah, 1977)
Narmia member
Mittiwali member
Kathwai member

Kathwai Member
Member is composed of dolomite with some quartz in lower part and upper part
is composed of glauconitic limestone.

Chapter No 05

Figure 5.8 Mianwali formation Kathwai member (near Surakkhi village)

Mittiwali Member
It is the thickest member of the Formation and mainly composed of grey,
finegrained, non glacunitic limestone.

Figure
5.9 Mianwali formation Mittiwali member (near Surakkhi village)

Chapter No 05

Figure 5.10 Mianwali Formation Ammonite (near Surakkhi village)

Narmia Member
It is composed of dark grey to brown sandy limestone and grey to black shales
with interbeds of sandstone and dolomite.
The lower contact with the Chhidru Formation of Late Permian age is marked by
a paraconformity which the upper contact with the Tredian Formation is sharp and welldefined. The Formation is fossiliferous and contains brachiopods, ammonoids, nautiloids,
echinoid spines and crinoidal remains. Ammouoids species include Subvishnuites sp.
indet., Xeno-celtites sinuatus, Xenoceltites sp., indet., Pro-carnites kokeni, Isculitoides
sp. indet,, Stacheites sp. indet., Dagnoceras sp. indet., Nordophiceras sp. indet.,
Nordophiceras planorbis, Arcto-meekoceras sp. indet., Tirolites sp. indet., Prohungarites cf. P. crasseplicatus. (Shah, 1977)
The fauna indicates Late Scythian age (Middle Triassic). (Shah, 1977)

5.4

Paleocene:

Paleocene strata, in the Upper Indus Basin, are known as Makarwal Group and it
consists of following formations (Shah, 1977):

Chapter No 05
5.4.1

Hangu formation:
The Hangu Shale and Hangu Sandstone by Davis (1930) have been formalized

by the stratigraphic committee of Pakistan as Hangu formation.

We observed it at going to Surraki village .This formation consists of dark grey
shale as shown in Fig (5.8), carbonaceous shale and nodular argillaceous limestone.
The sandstone is light grey and reddish brown, fine to coarse grained and medium to
thick bedded.
The upper contact of Hangu formation is with Lockhart formation and this
contact is transitional and conformable .But in our field area we did not observed the
Lokhart formation. Lower contact of hangu formation is unconformable with Lumshiwal
formation.On the basis of reported fauna, Early Paleocene age is assigned to the
formation (Shah, 1977).

Figure
5.11 Hangu Formation(sandstone) (At Rakh Khura village )

Chapter No 05

Figure 5.12 Hangu Formation (Laterite bands) (At Rakh Surakkhi village)

Figure 5.13 Fire Clays of Hangu Formation (At Khura village)

5.4.2

Patala formation:
The term Patala Formation was formalized by the Stratigraphic Committee of

Pakistan for the "Patala Shale" of Davies and Pinfold (1937) and its usage was
extended to other parts of the Kohat-Potwar and Hazara areas.

Chapter No 05
The lithology of this formation is Greenish grey/ Khaki shales with thin beds of
limestone. The Patala Formation has it presence in sub surface in the area. Neither
lower nor has upper contact of the Patala Formation been observed during fieldwork.
The formation is widely exposed in the Kohat-Potwar and Hazara areas.On the basis
of reported fauna, Late Paleocene age is assigned to this formation (Shah 1977).

Figur
e 5.14 Patala Formation (on the way to Noshera)

5.5

Eocene:
Eocene rocks in the Upper Indus Basin are collectively known as Charat
Group which consists of following formations (Shah, 1977)

5.5.1 Nammal Formation:

The

name

Nammal

Formation

has

been

formally

accepted

by

the

Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan for the Nammal Limestone and Shale of Gee
(1935).

Chapter No 05
During our fieldwork we observe it going to the Surraki village.It has been
observed that the formation is composed of shale and limestone (Fig 5.8). These rocks
occur as alternations. Shales are creamish in color and limestone of light grey color
has been observed.The upper conformable contact of the Nammal Formation has been
observed with Sakesar Limestone..On the basis of reported fauna, Early Eocene age is
assigned to this formation (Shah, 1977).

5.5.2 Sakesar Limestone

The name Sakesar limestone was introduced by Gee (1935) for most prominent
Eocene limestone in Salt Range and Trans Indus ranges.
During our fieldwork we observe the formation at many places like Kathwai
,Kufri ,Chimnaki ,Khura etc
It has been observed that the formation is composed of cream to light grey
nodular massive limestone with chert nodules in the upper part (Fig 5.9).
The formation is widely distributed in the Salt Range and the Surghar Range.The
formation is highly fossiliferous. Foraminifers Assilina, Nummulities have also been
observed in the formation.The reported foraminifers indicate that the formation is of
Early Eocene age (Shah, 1977).

Figure 5.15 Sakesar Limestone (At the south of kufri village).

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy

Figure 5.16 Solution holes in Sakesar Limestone (At the south of Mustufabad village).

Figure 5.17 Chert nodules in Sakesar Limestone (At the south of Mustufabad village).

5.6 Miocene:

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
Miocene is collectively known as Rawalpindi Group and is represented by
following Formations (Shah, 1977):The Kamlial Beds of Pinfold (1918) have been
formally established as Kamlial Formation by the stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan..

5.6.1 Kamlial Formation

Kamlial Formation is widely distributed in field area and show Spheroidal
Weathering. Fractures and joints also can see in the Kamlial Formation (Fig 5.10) also.
During our fieldwork, it has been observed that the formation comprises friable
sandstone (Fig 5.11) and shale. Sandstone is greenish grey.Spheroidal weathering and
Cross-bedding has also been observed in Kamlial Formation.

Figure 5.18 Kamlial Formation (At the south of kufri village).

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy

Figure 5.19 Intra formational conglomerate of Kamlial Formation. (At the south of kufri
village)

Figure 5.20 Spheroidal weathering in Kamlial Formation (At the south of kufri village)

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
5.7 Pleistocene:
5.7.1 Kalabagh Congolomerate:
Kalabagh congolomerate are also known as Kalabagh beds of Waagen (1891),
kalabagh hill conglomerate of danilchik and shah (1967) of the upper indus basin.
The Kalabagh conglomerate is essentailly regarded as a valley fill, laid down as
fluviatile, lacustrine and piedmont outwash deposits in the lower parts of the structural
depressions. The formation is composed of coarse boulder and pebble conglomerates,
with minor coarse and cross-bedded sandstone.in the Soan valley.
The conglomerate consists of poorly sorted pebbles and boulders of mostly
Eocene rocks, with a small proportion of older sedimentary rocks, quartzite and igneous
rocks.formation has not yielded any fossils .The age of the formation is considered to
be early Pleistocene.
The upper conformable contact was not observed in the area and lower
disconformable contact with Sakesar Limestone of the Formation has been observed.
On the basis of the reported fauna, Middle to Late Miocene age is assigned to the
formation (Shah, 1977).

Figure 5.21 Kalabagh Conglomerate (At kufri village).

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
5.8 Structures
5.8.1Fault
A fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which
there has been significant displacement along the fractures as a result of earth
movement. Large faults within the Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic
forces .
5.8.2 Fault line:
` A fault line is the surface trace of a fault, the line of intersection between the fault
plane and the Earth's surface. The two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the
hanging wall and foot wall, the hanging wall occurs above the fault plane and the
footwall occurs below the fault plain.
5.8.3Thrust fault:
A thrust fault is a type of fault, or break in the Earth's crust across which there
has been relative movement, in which rocks of lower stratigraphic position are pushed
up and over higher strata. They are often recognized because they place older rocks
above younger. Thrust faults are the result of compressional forces.
`Thrust faults typically have low dip angles. A high-angle thrust fault is called a
reverse fault. The difference between a thrust fault and a reverse fault is in their
influence. A reverse fault occurs primarily across lithological units whereas a thrust
usually occurs within or at a low angle to lithological units.
5.8.4 Dip slope:
A dip slope is a geological formation often created by erosion of tilted strata. Dip
slopes are found on homoclinal ridges with one side that is steep and irregular (an
escarpment) and another side, the dip slope, that is generally planar with a dip parallel
to the bedding. The orientation of the dip slope is referred to as the strike. SRT dip
slope lies towards north.
5.8.5 fold:
folds are generally close to tight with straight limbs and small angular hinges.
They typically form in multilayers, consisting of regular alternations of beds with
contrasting mechanical properties e.g. sandstones and mudstones.Chevron folds

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
resemble kink bands for their planar limbs and for occurring in regularly bedded
multilayers but the hinge zones are not angular. The required distortion (rotation) is
localized in the hinge while flexural slip typically occurs, which means that individual
layers of the limbs suffer no internal distortion. As the small hinge tightens between the
straight limbs, there are space problems where holes open between competent layers.
Flow of the weak interlayers, if any, fills up these spaces
5.8.6 Slickensides:
A slickenside is a smoothly polished surface caused by frictional movement
between rocks along the two sides of a fault. This surface is normally striated in
the direction of movement. The plane may be coated by mineral fibres that grew
during the fault movement, known as slickenf ibres, which also show the direction of
displacement. In field area slickenside are present in Sakesar formation at Khura
village.

Figure 5.22 Slickensides in the Sakesar Limestone( near kufri village)

5.8.7 Fault gouge:
Fault gouge is an unconsolidated tectonite with a very small grain size. Fault
gouge forms by tectonic movement along a localized zone of brittle deformation in a

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
rock. The grinding and milling that results when the two sides of the fault zone move
along each other results in a material that is made of loose fragments. First a fault
breccia will form, but if the grinding continues the rock becomes fault gouge.
5.8.8 Spheroidal weathering:
Spheroidal weathering is a type of chemical weathering that creates rounded
boulders and helps to create domed monoliths. This should not be confused with stream
abrasion, a physical process which also creates rounded rocks on a much smaller
scale. A good example of spheroidal weathering can be found in the Kamlial and shows
large beds of sandstone which is friable.

Figure5.23 Spheroidal weathering in Kamlial Formation (At the south of kufri village)
5.8.9 Ripple Marks:
Ripple marks are produced by flowing water or wave action, analogous to crossbedding. ripple marks are sedimentary structures and indicate agitation by water current
or waves or wind. in study area upper part of hazara group represent number of
boulder with ripple marks, which marks the paleo flow and environment of deposition .

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
5.8.10 Cross bedding:
Cross bedding is a feature that occurs at various scales, and is observed in
conglomerates and sandstones.

It reflects the transport of gravel and sand by

currents that flow over the sediment surface (e.g. in a river channel). sand in river
channels or coastal environments When cross-bedding forms, sand is transported as
sand-dune like bodies (sandwave), in which sediment is moved up and eroded along a
gentle upcurrent slope, and redeposited (avalanching) on the downcurrent slope (see
upper half of picture at left). After several of these bedforms have migrated over an
area, and if there is more sediment deposited than eroded, there will be a buildup
of cross-bedded sandstone layers. The inclination of the cross-beds indicates the
transport direction and the current flow (from left to right in our diagram). The style and
size of
cross bedding can be used to estimate current velocity, and orientation of crossbeds allows determination direction of paleoflow.

Figure 5.24: Cross bedding in Warchha sandstone.

5.8.11 Hummocky and swaley cross-stratification:

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
Hummocky and swaley cross-stratification are two closely related forms of
stratification that are generally attributed to the action of oscillating (wave-generated)
currents or combined (oscillating and unidirectional) flows. While these structures
were once thought to be omnipresent

to shallow marine storm deposits, similar

forms of stratification have been recognized

sediments

of

variety

of

in

both

clastic

and

carbonate

depositional environments.This structure is

characterized by internal laminae that locally dome upward hummocks passing laterally
into laminae that are concave upward swales.

5.8.12Flaser and Lenticular bedding:

Flaser beds are a sedimentary bedding pattern created when a sediment is
exposed to intermittent flows, leading to alternating sand and mud - currents, while the
mud is deposited during slack tide periods .the three main types of heterolithic bedding
are flaser, wavy, and lenticular.

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy

F
igure No 5.25: Lenticular bedding.
5.8.13 Drag fold:
A minor fold formed in an incompetent bed by movement of a competent bed so
as to subject it to couple; the axis is at right angles to the direction in which the beds slip.
5.8.14 Dome:
Dome is deformational feature consisting of symmetrically dipping anticlines. The
strata in the dome is eroded off, the series of concentric strata that grow progressively
older from the outside in which older rocks exposed in the center. This was encountered
in Sakesar Formation.

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy

Figure 5.26: Drag fold in sakesar limestone (near Khura Village)

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy

Chapter No 6 Mapping
The basic purpose of field work was geological mapping. Map is a symbolic
representation of either the whole or the portion of earth according to a specific scale. It is
a plotting of a 3D feature on a 2D sheet. Toposheet constitutes the base map for
geological mapping. Toposheet number 43 D/2 of the Geological Survey of Pakistan was
enlarged up to 5 times for the mapping purpose.

6.1 Types of geological mapping

Regional mapping
Detailed mapping

6.1.1 Regional mapping

The major structures and general trends are represented by regional
mapping. As a consequence, sensitive instruments cannot be used and it is generally
carried out in a large area. Its chief requisites are
Preparation of a base map.
Reconnaissance to make contacts with the help of brunton and different features.

6.1.2 Detailed mapping

Such sort of mapping represents the major structures, for instance structures,
lithology, contacts, and sedimentary structures.

6.1.3 Principles of mapping

The general principles of mapping are described below:
Reconnaissance to introduce with lithology and lithostratigraphic units in the field.
Locating oneself in the field with the help of geological features e.g. peaks, nalas,
streams
etc.
Marking stations with the help of latitude, longitude, elevation, and plotting traverses by
dip and strike for the detailed structures.

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
Plotting lithology on the map and giving specific legends accordingly.

6.1.4 Required instruments

Clinometers and bruntons are used for determining the orientation (dip and strike) of the
rock units.
Geological hammer is utilized for breaking the samples and for distinguishing between
fresh and weathered samples.
Measuring tape is employed for determining the thickness.
Pictures of contacts and structures are obtained with the help of digital camera.
Hand lens is required for the observation of microfeatures and microfossils.

GPS

determines

the

values

of

latitude,

longitude

and

elevation.

Apparatus e.g. pencils, colours, sharpener, eraser, scale and clipboard is required for
plotting various features on the map.

6.2 Structure of Salt Range

The Salt Range is clearly the active participant in the scenario of the progressive
southward migration of the Himalayan thrust front. It represents the surface expression of
up thrusting of a decollement inwhich basement is not involved and decollement exists in
Cambrian to Eocambrian evaporites (Seeber and Armbuster, 1981; Crawford, 1974).
Because the Salt Range Formation is easily eroded, horsts form deep gorges, in which
some of the classic stratigraphic section of Salt Range is found (Khewra, Nilawahan and
Warchha gorges) (Yeats and Lawrence, 1984). The Salt Range is interpreted as a faultbend fold although the shape of this anticline differs from the fault-bend fold because of its
lack of a frontal, forward-dipping limb and the ductile behavior of salt at the base of the
thrust sheet.

6.2 Structure of the study Area

The project area is located in Central Salt Range, where the zone of decollement
has been provided by the evaporites of Salt Range Formation. All the structures are
controlled by Salt Range Thrust. Normal faulting is common in the project area and drag

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
folding and many structures associated with the normal faulting are obvious in the project
area. Ridges and depressions area also common in the study area. Ridges are formed of
younger formations while depressions are formed of older formations filled with recent to
sub recent alluvium.
Normal Fault: This fault is along cross section AB in NW-SE direction. The Chidhru
Formaion, Mianwali Formation and Hangu Formation are over riding the Mianwali
Formation, Hangu Formation and Sakesar Limestone.
Thrust Fault: This fault is also the cross section AB. The Chidhru Formation,
Mianwali Formation, Hangu Formation and Sakesar Limestone is Over riding the
Chidhru Formation and Mianwali Formation.
Sodhi Thrust: This thrust is along the cross section BC in the direction NE-SW. The
thrust is observed along this cross section in which older Mianwali Formation is over
riding the Sakesar limestone. This thrust is named as Sodhi thrust.
Chamnaki Anticline:An anticline is observed along BC cross section near
Chamnaki named as Chamnaki Anticline. Wargal Limestone is exposed in the core
while Chiddru Formation and Mianwali Formation are exposed along its North
Western and South Eastern flank while that of Sakesar Limestone is eroded.
Chamnaki Syncline:A syncline is observed along BC cross section having
Kalabagh Conglomerate in its Core and Sakesar Limestone, Hangu Formation,
Mianwali Formation and Chiddru formation in its eastern and southern flank.
Chamnaki thrust:A thrust along the BC cross section is observed which is named
as Chamnaki thrust. The The Wargal Limestone, Chidhru Formation and Mianwali
Formation is Over riding the Chidhru Formation, Mianwali Formation, Hangu
Formation and Sakesar Limestone.
Dhok Patial thrust:A section line E F is drawn in NW-SE direction. A fault is
observed along this cross section named as Dhok Patial Thrust. Wargal Limestone is
Over riding the Sakesar Limestone, are exposed along its North Western flank and
South Eastern flank.

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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Suk Wahan Thrust:A cross section GH is along NW-SW is drawn and a thrust is
observed called as Suk Wahan thrust. Chidhru Formation and Mianwali Formation is
over riding the, Chidhru Formation, Mianwali Formation and Hangu Formation.
Chamnaki Anticline: An anticline is observed along GH cross section and named
as Chamnaki Anticline. Wargal Limestone is exposed in the core while Chiddru
Formation and Mianwali Formation are exposed along its flanks while that of
Sakesar Limestone is eroded.
Chamnaki Syncline:A syncline is observed along GH cross section having
Kalabagh Conglomerate in its Core and Sakesar Limestone, Hangu Formation,
Mianwali Formation and Chiddru formation in its eastern and southern flank.
Chamnaki thrust:A thrust along the GH cross section is observed which is named
as Chamnaki thrust. The The Wargal Limestone, Chidhru Formation and Mianwali
Formation is Over riding the Chidhru Formation, Mianwali Formation, Hangu
Formation and Sakesar Limestone.
Jhalar Thrust:A cross Section is drawn in NE-SW direction. A thrust is observed
along this cross section named as Jhalar thrust. In this thrust Chidhru Formation is
over riding the Mianwali Formation and Hangu Formation.
Dhok patial Syncline:This syncline is observed along the cross section MN. The
syncline have Kalabagh Formation in the core and Sakesar limestone, Hangu
formation, Mianwali Formation and Chidhru formation on its outer part.
Dhok Patial Thrust:A thrust is observed GH cross section named as Dhok Pass
thrust. Wargal Limestone, Chidhru Formation, Hangu Formation and Sakesar
Limestone is Over riding the Wargal Limestone, Alluviam and Sakesar Limestone,
are exposed along its North Western flank and South Eastern flank.

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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Chapter No 7 Slope Stability
The study area is Naushehra (Soan Valley) in District Khushab, Central Salt Range
Punjab and located at 320 47 0 N and 730 06 0 E. The study area can be accessed
through Sargodha to Khushab road. The area is of high relief and temperature remains
pleasant during summer and cool in winter. The highest elevation of the area is Sakessar
peak which is 1,127 m (1050ft) above sea level.
7.1 Objectives of Study
The slope stability of the study area is the main focus with emphasis on

the

following objectives

To understand the role of geology in the study area.

To understand the role of engineering properties in the study area.

To study the effect of local and regional tectonic setting on the study
area.

To identify the causative factors of slope instability.

The selection of best remedial measures depending upon the study

area conditions.

7.2 Research Methodology

The research methodology adopted to study the muse range is as follows:
On the base of the existing learning, scrutiny of the sectional geology of the meditation
area.

Collection of expanse data on natural slope predicament, types and

description of corporeal complex, geotectonic pattern, vegetation
predicament surface corrosion and other characteristic contributing to
slope fickleness.

Study of factors causing instability in the meditation extent.

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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Selections of remedial moderation, which debar recede failures, are

commit to impair destabilizing vigour and increase opposing forces.

Figure 7.1: Satellite image of the Study Area (Wikipedia).

7.3 Discontinuity Survey Techniques
A discontinuity is any symbol machinelike violate or fracture of tiny tensible lustiness
in a support. Rock mass usually contain such features as bedlinen mill, faults, divide,
fractures, joints and other mechanic defects. These can elegance from different geological
prosecute, goods burn fleece firmness, negligible tensile strength and proud fluid
conductivity vie with the inclosure still physical (S. D Priest, 1995). There are two
techniques of discontinuity surveys majorly which are Direct and indirect surveys.
7.3.1 Direct Surveys
One of the most widely used methods for collecting discontinuity data is simply by
direct measurement on the ground. A direct survey can be carried out subjectively in that
those structures that appear to be important are measured and recorded. In an goal
examination, all discontinuities cut a nonvolatile line or area of the defense face are
deliberate and reflect (F.G Bell, 2007).

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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Direct prospect embrace unwritten methods of particularized fill examine (DLS),
fracture-set map, windowlet mode, ram orientation order and drill hole investigation
technique. These traditional retrospect are effect by second-hand a sphere promptly
applied on the rock boldness. In several accident, the data gain may be expensive when
done manually because cliff number cannot be carelessly accessed.
7.3.1.1 Detail Line Survey (DLS)
The detail linen reconnaissance (DLS) system also called boundary mapping supply
specific guide to precisely portray and analyze place discontinuities.
The detail line survey method basically involves stretching of a measuring tape
along a slope face horizontally, recording a traverse trend, and assessing and recording
the characteristics of each discontinuity that intersects the tape within three vertical feet of
the tape (Piteau and Martin, 1977).
Detail line survey (DLS) was originally a method of mapping, road cuts and open pit
excavations. It is also used for exposure mapping. Each geological feature that intercepts
a usually linear traverse is recorded. The traverse can be a 100 feet (30m), measuring
tape placed across an outcrop, wall of a tunnel, or a shaft wall at fixed elevation. The
location of both ends of traverse is recorded. The mapper moves along the line and
records everything. Features are projected along tapes strike and distance is recorded.
Maximum numbers of observations are obtained and a minimum of 60 discontinuities
measurements for rock type is suggested for confident subsequent analysis. The
discontinuity orientation may be recorded as strike azimuth (0 to 360) and dip
magnitude using right hand rule. According to the right hand rule the strike is always to
the left of the dip direction. The thumb of right hand is pointed in the strike direction, the
fingers point in the dip direction.
Data collection should be systematic, practical and accessible.

Easily

measureable discontinuities should not be preferentially measured. Consistence and

completeness of descriptions are also important and measurements should be taken by
the same mapper and data should be recorded on the form. Computer programs are

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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available that plot discontinuities in a variety of projection and performs a variety of
analysis.
Different rock types in the same structural terrain can have different discontinuities
properties and patterns, and the host rock of each discontinuity should be recorded. This
could be an important factor for understanding subsequent evaluation of tunneling
conditions, rock slope, or the inplace stress field in underground openings. (Field manual,
USBIDR, 2001)
7.3.1.2 Fracture Set Method
In the crack set mapping technique, all discontinuities occurring in the zone of
62m while at 30 m intervals along the face are recoded (Halstead et al. 1968)
.A metric tape across an exposure and scan lines are set out. The main scan line is
that along which tape is leveled along face of outcrop and two other scan lines are set out
as near as possible at right angle to the main scan line more or less vertical.
Along tape distance at which each discontinuity intersects is noted, and dip direction
and dip of poles from vertical is recorded. The strike and dip direction of the
discontinuities in field can be measured with a compass and amount of dip with
clinometers. Measurements should be continuous along the distance of 30m. At least
minimum of 200 readings per locality is recommended to ensure statistical reliability (F.G.
Bell, 2007).
7.3.1.3 Window Method
In this mode only a window of 62m is choice for data accession of geological
discontinuities. Window mode is one of the old-fashioned methods of broken surveys. It is
similar to scan line survey but it is carried out in more detail to investigate the features
more accurately (F.G Bell, 2007).
7.3.1.4 Determination of Core Orientation
Drill core personate boundary try of refuge mass. The utility of data depends in part
on the quality of the drilling and the concerned rock, in that lean nature refuge is
agreeable to be unredeemed during drilling. If the core recovery is good and it has been

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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orientated, then discontinuity spacing and orientation can be determine. Core orientation
can be achieved by a core orientator or by integral sampling.
It is usually possible to determine the general degree of planarity (planar, curved, and
irregular) and some degree of smoothness. The thickness of weathered material along
the walls of discontinuities, infill material if it is not soft is determined from the core
(Barton, 1987). Aperture of discontinuities can be determined unless integral sampling is
used. Integral sampling is used to preserve the position of discontinuities in a length of
core stick (Rocha, 1971).
7.3.1.5 Drill Hole Inspection
Drillhole examination technique includes the use of drillhole periscope, drillhole
cameras or embrace circulate television. This rule results in the scrutiny of the internal
mode of the boreholes.
Drillhole periscope affords the direct inspection of hole and can be orientated from
outside the hole. Its use is effective upto 30m depth. Drillhole camera can also be
orientated before the photographying a section of wall of drill hole. Closed circuit
television camera provides a direct view of the drill hole and recording can be made on
video tape. The above components require clear conditions of use and have a little use or
can not be used below the water table. The use of these systems is restricted above the
water table otherwise televiewer produces an acoustic picture of the drillhole wall.
Advantage of this method is that it does not need to flush the drill hole prior to its use.
(F.G. Bell, 2007).

7.3.2 Indirect Survey

Indirect review is carried out worn photogrammetric or optical maser scanner. An true
3D digital surface model (DSM) of the totter peripheric is breed. Discontinuity orientation
and position on the rock face are derived from the DSM in order to perform a deterministic
reconstruction of the rock mass and the determination of the rock blocks lying on the
slope. Different levels of automation in discontinuity planes detection are implemented.

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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These methodologies are validated through the comparison with the traditional surveys.
(F.G. Bell, 2007).
7.4 Plotting Techniques
An initial custom of the stereographic contrivance is the plan and analysis of
answer measurements of discontinuity orientation data. In plotting field measurements
of dip and dip direction, it is convenient to work with poles rather than great circles since
the poles can be plotted directly on a polar stereonet. ( Zhang, 2005).
There are two types of stereographic projections used for plotting the discontinuity
data, one is equal area and other is equal angle projection. The basic difference in equal
area (Fig.7.3) and the equal angle projection is that equal area project is area true, and it
is more suitable to working with a large number of measurements on the surface of the
sphere.
While the equal-angle projection (Fig.7.4) is used for geometrical construction, for
example the study of angular quantities like strike, dip, pitch and plunge of geological
discontinuities. The applications of the various methods have been discussed by Phillips,
Donn and Shimer, Badgley, Ragan and others.
7.4.1 Stereographic Projection Technique
Stereographic tusk technique is a procedure for mapping data located on the
exterior of a sphere on to a flat plane, and can be habit for analysis of the orientation of
hydroplane, lines and forces (Evert Hoek, Jhon Bray; 1981). There are several types of
stereographic projections, but the most suitable for geological applications is the
equal area net or Lambert projection, it is also used by geographers to represent the
spherical shape of the Earth on a flat surface. In structural geology, a point or a line on the
sphere representing the dip and dip direction of a discontinuity can be projected onto a
horizontal surface. In this way analysis of three-dimensional data can be carried out in two
dimensions (Zhang, 2005).
The stereonet itself shows the projection of great circles and small circles. A great
circle is the line of intersection with the surface of a sphere of a plane that passes through
the center of the Sphere. A small circle marks the path in space of a point on the surface

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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of a sphere that is rotating about an axis. Lines of longitude are great circles and Lines of
latitude are small circles.
The stereographic projection technique used to analyze the geological discontinuities
is the equal-area projection technique. The following definitions are important for
stereographic projections.
Dip
The maximum inclination of the discontinuous plane to the horizontal is called dip.
Dip Direction
It is the direction of a horizontal line looking down the dip, measured clockwise from
north.
Plunge
It is the angle between a line and a horizontal plane.
Pitch
It is the angle between a line and the strike of a discontinuity plane containing the line.
Trend
It is the horizontal bearing of a lineation.
Great Circle
It is defined which represents the dip and dip direction of the plane in the space.
Poles
The two diametrically opposite points in which the normal to the plane pierces the
surface of the sphere are the poles to the plane.

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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Figure 7.3: Equal area projection (Schmidt net)

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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`
Figure 7.4: Equal angle projection.

7.5 Modes of Failure

The non-performance of the innate slant is a unregenerate process that occurs
whenever an imbalance engage spot between the shear lustiness and the shear

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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emphasize of the ground The stability of the slope is generally controlled by the joint sets,
joint material, seepage pressure, depth and steepness of the excavated slope face and its
orientation with respect to the joint sets. The most common modes of failures are circular,
planar, wedge and toppling.
The factor of safety (FOS) is the ratio of the maximum stress that a structural part
or other piece of material can withstand to the maximum stress estimated for it in the use
for which it is designed. The factor of safety can be defined as the ratio of the shear
strength divided by shear stress required for equilibrium of slopes:
FOS = Shear Strength / Shear stress required for equilibrium
Different values of FOS calculated from different methods are given in table 7.1. In
conventional practice the stability of slope is expressed in terms of its factor of safety. In
conventional approach, factor of safety less than one (1.0) obviously indicate the failure,
or at least the potential for failure, whereas stability is represented by safety factor greater
than one (1.0). (Price, 2009).
Method
Rigid-free body
Slip-circle with slices
Bishops routine
Morgenstern and price

Factors of safety
Total Stress
0.77
0.80
0.80
0.96

Effective Stress
1.00
0.83
0.97
1.00

Table 7.1: Comparison of FOS from different methods

7.5.1 Circular Failure

The first toil on the analysis of slopes was contain out by Coulomb (1773), Francis
(1820), and Colin (1846), but the sign contribution in this deal with is because of extensive
composition and canonic methods improved by the Swedish Engineers during the end
from 1915 to 1925. The slip-circle method of slices for rotational slides developed by
Fellenius (1927, 1936) has been the most widely used method. Among other contributors
Taylor (1948), Sokolovsky (1950), Janbu (1954), Bishop (1955), Morgenstern and Price
(1965), Chugaev (1966) and Spencer (1967, 1968, 1969, 1973) are worth mentioning.

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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Circular failure is the outward and downward movement of slope forming material.
The surface of rupture is concave upward. For circular failure the angle between slope
face and the discontinuity plane must be within 0-20 (Fig.7.5).
The conditions under which circular failure will occur arise when the individual
particles in soil or rock mass are very small as compared with the size of the slope and
when these particles are not interlocked as a result of their shape. Hence crushed rock in
a large waste will tend to behave as a soil and large failure will occur in a circular mode.
Highly altered and weathered rocks will also tend to fail in this manner and it is
appropriate to design the overburden slopes around an open pit mine on the assumption
that failure would be by a circular failure process (Evert Hoek, John Bray; 1981)
7.5.2 Wedge Failure
Wedge failing is failure in which sliding takes trust along the line of intersection of
two planar discontinuities. A wedge failure is a rapid, outward and downward movement of
rock blocks having wedge shape. Wedge failures can occur over a much wider range of
geologic and geometric conditions than plane failures, so the study of wedge stability is
an important component of rock slope engineering. The analysis of wedges has been
extensively discussed in geotechnical literature, and the manual draws heavily upon the
work of Goodman (1964), Wittke (1965), Londe (1965), Londe et al (1969, 1970), and
John (1970).
A wedge failure results when the angle of inclination of the line of intersection () is
greater than the angle of internal friction () but less than the angle of the slope face ()
(Fig. 7.6). The line of intersection daylights within the slope faces (Markland, 1972, Hoek
and Bray, 1981).
In general, sliding may occur if the intersection point between the two great circles
of the sliding planes lies within the shaded area.
7.5.3 Toppling Failure
Toppling failure is a type of failure which involves rotation of columns or blocks of
rock about a fixed base. One of the earliest references to toppling failures is by Muller

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
(1968) who suggested that block rotation or toppling may have been a contributory factor
in the failure of the north face of the Vaiont slide. Hofmann (1972) carried out a number of
model studies under Mullers direction to investigate block rotation. Similar model studies
carried out by Ashby (1971), Soto (1974) and Whyte (1973), while Cundall (1971), Byrne
(1974) and Hammett (1974) who incorporated rotational failure modes into computer
analysis of rock mass behavior. (Wyllie, Mah, 2004).
For toppling failure to occur the angle between the direction of sliding and the dip
direction of slope should be 180 o 20o (Fig.7.7). Goodman and Bray (1976) have
described a number of different types of toppling failures that may be encountered in the
field.

Fig. 7.5: Circular failure

Circular failure in overburden soil, waste

rock or heavily fractured rock with no
identical structural pattern

Fig. 7.6: Wedge behavior

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy

Fig. 7.7: Toppling behavior toppling behavior in hard rocks which can form columnar
structures separated by steeply dipping discontinuities.

7.6 Software for Slope Stability Analysis:

The softwares used for the analysis of the slope stability were RockPackIII and
GEOrient.
7.6.1 Rock Pack III
Rock Pack III is a package of prospectus useful for all phases of rock slope
analysis and design where stability is subdue by the orientations and characteristics of
stone assemble discontinuities (joints, bedding, foliations, faults, etc).
Rock Pack III is applicable to practically all rock excavations, including highway
road cuts, quarries, mines and building excavations.
Rock Pack III is designed to support the user from data collection through geologic
analysis by stereonet to safety factor calculations by limit equilibrium methods and finally
to slope design and design of artificial support if required. Capabilities include
computerized field data collection, stereonet analyses to identify possible failure types,
safety factor calculations for potential failures, and design of rock bolt or cable support, to
mention only a few.
Data entry from spreadsheet-type entry, and data files saved in a standard commaseparated values (.csv) format.
7.6.2 Georient

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
Georient is software for plat delineation of geological textural data, rose-red
diagrams and analysis, the GEOrient playbill is a handy orientation poultice.
Data can be copied and pasted from external spreadsheets or tables displayed in a
map or even from GIS map databases. The program allows to plot the data as great
circles, beta intersections or as point symbols and it can also include numeric or nonnumeric information such as length, weighting factors, assay values, and other
classifications for diagram options. Great circles, beta axes and variance statistics are
automatically calculated and small circles and other girdles can be added to data simply
by dragging and dropping with mouse control.

Fig. 7.8: Stereographic Projection Using Rock Pack III software

7.6.3 Data Formats
It is important that before using Georient the data is in the correct format. The data
from the field memorandum book of account can be entered into a spreadsheet such as

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
Microsoft Excel and then glued into a text document, or can be enroll forthwith into a text
dogma second-hand Notepad or Notebook.
The file should be saved as text with line breaks Using the strike/dip/sense
convention for planes and the plunge/azimuth convention for lines, data should be
entered in this manner:
Input
Planes
Lines

Sense
054 25 N
025 280

Table 7.2: Data Format for Stereographic Projection

Files should only contain one data type i.e. planes and lines should not be
mixed in the same file 045 90N (for vertical planes it is necessary to enter a dip direction
for GEOrient to be able to read the data correctly. Any direction will do). Once the data is
in the correct format GEOrient operates on it.
It can be determined whether or not the data has been plotted correctly. By clicking
the wrong boxes in the File structure and data conventions it is possible to produce a
perfectly good stereoplot that is completely incorrect. Plots and analyses stereographic
projections and rose diagrams of geological structural data, copied and pasted from other
applications, or read from text files. Wind rose options include plotting mean wind data
(wind speed/wind frequency/wind energy).
7.7 Detailed Line Survey of the Study Area
The formation exposed in the stud area is Hangu Formation which is of Early
Paleocene age. The formation consists of dark grey, rarely variegated sandstone, shale,
carbonaceous shale, and some nodular, argillaceous limestone. sandy. The formation is
widely exposed and also present in the subsurface in the Potwar and Hazara areas. It is
50 m thick at Hangu.
The study area is near Noushehra in Surraki village and is shown in the figure
(fig.7.11). A detailed line survey is conducted according to the method outlined by Piteau
and Martin (1977). The detail line survey method basically involves stretching of a
measuring tape along a slope face horizontally, recording a traverse trend, and assessing

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
and recording the characteristics of each discontinuity that intersects the tape within three
vertical feet of the tape.
Based on the preliminary reconnaissance of the study area, a slope is selected and
detailed line survey is performed at that selected slope. The geologic data regarding joint
orientation, joint spacing, continuity, surface irregularities, condition of weathering, the
nature of infilling material and groundwater conditions is obtained. The significance of
these details has been discussed in detail by Piteau (1971, 1973) and Hoek and Bray
(1981).
7.8 Data Collected
Data collected for joint orientation of the study area for discontinuity analysis is
presented in the table 7.3.
7.9 Analysis
Stereographic delineation techniques are used to purpose and analyze joint
orientation data.
The stereographic methods are very momentous and serviceable in slope
steadiness muse, especially for distinguishing the possible modes of failure ( Hoek and
Bray 1981).
The joint orientation data collected from the studied slope is plotted in Geo-Orient
and rose diagram is analyzed. Three principle joints are determined using rose diagram.
These principle joints are given in table 7.4.

Sr. No
1

Strike
N390E

Dip
630

Sense
SE

N560W

860

SW

N22 W

69

NE

Tab.7.4: Values of Determined Principle Joints

As the geologic formation of the studied slope in the study area predominantly
consists of sandstone The value of friction angle for sandstone can be obtained from the

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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table 7.5. By inserting the values of these principle joints and by using the values of
friction angle for sandstone in Rock Pack III software the stereogram is plotted and the
possible mode of failure at the slope is analyzed.

7.10 Result
By plotting the principle joints (Table7.3) in Rock-pack III and by using the Markland
Test (Markland 1972) it is identified that the mode of failure occurring at the studied slope
is wedge failure and topple failure.
Sr. No.
1.
2.
3.

Typical Rock Types

Friction Angles
Schists (high mica content),
20 27 o
shale, marl
Sandstone, siltstone, chalk,
27 34 o
gneiss, slate
Basalt, granite, limestone,
34 40 o
conglomerate

Rock Class
Low Friction Angles
Medium Friction Angles
High Friction Angles

Table 7.5 : Typical values of friction angles for a variety of Rock types, Wyllie and Mah
(2004).
According to this test a wedge would fail a wedge failure results when the angle of
inclination of the line of intersection () is greater than the angle of internal friction () but
less than the angle of the slope face () (Fig. 7.7). (Markland, 1972, Hoek and Bray,
1981).In general, sliding may occur if the intersection point between the two great circles
of the sliding planes lies within the shaded area. For toppling failure to occur the angle
between the direction of sliding and the dip direction of slope should be 180 o 20o
(Fig.7.8).
It is clearly visible from the Figure 7.12 that the point of intersection of the
discontinuity planes is well within the critical zone and also between plane B and slope
face line, the angle between the direction of sliding and the dip direction of slope is within
180o 20o, Hence it is concluded that the failure occurring at the studied slope is wedge
failure and topple failure.

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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Figure 7.10 Studied Slope Face for Joint Analysis of Wargal Limestone near Khura

Figure
7.10 Studied Slope Face for Joint Analysis of Hangu Formation near Surraki. (Camera
facing toward North)

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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Discontinuity Plane

Slope Face
Figure 7.11: showing topple failure
Location: khura Village

Collected by: Faisal Ur Rehman

Type of Rock: limestone

Bedding Orientation: N80O E

Slope Characteristics: Angle:75O

Aspect: NW

Vegetation type: Wild/medium

S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Strike
N39E
N56E
N26E
N26W
N56W
N24W
N43E
N21E
N26E
N21E
N12E
N19E
N24E
N26E
N23E
N10E

Dip
63
68
73
76
78
71
71
59
76
19
84
71
63
77
76
77

Sense
SE
SE
SE
SE
SW
NE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE

Chapter No 05 Stratigra
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17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

N24E
N31E
N36E
N23E
N12E
N28E
N28E
N28E
N33E
N38E
N55E
N25E
N25W
N55W
N23W
N42E
N20E
N25E
N20E
N11E
N18E
N23E
N25E
N22E
N09E
N23E
N30E
N35E
N22E
N22E
N87E
N87E
N27E
N32E
N37E
N54E
N24E
N24W
N54W
N22W
N41E
N19E
N24E
N19E

81
71
74
16
22
83
78
50
50
62
67
72
75
85
70
70
58
75
78
83
70
62
76
66
75
80
70
73
65
21
82
77
49
49
61
66
71
74
84
69
69
57
74
17

Table 7.3: Joint Orientation data of Study Area.

SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SW
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SE
SW
SE
SE
SE
SE
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Chapter No 05 Stratigra
phy
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Frederic Gladstone bell, (2007), Engineering geology and

construction.

Evert Hoek, (1981), john Bray, Rock slope engineering.

Stephen Donald Priest, (1995), Discontinuity analysis for rock

engineering.

David George Price, (2009), Engineering Geology.

Lianyang Zhang, (2005), ICF consulting, Lexington, MA, USA,

Drilled shaft in rocks analysis and design.

Duncan C. Wyllie, (2004) Christopher W. Mah, Rpck slope

Engineering: Civil and Mining..