Carpentry & Joinery by Frederick C. Webber

f RflNKLiN
Institute Library
FHIL/IDELFHI^
Class iS
^-^
Book W..3 S
Accession
4 9 8 QO
TEXT-BOOKS OF TECHNOLOGY
EDITED BY
Prof.
W. GARNETT, D.C.L., and Prof.
Secretary of the Technical Education Board

of the London County Council and formerly Principal of the Durham College
of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
J.
WERTHEIMER,
B.SC, B.A.
^,
F. I.C., F. C.S.,
^
Principal of the Merchant Venturers

lechnical College, Bristol.
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY
TEXT-BOOKS OF TECHNOLOGY
Edited by Prof.
W. Garnett, D.C.L.
Secretary of the
Technical Education Board of the London County Council,
and Prof.
Wertheimer, B.Sc,
J.
B.A., F.I.C., F.C.S.,
Principal of the Merchant Venturers' Technical College,

Bristol.
Messrs. Methuen and Co. announce the issue of a series

of elementary books under the above Title.
They will be
specially adapted to the needs of Technical Schools and
Colleges, and will fulfil the requirements of Students preparing for the Examinations of the City and Guilds of
London Institute.
The prices will vary according
which
will
be suitably
to the size of the
PRELIMINARY
1.
2.
LIST.
HOW
at
Volumes,
illustrated.
TO MAKE A DRESS. By Miss Wood,

the Goldsmith's Institute, New Cross. Crown
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
By
F. C.
Chief Instructress
8vo.
is.
6d.
Webber, Chief Lecturer
to the Building Trades' Department of the Merchant Venturers'

Technical College, Bristol. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d.
3.
PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. By
S.
G.
Rawson, D.Sc,
Principal
of the Huddersfield Technical College.

4.
DESIGNING AND WEAVING. By

of the Textile
5.
Department
A. F. Barker, Head Master

of the Bradford Technical College.
THE GEOLOGY OF COAL.

Professor of Geology in the
castle-on-Tyne.
6.
By G. A. Lebour, M.A., F.G.S.,

Durham College of Science, New-
PRACTICAL MECHANICS. By
S.
H. Wells, Principal of the
Battersea Polytechnic Institute.

7.
PRACTICAL PHYSICS. By
of Physics in the
8.
Durham
H. Stroud, D.Sc, M.A., Professor

College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
BOOT AND SHOE MANUFACTURE. By

Instructor in
E. Swaysland, Chief
Boot and Shoe Manufacture to the Northampton
County and Borough Councils.

9.
WORKSHOP ARITHMETIC AND MENSURATION.
By
C.
T. MiLLis, M.I.M.E., Principal of the Borough Polytechnic Institute,
N.B.
London.
Nos.
well-equipped
3, 6,
and
7 will be suitable for use in the Laboratories of
Organized Science Schools.
CARPENTRY & JOINERY
BY
FREDERICK
C.
WEBBER
CHIEF LECTURER TO THE BUILDING TRADES DEPARTMENT OF THE

MERCHANT VENTURERS' TECHNICAL COLLEGE, BRISTOL
WITH
176
ILLUSTRATIONS
METHUEN &
36
CO.
ESSEX STREET,
LONDON
1898
W. C
TH
I8J8
PREFACE
The
substance of the present volume was primarity
compiled for the use of students attending the evening

classes in
Carpentry and Joinery at the Merchant
Venturers' Technical College, Bristol.
The Drawings, which have been
specially
pre-
pared by the author for this work, are intended to

serve not only as illustrations to the text, but as
examples for reproduction by the student, so that
he
may
work
be in a position both to execute a piece of
himself, and, as foreman or leading hand, to
convey readily
his idea of the
work to others.
The author has ventured
its
form or outline of such

to
place
the
work
in
present form in the hands of the public, with
a hope that
it
may
be found useful not only to
students preparing for the examinations of the City
and Guilds of London Institute and other similar

bodies, but as a
work
of reference for the apprentice
and craftsman generally.
FREDERICK
Merchant Venturers'
Technical College
Bristol
C.
WEBBER
Digitized by the Internet Archive

in
2015
https://archive.org/details/carpentryjoineryOOwebb
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
Introduction,
CHAPTER
II.
Geometry and Projection,
10
CHAPTER
III.
Joints used in Carpentry and Joinery,
CHAPTER
IV.
Floors,
74
CHAPTER
Partitions,
38
V.
89
CHAPTER
VI.
Doors, Door Frames, and Jamb Linings,
97
CHAPTER VIL
Sashes and Sash Frames, Lantern Lights and Skylights,
114
CONTENTS
viii
CHAPTEE
VIII.
PAGE
EooFS,
138
CHAPTER
IX.
Fishing, Scarfing, and Timber Trussing,
CHAPTER
172
179
X.
Centres, Shoring, and Temporary
Work,
CHAPTER XL
Mouldings and Circular Work,
CHAPTER
195
XII.
Timber,
211
CHAPTER
XIII.
Mechanics of Carpentry,
236
CHAPTER
XIV.
Staircasing and Hand-railing,
APPENDIX
266
A.
Syllabus (from Programme of City and Guilds of
London
Institute),
APPENDIX
Examination Questions
London Institute,
of
City
295
B.
and
Guilds
of
301
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION.
Drawing Instruments.
It
is
advisable that
the
student should obtain at least the following instru-
ments and material of moderately good quality.

Drawing Paper. For students' work a fairly good
cartridge paper at about 2d. per imperial sheet is as
good as will be required, but where the paper is to be
subjected to hard wear, as in the workshop, a good
hand-made paper should be used.
The cost of the
latter will be
about three times that of the former.
The following
is
list
names and
of
sizes usually
placed upon the market
Name of
Demy,
Medium,
Paper.
Size.
-
Eoyal,
Imperial,
Atlas,
Double Elephant,
Antiquarian,
Cartridge
obtained in
paper
rolls.
20
22
24
30
34
40
52
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
by
by
by
by
by
by
by
15
17
19
22
26
27
31
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
and tracing paper may also be

The most convenient form for the
A
present
work
will be the imperial
sheet cut in two,
22 in. by 15 in.
Whatever the size of paper used,
so that its dimensions are
Drawing-Boards.
the
drawing-board
should
be
in
its
dimen-
linear
sions one inch larger, the half-imperial board
would
then measure 23 in. by 16 in.

It should be true in
plane and free from knots and shakes, and should be
so constructed as to be free to
expand and shrink with
the changes of the atmosphere without buckling or
Drawing-boards usually sold are of lime

be found to be
the most serviceable, as the drawing-pin is more easily
twisting.
or
yellow pine, but the latter will
pressed into
its surface.
rig./
<g)
(S)
(S>
(3)
//"
The best boards are made of well-seasoned material,

The ledges on the back of
and as shown in Fig. 1.
the board are fastened by means of rose-headed screws,
provided with brass washers which, with the exception
of the centre one, are slotted, as
shown
at Fig.
By
INTRODUCTION
this
arrangement the plane of the board
is
kept true,
whilst the expansion and contraction of the material

is
not hindered.
back, as
shown
If the
board
is
grooved upon
its
the previous sketch, not only
in
is
the weight reduced, but the bulk of the material being

lessened,
is
the tendency to
expansion and contraction
These grooves
also reduced.
may
made about
be
2 in. apart, I in. wide, and to a depth equal to half

the thickness of the board.
The thick black line at
represents a tongue of hard
left-hand edge of board, so

slide easily
wood glued
into the
that the tee-square
upon that edge.
This tongue
is
may
also cut
through at intervals to allow for the changes due to

the alteration
in
the
amount
of moisture
contained
in the atmosphere.
Tee-Squares.
Of
these,
there
are
two
forms
one having a parallel blade, whilst that of the other

tapers from the stock, and, being lighter to handle,
is
4
to
be
preferred
such a one,
with
two
its
hard-wood
The blade
is
the
to
former.
fiducial
slips
Fig.
edges
illustrates
being protected
towards
bevelled
the
paper.
fastened to the stock by means of five
two small
hard-wood plugs are driven through the blade and
screws, and, in order to secure
its rigidity,
into the stock.
The tee-square should only be applied to the lefthand edge of the board, and all horizontal lines should
be drawn from its top edge.
Perpendicular lines are
drawn by the aid of the set-squares applied to the
top edge of the blade of the square, as shown at
Fig. 2.
if
Two of these, at least, should be

one 30 and 60, and the other 45 and,
Set-Squares.
obtained
of wood, should
They
be of the framed variety.
should be of such a size that the longest edge
at
is
least eight or nine inches long.
Scale-Rules.
career
scales,
it
will
such as
In the
be
earlier stages of the student's
advisable
^, ^, ^,
and
large to be plotted full size.
to
adopt
when the
the
simpler
detail
is
too
In each of these cases
the ordinary joiners' rule will be found to be sufficient,
but as he progresses other scales are necessary, and for

these the
Architects'
Scale Eule "
may
be used
it
of box-wood and 12 in. long, segmental in section,

and with its edges parallel, sixteen scales are marked
upon its surfaces, and, with a slight exception, the
divisions are brought out to the keen edge, so that
dimensions may be plotted directly upon the paper
is
without liability to
Parallel Rules.
of the kind
error.
These are usually
known
as
perpetual."
unreliable, unless
The student
will
INTRODUCTION
drawn by the
aid of set-squares,
find that parallel lines
as
shown
at Fig. 3, will be the
most accurate.
Fig.
Pencils.
The
best
pencils for
work
of this kind
found to be those marked

or HH, sharpened
form of a wedge or chisel-point.
When a
drawing is to be finished in pencil it will be advisable
will be
in
the
to
take a finely-pointed
lines
HB
which border surfaces
right, as
shown
Compasses.
and "line over" those

at the bottom and to the
at Fig. 4.
set of
in.
or
4|
in.
with round or needle points, lengthening
compasses
bar,
and
with pen, pencil, and divider points, should be procured,
and
it
will be
pair of dividers,
if
found convenient to have a spare

possible,
with screw adjustment
known as " hair dividers/'

Drawing Pen. If it is intended
ings in ink, a drawing pen with
to finish the
draw-
hinged nib will be
required
this pen should always be put away clean
and dry, and the filling should be accomplished with
a small brush
a small camel hair will suffice. On no
account should a drawing pen be dipped into the ink
the habit is likely to lead to smeared lines and dirty
;
work.
Spring Bows.
These
will
be found necessary for
the construction of small circles, but this

to
is
only likely
occur in the advanced portions of the work.
Sectioning.
tional
Figs.
to
11
illustrate
the conven-
methods of hatching or sectioning the surface
vu<v/^rr<'^^^^
cv?vr/Vir/r/i
yvbod.
fbross
INTRODUCTION
It is not advisable to grain
of material cut through.
In coloured draw-
surfaces other than cross sections.
ings the sections are
shown
of a darker tint, and, as
a rule, the smaller the section the darker should the

tint be
made.
Dimensions to Working Drawings. These should

be placed upon the work as shown at Fig. 1, and great
make
care should be taken to
the arrow points touch
the lines from which the dimensions are taken, and

to
mark the
carefully
correcj
The above
sizes.
rendered the more important from the fact that
it
is
is
usual to insert in specifications the following clause

"
Where any discrepancy
between a scale draw-
exists
ing and a figured dimension, the latter

to be correct."
dash in the top right-hand corner
dash
is
to be taken
Inches should be denoted by a double

feet
no odd inches exist
by a single
).
should be indi'
cated by placing a cipher in position, as 3' 0''.
If
Datum
Lines.
In
it
commencing a drawing
it
is
advisable to start upon a line which passes in a right

direction across the paper,
from it.
taken at
This
"
Lettering.
"
writing up
may
to build
termed a datum
line,
line," " floor line,
good
drawing
" or lettering badly.
block capitals
italics
is
ground
and
may
sill line," etc.
often spoilt by
Upright or inclined
is
be used for headings, whilst small
be used for remarks.
examples of lettering that
may
The following
be used
A B G D E F
A B C D E F
a h c d e f
12
up the work
and is usually
4567890
are
The student should avoid all unnecessary ornamentation, and bear in mind that although good lettering is
essential, it is the
drawing that should be the promi-
nent feature.
Work.
Pencil
When a drawing
is
to be finished in
pencil, care should be exercised to avoid all superfluous

lines, as in erasing
the same, lines that should remain
Careful attention at the earlier
are often obliterated.
stages would enable the student to avoid such errors.
Inking In. Acid ink should not be used with

drawing instruments or they will be liable to corroIndian ink in bottle will suftice where no colour
sion
In order to insure good work with
is to be used.
coloured drawings, the ink should be rubbed from the
;
cake or
stick.
Colouring.
The
following
is
list
of conventional
colours used for the representation of various materials:
Material.
Colour.
Fir (in the rough),
Eaw
(wrought),
Burnt Sienna.
Sepia.
Oak,
Sienna.
Mahogany,
Lake and
Wrought
Prussian Blue.
Payne's Grey or Neutral Tint.
Iron,
Cast Iron,
Sepia.
Gamboge.
Indigo.
Hooker's Green.
interior,
Cobalt.
exterior,
Indigo.
Sepia.
Brass,
Lead or Zinc,
Glass in section,
Earth,
Brickwork
Slates,
(in section),
Lake.
(in elevation),
Indian or Venetian Red.
Neutral Tint.
INTRODUCTION
In colouring, the paper should be glued at

gin to the extent of |
first
damping
stretched.
to
in.
and made
its
mar-
fast to the board,
secure the paper being thoroughly
Sufficient colour
should
be taken up by
the brush to complete a wash, and starting from the
top the colour should be worked from right to
left,
and vice versd until the lower lines are reached,

always sloping the board towards the draughtsman, in
order to secure a perfect flow of the colour.
Small washes require to be made darker than the

larger,
the
and no second colour should be applied until
first
has thoroughly dried.
become perfectly
When
the colour has
and the drawing completed, a

sharp pocket knife should be passed round the paper
inside the glued margin and the paper lifted.
The
superfluous paper left upon the board may then be
removed by a sponge and warm water.
dry,
CHAPTER
II.
GEOMETRY AND PROJECTION.

Fig.
To
12.
bisect the
ABC
lines.
Let
centre,
and any
be
angle
the
between two straight
given angle.
radius, describe
With
an arc cutting
as
AB
and BC in points D and E respectively.

With points
D and E as centres, and with any radius, describe arcs
7i
c
cutting each other in point F.
the angle
ABC,
Ftp. J3
Join BF,
BE bisects
GEOMETRY AND PROJECTION

To
Fig. 13.
ing lines
when
bisect the angle
ii
between two converg-
the point of intersection
is
inaccessible.
AB
and DC be the converging straight lines.

Draw two lines GF and EF parallel to and at a convenient distance from AB and CD respectively, to
intersect in point F,
Bisect the angle GFE by the
preceding problem.
bisects the angle between
the converging lines AB and DC.
Fig. 14. Through a given point to draw a straight
line which shall converge to the same point as two
convergent straight lines would if produced.
Let
HF
Let
and
BC
and
DE
be the convergent straight
lines,
the given point.
With
any triangle with base

and DE in points C and
as apex, construct
terminating on lines
BC
Take any point, J in ^(7 preferably

remote from G and draw JK parallel to GH, and
terminating on DE in point K,
Draw JF and KF
parallel to GA and HA respectively, and join A and
F.
The line AF converges towards the same point as
respectively.
BC
and DE.
12
Fig 15. To draw a circle which shall pass through
any three
given
not
points,
in
the
same straight
line.
B and C be the three given points. Join

and BU.
With points B and C as centres, and
with any radius, draw arcs cutting in points D and E,
DE then bisects BC at right
Join DE and produce
angles, it therefore contains the centre.
Eepeat the
process with points B and A, allowing the bisecting
line to intersect DE produced in 0.
0 is then the
centre of the circle which passes through the three
Let A,
AB
given points.
Fig.
16.
through
To draw an
any
three
given
arc
of
points
circle
not
in
to
the
pass
same
straight line, the centre not being accessible (Builders'
Method).
Let A,
C and B
Join points
strips
is
slide
of wood, as
now
fixed.
be the three given points.
AC and
OB, and construct a template of
shown
By
in the figure.
allowing the laths
around in contact with points
The angle
at
AG and CB
to
and
0,
and by
applying a pencil to the point
13
the arc
ACB
is
traced.^
Fig. 17.
To
inscribe a regular polygon, of
ber of sides, in a given
any num-
circle.
/7
This problem is based on a very important principle of the

the angles in the same segment of a circle are equal
to one another.
Prop. xxi. Book iii. Euclid. The angle contained between the laths in the case being fixed, it necessarily
follows that the point of the pencil placed in the angle at C
traces the part of a circle.
1
circle, viz.,

Let
ABC
Draw
number
the diagonal
circle.
AB, and
divide
it
With
and
as centres,
and
and with radius
Join
describe arcs cutting at point D.
point
into such a
of equal parts as the polygon has sides,
number.
AB,
be the given
with
cut the
upon the diagonal and produce

Join A with C\ AC will then be
to
circle at point C,
one side of the polygon.

proceed to mark
off
With
AC m
by joining the points complete the

Fig. 18.
Upon
the compasses,
equal distances on the
circle,
and
figure.
a given line to construct a regular
polygon of any number of sides (up to twelve).
rt^.
Let
/8.
AB be the given line.

AB in C and erect a
Bisect
centre.
With
as centre,
and
perpendicular from the
AB
an arc intersecting perpendicular in
65
into six equal parts.
With
as radius, describe
6.
Divide the arc
point 6 as centre, and
with each of the divisions taken consecutively from
6,
15
describe arcs cutting perpendicular in points 7, 8, 9,
These points are the centres

of polygons, having sides cor-
10, 11, 12 respectively.
of circumscribing circles
responding to the number of their centres.
Fig. 19. To draw a tangent to a given circle from
a point outside the same.
Let the given circle be about the point
C,
and the
given point A.
Join
CA
With
and
AB
about
DC or DA
and produce.
J5
is
as radius, describe
about
in point B,
a tangent to the circle
C.
N.B.
it
and
cutting the circle
a semicircle
Join
bisect in point D.
as centre,
tangent to a circle
a line which touches
is
and in such a way that
in a point,
it
is
at right
angles to the radius at that point.

Fig. 20.
To
find the geometric
mean between two
lines.
Let
Draw
and
be the given
the line
making
DE
circle.
At
CD
equal to B.
lines.
equal to
and produce
Upon CE
to
construct a semi-
erect a perpendicular cutting the semi-
circle in point F,
i6
/
/
Fug.
DF is
20
then the geometric mean between
In other words,
CD
The importance
to
is
DF as DF is
CD
and B.
DE.
problem will be seen from
of this
the fact that the square on
contained by
to
DF is
equal to the rectangle
and DE,
GD'.DF'.'.DF'.DE
DFx DF^CDx DE
DF^ =CDx DE.
N.B.
The
area of any rectangular figure
to the product of its
Fig. 21.
To
two adjacent
is
equal
sides.
find a square equal in area to a given
triangle.
Ftg.

Let
ABC
N.B.
17
be the given triangle.
The
of a rectangle
area of a
triangle
upon the same
equal to the area
is
base,
and having half
its
height.
From
it
drop a perpendicular
Draw
DFCB. Obtain
in point E.
rectangle
to the base,
DF through E and
the
mean
and
bisect
complete the
proportional
JC
BC
and CF, as in previous problem.

The square LCJK, being constructed on JC, is equal
between the sides
in area to the triangle

Fig. 22.
ABC.
To reduce an
irregular quadrilateral figure
to a square of equal area.
Let
ABCD
be
the
given
irregular
quadrilateral
figure.
Draw
the diagonal
AC\
this reduces the figure to
The two triangles should now be retwo triangles.

of the same area, having their
rectangles
two
duced to
The rectangle
sides AC common to one another.
FEGH may now, by preceding problem, be reduced
to a square of equal area.
The square on the
line
HK
irregular quadrilateral figure
is
equal in area to the
ABCD.

i8
To reduce
Fig. 23.
circle
a parallelogram of
to
equal area.
N.B.
This
depends for
taken
method
its
is
the greater the
more correct
Divide
but an approximate one, and
accuracy upon the number of sectors
number
of sectors adopted the
will be the result.
the
circle
into
sectors
(see
note above).
These sectors may, for the purposes of approximation,

be considered as triangles, and, being placed as
ADCE,
with their apices reversed and their sides coincident,

they then form the required parallelogram.
Fig.
24.
To construct an
ellipse
the
major and
minor axes being given (string method).

N.B.
is
This
method
strictly
mathematical one
based upon the fact that, in the
the focal distances
is
ellipse, the
sum
of
constant and equal to the major

Set out
axis.
AB and CD the
perpendicular
the
common
to,
major and minor axes

and intersecting each other at E,
With C
mark
points of bisection.
and the semi-major axis as

and
the focal points.
radius,
as centre,
off
points
Insert pins at F^ and
Fig. 2^.
I!)
F^,
and
fix
one end of a thread at F^
thread to pass to point

it
and back
one or two turns to secure
it.
Allow the
to point F^, giving
Apply the point
of
the pencil to point A, and, keeping the thread uni-
formly stretched, proceed to draw the curve.
In this example, only one half of the curve has
been traced.
Fig. 25.
Let
In a given rectangle to draw an
ABGl)
be the given rectangle.
Bisect the rect-
angle in two directions by lines parallel to
BF
ellipse.
its
sides.
and the semi-major axis into

any number of equal parts, and from points Gr and E
Through the points of interdraw lines 1, 2, 3, etc.
Divide half the side
20
section
in
draw a
fair curve.
If this operation be repeated
each quarter of the rectangle, an
ellipse
will
be
traced.
/I
'
7h
/I
^
^' 3/
c
Fig. 26.
To draw an
ellipse
by
points, the
major
and minor axes being given.

Ftp. 96,
Draw
the axes
at right angles to each other,
and

with their centres
With
coincident.
21
these lines
as
draw two circles.

Draw any number of
diagonals, and through the points where they intersect
the circles, draw lines parallel to the major and minor
axes.
Through the points of intersection draw a fair
diagonals
curve
Fig.
normal
this will be the required ellipse.
27.
To draw a tangent
curve at the same
to the
to
an
ellipse,
also a
point.
/7|
^^^^
Fig. Qy:
Find the
focal points as in the figure,
point I) draw the focal lines
them, by the line
normal
ED
produced
ED
will
then be a
Through
draw the line
to the elliptic curve at the point D.
the point D, and at right angles to
GH,
and through
between
bisect the angle
GH will
Fig. 28.
it,
be the required tangent.
To draw the curve
of a parabola, the base
and altitude being given.

Let
AB
be the base and
plete the rectangle
ABEF.
any number of equal
parts.
CD
Com-
the altitude.
Divide
BC
and
Through points
BE
1,
into
2,
3,
22
4,
5 on
BG
erect lines parallel to
similar points on
BE draw
The parabola
D,
CD, and through
lines radiating to the point
will be represented b)^ a fair curve
traced through the points of intersection.
7d
2
/
C ^
/J
N.B.
The
parabola
is
^ 3 2
the curve represented in the
outline of a section through a cone, taken parallel to

its slant side.
29.
Fig.
To draw the hyperbolic curve from the
cone.
N.B.
The hyperbola
is
the curve represented in the
outline of a section of a cone
by a plane which
is
of
steeper inclination than the slant side, and which does
not contain the axis.
The curve
is
here drawn directly from the cone, the
elevation and half-plan of which are given.
Draw
in
elevation
and
plan
series
passing around the cone and nearing
they approach the apex.
These
of
circles
each other as
circles will, in plan,

cut the line
the
points,
EF the
elevations
of the
n.T.
which
of
23
section plane
will
in
be found upon
their respective circles,
the hyperbola may

Fig. 30.
and through them a

be drawn.
curve
fair
To draw the hyperbolic curve by mechanical

OA and focal points
and F^^
means, the abscissa
being given (string method).
N.B.
This
method
is
based upon a very important
principle of the hyperbola,
viz.,
that the curve
that the difference in the distances of
curve from points
F-^
and F^ (the
any point
is
such
in the
focal points) is con-
stant.
Take a lath of convenient length,

and fasten a convenient length
at F^,
end
making
Pass the thread to point

it fast.
By
as FÊ, pivot
it
of thread to the
C and back
applying a pencil to point
to F^,
C,
and
24
keeping a uniform tension upon the thread, the

quired curve
may
re-
be traced.
/7
Ftp.
3a
\
^0
To construct the parabolic curve by mechthe directrix CD and focal point

means
Fig. 31.
anical
being given.

N.B.
One very important principle of
25
the parabola
is, that any point in the curve is at the same distance

from both the directrix and focal point.
Through
draw AB perpendicular to CD, terminating on it in point A,
Bisect FÂ in E\ E will then
Take a lath of convenient
be a point on the curve.
length, as JK, and at
attach the thread.
Place the
fiducial edge of the lath on AB and pass the thread to
point E and back to the pin at i^^, giving it a turn or
two for the purpose of securing it.
By sliding the
end J along DC, always keeping JK at right angles to
it, and, by keeping the thread stretched, the point of
the pencil will trace the parabola
HEG,
Given two points on the elliptic curve, the

direction of the major axis, and one of the focal points,
to draw the curve.
Fig. 32.
Let
and
be the two points through which the
curve has to pass, CF^ the direction of the major axis,

and F^ the focal point.
Join
AF^ and BF^ and produce
exterior angle
AF^J,
The chord
to J.
line
BA
Bisect the
will, if pro-
26
duced, intersect the bisecting line of the exterior angle

in
the directrix of the
marked D.
Through
Select one
CF^,
from
draw BF^
it
ellipse
draw
of the
this
GE
points
a focal line.
point
is
here
at right angles to
here
point
Draw F^H
B and
at right
angles to BF^, meeting the directrix in the point H.
Through
H draw
HBJ, and construct the

HBF^ and intersecting the major
the tangent
axis
JBF^ equal
in F^.
The
least
one point upon the curve, the ellipse can be com-
angle
to
focal
points being obtained, and at
pleted by a previous problem.
OKTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.
This
faces,
is
the method of projecting points, lines, sur-
is
and
It
upon planes not containing them.
"
use at least two planes, called the planes
solids
usual to
co-ordinate planes," and sometimes

and horizontal planes, because they are conFig. 33 is a sketch
sidered to occupy these positions.
of
projection,"
vertical

of
two such planes.
For the purposes of
27
this repre-
sentation the planes are bounded by lines, but in reality
they are unlimited, and the only character by which
they
may
be represented in orthographic projection
by the ground line or
XY.
is
For the convenience of

drawing, these planes are rotated into one plane the
plane of the paper.
Perpendiculars let fall upon the
planes from points in space are termed " projectors,"
and their intersections upon the planes, projections."
Drawings made upon the v.p. are known as eleva-
upon the h.p. as " plans." In order to

distinguish between plans and elevations, letters denoting the latter have a small dash placed above them,
those
tions,"
as a\
Fig. 34.
clinations
To
(p
the true length, traces, and in-
find
and
of
line
given
in
and
plan
elevation.
rep 3^.
Let
ci!V
N.B.
is
represent the elevation, and ah the plan.
The angle
of inclination to the vertical plane
denoted by the Greek letter
(phi),
whilst
that
28
to
the
horizontal
plane
marked by the
is
letter
(theta).
From
the preceding figure
the line forms
angled
part
triangles,
and
by
elevation and plan they

V.P.,
or
length
down
may
into
it
will
be found that
of the hypotenuse of
hinging
may
the h.p.
be obtained
it
two
right-
them about the
be turned back into the
By
this
also
means
its
follows that
if
true
the
measured by
the angle contained between the line itself and its projection upon that plane, the angle contained between
A^B^ and a^b^ (Fig. 34) represents the angle to the
v.p. (<p), whilst the angle contained between A and
angle of inclination of a line to a plane
ah represents the angle to the
Fig.
35
is
h.p. (0).
a sketch representation of a rectangular
slab standing out in space, its plan
given in Fig. 36.

is lettered.
is
The top
and elevation being
surface only of this solid

Ktg.
Fig. 37.
circle
he
plan.
its
Through
plan
of
draw a
gonals
the
apex
the
series
of dia-
cutting
the
circumference in equal
These lines in
parts.
plan divide the surface

into a series of sectors,
the true length of the

sides of
which are
re-
presented in the eleva-
by
tion
With
aV
or
as centre,
a^b\
and
aV
as radius, describe
an
arc
of
36
To develop the surface
and elevation of which

Let a'6V be the
and
elevation,
the
sufficient
is
29
given.
of a cone, the plan
30
length to pass around the base of the cone
this
may
be determined by taking the true distances cl and 12,

etc., from the plan and marking off a like number
upon the larger arc c^l2.

The sector of the larger
contained between the radii ac and a 12, represents the development of the surface of the cone.
Fig. 38. To find the plan and true form of section
circle,
of a given right hexagonal
The plane
SN
pyramid cut by the plane
passes perpendicular to the vertical,
and intersects the slant edges in points 1\ 2\ o\ 4',

and 5'.
By projecting them down to their respective
plans, the outline in plan
its
To obtain
be obtained.
true form of section,
that the outline

1,
may
4,
it will be necessary to see

symmetrical about its axis be or
and that the distances
parallel
length.
is
to
the
H.P.,
their
2,
6,
and
3,
5,
being
plans represent their true
Set off projectors from points
1,
2,
3, 4,
5,

and
right angles to SJV,
6, at
and
parallel to
31
it
draw
the axis of the section 1,4, at such a distance as to be

clear
of
35.
the
Set
elevation.
Join the points
form of section
is
62 and
and the true
distances
off
1-2, 23,
etc.,
complete.
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION.
The representation
jection
of
the
enables
which
in isometric pro-
convey a true idea

of such object by means of
The method
advantage
distinct
method,
of an object
student to
shape and sizes
one drawing.
a
the
over
requires
at
has,
the
for
simple
objects,
and elevation
two projections
plan
least
same time a regularly graduated rule

may be employed for the purposes of taking off dimensions.
Fig. 39 represents a small block in isometric
whilst
at the
projection,
its
represented
length,
breadth,
by the three axial
and thickness being

lines A, i>, and 0
respectively.
There are two kinds of isometric projection, the

and simplest of which is called " Conventional
first
32
Isometric Projection/' from the fact of its being

adapted for use with the ordinary rule.
The second
requires an ''isometric scale," illustrated in Fig.
and
is
known
as
40,
Pure Isometric Projection/'
CONVENTIONAL ISOMETRIC PROJECTION.

If
wood
the student will take a piece of
that
to
illustrated in Fig. 39, he
similar
will see that
the
bounded by straight lines.

These lines
by which the surfaces of the
block are represented
he will further notice, upon
placing the block upon the bench or table before
him, that the lines bounding the surfaces are either
surfaces are
are
the
characters
In order to represent these
vertical
or
lines in
isometric projection
horizontal.
remember two rules

They are as follows:
it
First
(Fig.
draw
the
to
(1) Vertical
vertical; (2) Horizontal lines are
horizontal, either to
will be necessary to
(applicable
lines
drawn
the right or
small
either
at
method).
are
drawn
30 to the
left.
vertical
line
marked
39), of a length equal to the thickness of the

and from
block,
either side, each
Cut
line.
off
the width
to
equal
the
to
its
extremities
at
30 to an
33
draw two
the lines to the left equal

of the
block,
length
of
and those
the
lines
on
imaginary horizontal
tlie
Now
block.
length
in
to
right
join
the
lines at the right and left by

These should be of a length equal
to the vertical line at C,
Now by drawing lines
from the tops of the vertical lines last drawn, and in
extremities
vertical
of
the
lines.
the direction indicated in the sketch, taking care that

the
to
EAH
lines
one
What
another,
DBJ
and
the
are
drawing
respectively
be
will
has been said with regard
to
the rectangular
may be applied to more complicated

On examining Fig. 41 he will now see
block
moulding shown in that figure
similar
having
piece
of
material
partially
to
curved
c
is
parallel
completed.
work.
that
the
formed out of a
that
outline
of
Fig.
it
39,
appears
but
to
34
some
present
difficulty.
The curved
be traced by
mould may be said to

moving between the outline
moulding at
be done is
ends,
its
a straight line
of the
that
of the
section
that remains
all
upon the ends
trace
to
so
surface of the
to
block
the
of
outline in isometric projection.

This may be
done by constructing an auxiliary elevation of the
end view as at Fig. 41, supplying ordinates to the
curve, running up perpendicular to the line BC.
this
BC
But
already drawn
is
real length,
its
this
line
that
so
may now
be
in
the isometric view in
the position of points upon
conveyed
to
that
and
line,
the perpendiculars corresponding in length to those

in the auxiliary elevation
may now
be drawn, remem-
be drawn
and not perpendicular to BC,
A fair
curve around the topmost extremities of these lines
should now be drawn and the isometric projection
of the section of the moulding is complete.
It
now remains to repeat the operation at the other end
and draw the necessary lines parallel to the long edges
bering
perpendicular
that
should
lines
vertically
to complete the figure.
In order to show how plain surfaces, other than

those mutually perpendicular,
may
be represented, the
corner joint of the Oxford frame has been

(Fig.
42).
The student
of the dotted
that
it
is
figure,
not
lines
and
the
it
angle
how
will readily see
the points are obtained
should
at
selected
by the aid
be carefully noted
which
the
" stop "
is
in
that
cut,
and across the

thickness and breadth of the material that guide him
in placing that stop in position.
Other exercises may
be found in the chapter bearing upon joints, which
but
the distances
along the length

the student
is
recommended
35
to reproduce, not only for
the purpose of committing to
memory
the form of con-
struction, but to acquire the ability to rapidly portray
the form upon paper.
Fig. 42.
Pure Isometric Projection.

by
this
method,
will be necessary to use
plotted
an isometric
with respect to horizontal and vertical
scale, the rules
lines
it
With drawings
remaining as in the case of conventional isometric

This scale will not be so difficult as at first
projection.
sight
it
appears,
the student will follow the reasoning
if
here laid down.
In drawing a
usual to
and then
first
circle
plot
in
isometric projection,
to trace the circle
in Fig. 41.
On examining
it
which is to contain
by means of ordinates
the square
is
it,
as
the representation of the
36
when
circle
complete,
it
will
be found that neither
the major nor the minor axis truthfully represents
Apart from
diameter.
much
square will be
error, the
suggested
43
Fig.
this,
extended.
isometric scale
;
shown
To counteract this
40 has been
in Fig.
brought about in the following manner.
it is
represents
square
ADBC
ordinary manner and with one diagonal
The square may now be imagined

until
its
appear
sides
horizontal axis
its
the horizontal axis of the
in
at
angles
plotted
AB
of
said to be represented in
an
horizontal.
to rotate about
AB
30 with the
position the square
this
in
may
be
pure isometric projection
"
by the parallelogram AFBE the length of the horithe sides

zontal diameter or axis being kept constant
of
\/2
which now bear the

is
to \/3.
ratio to those of the square as
In Fig. 43 the circle has also
been
37
represented in pure isometric projection by an ellipse
major
the
method
which represents truthfully the

The author has adopted this
of
axis
diameter of the
circle.
of explaining the construction of the isometric
more generally made use
scale in preference to the one

of,
and which is next described.

has been explained that the
isometric
It
bears a ratio
to
In Fig. 40
to J\i.
BG
length and
to
AB.
as
AC
Join
At D
AE.
the
this
arc
and
natural
erect
If
DE
the line
AC represents the
AE the square root
scale
is
of
is
any
may now be
constructed.
as radius
and
AB
parallel
AB
square
\)Q
and equal
taken as
root
of
of three (\/3).
constructed
by dropping perpendiculars upon

scale
J2
intersecting
line
CD
then
unity,
down
has been laid
and with
centre, describe
BC, and join
(v/2)
AB
scale
erected at B, equal and perpendicular
produced in D.
to
that of the natural scale as
AD
two
The
on AE, and
the isometric
CHAPTER
III.
AND
JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY

The work
up
of the carpenter and joiner
may
JOINERY.
be
summed
up of a series of timbers to the form

or plan of a design laid down, and such is the nature
of the material with which he is called upon to work
as the building
that
requires the greatest care, in the formation of
it
the joints, in order to maintain, as far as possible, the
strength of the material employed, and, at the same
and contraction without

warping or twisting.
In all cases those timbers upon
which the strength of a piece of work may depend
should not have their sectional area destroyed any
more than is absolutely necessary. More especially is
this the case where the work is to be subjected to great
time, to allow for its expansion
stress, as in partitions,
bridge or roof structures.
timber used in construction
is
known by
The
a variety of
names according to its size or form the following is

an explanation of some of the terms employed.
Log. The trunk of a tree previous to being
:
squared.
Balk.
The log roughly
Half-timbers.
The
centre, along its length
squared.
balk split or sawn through

;
in half-timbers the heart
its
is
AND JOINERY

The term
usually exposed.
timbers
to
Oak
sawn
timbers
" flitch "
longitudinally
in
split
this
manner
applied
also
is
through
39
the
heart.
known
are
as
wainscotted.
are
Sawn timbers, such
Plank. Sawn timbers, of any length,
wards from 11
wide and from 2
Deal. Sawn timbers ranging from 9
11
by 4
Board. Any timbers between 7
Spar.
for
suitable
as
roofing work.
in.
to
ranging up-
to
in.
in. thick.
in.
by 2
in.
in.
in.
in.
wide and
less
than 2
and 11 in
in. thick.
Sawn
timbers of any length and

by 2 in. to 4 in. by 3 in.
Batten. This term is applied to any small timbers,
not coming under the head of " quartering," and which
Quartering.
ranging from 3
in.
is less
than 7
Scantling.
in.
wide.
This
is
term
often
applied
collection of a variety of small timbers, but
to
more
is
properly applied to the tabulated or specified sizes of

the several parts of a piece of framing.
Stuff.
This
is
the
term usually applied
to
the
material during the process of working.
Sawn timbers are said to be " in the rough.'' The

members of roofing trusses or partitions are ofttimes
from the saw, and as such are specified as being
the rough."
When woodwork has one surface
only planed, it is said to be "single wrought"; this
may be illustrated in the case of dado framing
and the backs and elbows of window framing; but
when, as in the case of doors, sashes etc., both the
left as
in
surfaces are planed, the material
wrought."
is
known
as
double
40
was at one time the custom to allow the diminution of i in. for each wrought surface, so that a door
specified as 2 in. was supplied at a finished thickness of
1 f in.
This method, although a recognized one, caused
a great deal of dissatisfaction
and to overcome the
It
work
difficulty,
is
now
specified
as
of the required
dimension with the words " finished size " inserted.

Planing is the process of taking off the rough fibre
by the saw upon the surface of the stuff.

the planed surface has been prepared truthfully and with a view to further manipulation, it is
said to be " faced up
and, in order to distinguish it
from sides not so faced up, it is pencil-marked at or
near the face-edge.
This latter surface or edge someleft
When
times requires to be specially prepared and,

prepared,
tion
is
being
when
so
said to be " shot,'' the process of prepara-
termed
"
shooting."
receives a distinguishing
mark
This face-edge
usually
a cross
arms of which should terminate upon the

the face-side.
It
is
to this face-side or
arris
also
the
near
edge that the
stock of the square or fence of the gauge should be
applied in the process of gauging or squaring.
The
face-mark as applied to the surface of the work
is
45 and 46.
The following may be considered as a brief outline
of the more useful of the joints which the carpenter
and joiner may be called upon to make use of in the
process of framing up material.
Lap or Halved Joint. This is formed by the cutting
away of one half from the thickness of each of two
illustrated in Figs.
pieces at their extremities
and
is
it is
illustrated at Fig. 44,
used for the purpose of connecting the ends of
material as in the case of two wall plates.
AND JOINERY
Mitred and Halved Angle
at Fig. 45, differs
Joint.
41
This joint, shown
from the preceding one in that the
shoulders of the face-side are mitred this is the usual

form adopted when the face of the work receives a
:
moulding.
Open Mortise and Tenon. This joint, shown

is formed by taking away the two outer
46,
at Fig.
thirds
42
from one piece and the middle third from the other,
the shoulders passing in the same direction on both
sides.
rig
Mitred
Joint.
This form
^6,
of joint is required
where
the adjacent surfaces are moulded, as at Fig. 47.
Open Mortise and Tenon with Mitred Shoulders.

48 shows a form of joint having the combined
Fig.
AND JOINERY
advantages of those shown in Figs. 46 and 47.
form will readily be seen from the
Notch
away
cut
is
Joint.
When
43
Its
figure.
a part of one piece has been
for the reception of another, as at Fig. 49, it
said to be notched.
Ceiling joists have sometimes
44
be notched to binders; but when, as in Fig. 42,
to
Chap.
II.,
both pieces are cut away,
double-notched.
Dovetail
notched
Notch.
joint,
the
of
the
in
the
Tredgold's Notch.
and
the
said to be
form
This
another
is
Fig. 50).
51 represents the form of
Fig.
notch recommended by Tredgold.
it less
is
upper portion being cut
form of a dovetail (see
said in
it
favour of the joint,
labour involved
it
in
adapted to more general
is
its
Whatever may be
weak at the neck,
construction makes
use.
Dovetail Halved Joint. This joint is made use of

in the junction of the end of one piece of material
with another, either at the end or towards the centre,
as
shown
at Fig.
52.
AND JOINERY
In the former case, only one
side of the top piece is cut away, the
known
45
as a half dovetail.
remainder being
46
Cogged
Joint.
Upon
referring to Fig.
49
it
will
be seen that the ends of the notch fit down over the
edges of the piece below.
If these ends were cut
closer and were allowed to rest in notches cut into the
vertical edges of the other, such joint would be known
as cogged.
It is illustrated at Fig. 4,
page 80.
Tongue and Groove Joint. This is a joint which

is very much used
both in carpentry and joinery.
As will be seen at Fig. 53, it is made by the formation
Fig 63.
,
of a
tongue upon one piece, whilst a groove
the other, into which
the tongue should
is
cut into
tightly
fit.
It is further
secured by glueing and sometimes nailing.
In
of nailing
all cases
it
gives greater security
if
the
an inclined direction, as shown at

Another form of this joint is made use of
nails are driven in
Fig. 53.
between floor boards, as shown at Fig. 2, page 71, the

tongue being formed of either wood or iron, and as

it
AND JOINERY
47
termed when thus formed of separate material
is
loose.
Dovetail Tongue and Groove. At Fig. 53a is

in this
shown another form of tongue and groove
:
case the former
dovetailed,
is
without the use of
Tusk Tenon.
use
of
which gives
it
security
nails.
This
which few
is
floors
a form of joint without the

are
made.
It
is
connecting the trimmers with the trimming

again at the ends of trimmed
joists.
It is
used in
and
composed
joists,
and shoulder, and should be

Tredgold recommends
page 75.
Taking the depth of the
the following proportions.
the haunchion should be
D, the tenon
piece as D
1 D, the tusk ^ D, and the shoulder i D.
The
tusk
and haunchion should penedepth at which the
trate the piece mortised is recommended to be -^-^ D.
By this arrangement the mortise is kept in the centre
of haunchion, tenon, tusk,
arranged as at Fig. 5,
48
of
the depth of the timbers
being the
this
is
important,
as,
neutral line or axis," the fibres are of least
The tenons
importance at this part.
at the ends of
trimmers usually pass through the trimming
joists
and
project beyond to an extent equal to the width of the
tenon, and
shown in the figure, for

wedge or key, space being allowed
the wedge for the purpose of closing
In special cases, where trimmers meet
are mortised, as
the insertion of a
at
the back of
the shoulders.
the wôoden girder so as to be in a direct line across

it,
the tenons should not pass through further than
is
necessary for the purpose of pinning.
Scribed Joint. This is shown at Figs. 54 and 55,

and may be described as the butting of one moulded
surface against another at an angle with
purpose the end
it
for this
of one of the pieces has to be cut to
the profile of the other.
mitred joint insomuch as
It has
it
an advantage over the
allows the moulded surface
AND JOINERY
49
of the one in shrinking to slide over the surface of the
other without gaping.
In skirtings the internal angles

should
be scribed
one
piece
having
usually fixed
is
been
whilst
the
profile,
is
pressed
fixed.
view of the back of such skirting
other,
tightly
cut
back
to
into
the
its
first,
required
place
is
and
seen
at Fig. 54.
Table or Rule Joint.

" table "
of a
ovolo
type
is
or
"
Back-flap
56
is
a representation
moulding of the
worked upon the edge
of one
piece,
hollowed out to receive

are used for this joint, and,
whilst the adjoining piece

it.
Fig.
rule joint "
hinges
is
are required to move backward and

below it, the knuckles of the hinges are
sunk below the surface with the flanges.
The
advantage of this form of hinged joint is that a
moulded angle is formed when the pieces are turned
at right angles with each other, and the joint has
not the appearance of gaping as in the square or
when brackets
forward
butt joint.
Housed
Joint.
When
the
end of one piece of
material, without being shouldered,
surface of the other,
it
is
is
embedded
said to be housed.
in the
Arris

rails
usually
have
their
AND JOINERY
ends embedded
into posts to secure additional strength

is
or
51
housed
but the joint
more commonly used in connecting the ends of

and risers with strings the depth to which they
treads
may
are housed
stances,
and
or f in., according to circumthey have the additional security of glueing,
be ^
in.
wedging, blocking, and screwing.
Joggle Joint.
This
this case represents the
is
shown
at Fig. 57,
and in
lower end of a wooden storey
post joggled to a stone curb which has been tabled
and weathered
the joint
it is
from penetrating
form of a tenon, but
to prevent the water
somewhat
in the
cannot be considered purely as such, as
it
is
only
intended to keep the post from sliding out of position.
Lower ends
of solid door frames are sometimes treated
52
in this manner, but unless the stone base can be tabled,

it
form of
a very bad
is
the water
joint, as
being
frequently in contact with the end grain of the wood,

the structure
Dowel
likely to
is
Joints. This
is
become
rotten.
a form of joint which often,
in cabinet work, replaces tenons
small pins or dowels
are driven into the prepared butt ends of a rail and
corresponding holes are formed in the
In another form
reception.
floors.
is
seen at the bottom
where they are
of solid door-frames,
stone
it
stiles for their
in
contact with
square or round plug or dowel
is
driven into the centre of the end of the frame and a

is made in the stonework in which
embedded, the joint being made good in cement.
Where there is a liability of water coming in contact
with the joint, as in work of the warehouse class,
corresponding hole
it
is
advisable
is
it
about 3
side
in.
to
have prepared
this should be fitted
high, provided with a lug
and made
of the frame, painting both the
cast
upon
iron-shoe
its
under
fast to the base
wood and the
inside
of the shoe before fixing.
Bridle Joint.
The
said to be bridled
joint
when one
having a mortise cut into

cut
away, as
shown
remaining intact
abutment
to
it
at
is
it,
between two timbers
is
of its pieces, instead of
has the two outer thirds
Fig.
58,
supposed
its
to
centre
give
third
a greater
the ends of struts so that they
may
be
better able to resist the thrusts along their lengths.
When,
as in
the case of centres, a settlement of the
framing would cause a strut to take up a slightly

different position, the shoulders may be-curved in
outline as
shown
at B, the strength of the joint not
being materially weakened by the motion.
Carpenters' Boast.
This
is
AND JOINERY
a form of joint acknow-
ledged more in theory than in practice, although
much
joint
to
recommend
between the
it.
collar
It has
and
53
it
has
been suggested as the
rafter of a roofing truss,
54
Ears, in the form of a

and forms a very good tie.
sector, are made upon one or both sides of the tie, the
arc of the sector being struck from the point A, as
shown in Fig. 59.
It will be seen that no point of
the ear
ABj
is
at a greater distance
that all that
so
together
is
collar or
from
than the length
required to place the work
is
to place the rafters at right angles to the
then, after inserting the ears so far as
tie;
and the joint is

means of fastening.
is shown at the junction
possible, close the tops of the rafters,
secure, without bolts or other
Birdsmouth.
of the
common
This joint
(page
rafter
148), the
ends of the
timber being cut in the form of a bird's mouth, hence

its
name
the angle being usually a right angle, the
which they are cut
bevel to
taken from a side
is
elevation of the timbers.
Matched
to
Joint.
This
worked
in the solid
with a bead upon the

joint
name
is
sometimes applied
tongue and grooved joint when the former
is
shown
it
may
face.
or
may
The
is
not be provided
section of a
matched
at Fig. 60.
Flp 60.
y///////////////^^^^<^^^
Forked Heading
Joint.
The
term ''heading"
is
applied to the joint at the ends of flooring timbers, and
known, when square,
as the butt
joint.
When
the
heading joint assumes the form shown in Fig. 61, it

known as forked. It is claimed for this joint that
is
is
it
not so conspicuous as the plain butt joint, but the

labour involved
in
AND JOINERY
formation precludes
its
its
55
more
general adoption.
Mortise and Tenon.
Figs.
62 and 63
to 66, page
57, are representations of some of the forms of this joint;
case the tenon
in
each
its
simplest form
it
may
has
been
haunched, but in
be constructed
without
it.
56
Tenons should be properly proportioned if constructed

too wide in proportion to their thickness, they are apt
to buckle from the pressure of the wedges, or in the
case of work built up of unseasoned material the tenon
is liable to shrink away from the wedges, thus losing
its support; again, in thin material, if the mortise were
made unduly wide, it would tend to weaken the
framing by partially splitting up the work into
;
laminations.
to
advisable, in proportioning tenons,
It is
keep their width so near as
The thickness
thickness.
their
is
of
possible five times
tenons
largely
is
governed by circumstances, but in the framing of doors,

sashes,
about
There
rule,
etc.,
is
third
are, as
and
known
it
one
Fig.
recognized
rule
thickness
the
them
keep
to
of
framing.
the
has been intimated, departures from this
64
an illustration of such a one
is
it is
as a double tenon, and, in this case, its thickness
governed largely by the plough -groove, the inner

faces of the tenons being kept flush with it whilst the
is
remaining thickness
is
on each side divided in two
The
equal parts, the tenon taking up one of them.
advantage
of
the
preceding
arrangement
is
that
mortise lock can be inserted without greatly diminishing the strength of the joint.
Double tenons may be applied to quartered framing

where the thickness of the framing is great as
compared to the width of the individual members,
and where a single thick tenon placed in the
centre would have its width largely diminished by
Fig. 63 shows a single tenon with
the rebates.
The width available for the tenon is
haunchion.
equal
to
the
width
depth of plough-groove
of
the
and
rail
less
in.
the
of this a third has been
AND JOINERY
57
58
taken for the haunchion, leaving two-thirds for the
In the case of the bottom rail (Fig. 65), there

Bottom rails of
two tenons and two haunchions.
doors are seldom less than 9 in. in width, so that
tenon.
are
plough-groove there remains 8^ in.

for division between haunchions and tenons.
If this
deducting ^
in. for
width be divided by
haunchions
and
four,
tenon
we have 2^
this
in.
should
each for both

be
increased
amply strong
proportionately with the wider
rails, but is
enough for the narrower ones.
The available width
for middle rails is necessarily reduced by 1 in., so that
for a 9 in. rail only 8 in. would be available for
division.
It is usual to divide this width by three for
purpose of proportioning the tenon, but
the
result should
five
times
its
if
this
produce a width of tenon greater than

thickness
it
may
be reduced accordingly
and the difference given to the haunchion.

Gun-stock Joint. This is the name given to the
mortise and tenon joint at the middle rail of a
glass
door," the stile of which has been diminished in the
form of a gun-stock.
This diminution of the stile
makes it necessary to adopt an oblique shoulder or
mitre rail
the former method frequently proves a
stumbling block to the uninitiated.
upon the
rail
In placing the lines
whilst in the square, point C, Fig. 62,
being on the edge, and representing the extended length

of
rail,
is
often
taken as
the point from which the
shoulder-line should pass to B, the consequence being

that
when
the tenons and shoulders have been cut and
brought up into position the

at A.
B, and the distance

the
rail is
found to be short
In Fig. 62, JE has been placed square
widths of the
BC
stile
is
with
equal to the difference in
plus the depth of moulding
AND JOINERY
59
CA.
If, in striking out, a gauge be kept of the depth
CA, and if, from C, a line be squared over to point A,
then the shoulder-line
A-B
will
corresponding line to this
upon the
that
it is
be the correct one.
may
be directly placed
but in practice the student will find
stile,
best to allow a small portion of
wood
say
to remain upon the shoulder of

might be protected until the mouldings are scribed, and then, having brought the rail
approximately into position, cut the inclined shoulder
of stile parallel to, and at the required distance from
from yV
ii^,
the
stile,
so that
AB,
first
to
in.
it
seeing that the rail
is
at right
angles to the
stile.
Oblique Mortise and Tenon Joints, or Bevelled

Shoulder Joints.
These are represented in most of
the joints of the roof trusses, and in the mortised and

tenoned connection between any two members not at
6o
right angles to one another
it
seen dissociated at
is
Fig. 67.
Chase-Mortise. When a tenon cannot be entered

manner, a chase has to be cut at its side
so that the tenon may be passed into its position from
in the usual
The mortise
that side.
chase-mortise.
position
so treated
is
therefore called a
Ceiling joists having to be placed in
between
binders,
and
having
their
ends
tenoned, require the mortises to be chased, as shown

at B, Fig. 3, page 80.
This is a form of
Dovetail Mortise and Tenon.
and tenon joint much used in temporary
mortise
>
1
'
[
,
,
1
work.
It
1
I
has one of
its
edges recessed, so as to
make
and is secured in
form
its position by a pair of folding wedges driven at its
This form of dovetailback it is shown at Fig. 68.
ing a tenon may be applied to those which do not pass
through the material, and in this form is known as a
dovetail stump tenon.
the tenon of the
of a dovetail,
Bareface Tenon.
only upon one side of
(Fig. 69).
AND JOINERY
tenon which has a shoulder
it is
known
as a bareface tenon
It is often used in furniture,
and becomes
necessary in the case of apron pieces to skylights,
Stump Mortise and Tenon.

given
to
mortises
and
6i
tenons
This
which
is
do
the
etc.
name
not pass
through the material, either from the fact that they
would otherwise be carried too far, as in the case of

muntins tenoned to wide bottom rails, or from the fact
that the end grain of the tenon would be unsightly if
allowed to appear upon the exposed edge of a piece of
framing.
These may be kept in position by glueing,
pinning, wedging, screwing from the back, or a combination of any two or more of the foregoing.
Beaded Joint. This is the name given to any
form of joint provided with a circular-shaped moulding
known as a bead, the form and utility of which is
described in Chapter xi.

62
Masons' Mitre. This is illustrated at Fig. 70.

The framing is mortised and tenoned with the shoulders in the square, the mouldings being stopped at the
mortises.
After the shoulders have been
the
fitted,
moulding is worked on the solid, the

lines being taken from the adjacent piece.
This is the
method of mitring adopted by masons, hence its name.
return
of the
'f.rr r.Ti
It is said in favour of this joint that the mitres do not
by the carpenter and

joiner shrinks and expands, the line of moulding may
This latter drawback does not occur
therefore be lost.
but for woodin masonry, and may be disregarded
open
but, as the material used
work, the writer's opinion

best at
and
A-B
the
it
certainly
that the shoulder line
is
the shorter of the two
between
junction
made at the
Clamped
is
the
mouldings
is
is
best
mitre.
Joint.
Clamping
is
one of the means
adopted for stiffening wide boards and preventing them

The material should be thoroughly well
from twisting.
AND JOINERY
63
be
clamps
Narrow pieces called
found to split in drying.
the ends of a board, as at
to
tenoned
are mortised and
mitred as at B.
Fig. 71, and may be plain as at ^, or
seasoned before putting together, otherwise
it
will
^L9
/
and is necessary in desk tops, etc., where mouldings have to be
returned on the edges, or where the appearance of the
end grain on the material would be objectionable.
The
latter is
known
The tenons may
or
as mitre clamping,
may
not pass through the clamps.
Key
boards not otherwise framed may have dovetail

keys let into the back of the material, as in Fig. 72,
Wide
64
to
prevent them from warping, and the key
planed
An
the figure.
shown
with the surface, or
off flush
at
looseness
standing as in
enlarged section of the dovetail key
A, Fig. 72.
It
caused
is
advisable to allow the
is
wide end of the key to remain,
may
left
may be
if
possible, so that
any
by the shrinkage of the material
be met by a blow or two upon that end.
This is the name given to the

Foxtail Wedging.
of wedging stump tenons, as shown in Fig. 73.
method
j
'
rl
The mortises should be made no longer

than
is necessary for the
the ends are sloped

kerfs are then
at
the top
admission of the tenon, whilst
away towards the
made through
interior
saw
the tenon, those towards
the outside being sloped inwards, so that the edges of

the material
may
as
split.
Small wedges are then
saw kerfs, and the tenon driven into

the end of the tenon reaches the base of
inserted in the
position
not be

the mortise
AND JOINERY
wedges are pressed into the
the
widening the end of the tenon and preventing
it
65
kerfs,
from
being withdrawn.
Safe Wedging.
With plain wedging, the
material,
upon shrinking, sometimes parts from the tenons; more

especially
of
is this
the case with exterior work, the joints
which have been painted instead of glued.

To
this, saw kerfs should be made through the
prevent
tenons,
as
shown
at
Fig.
74,
allowing the kerf to
recede from the side, as the shoulder
wedges are driven into these

the sides of the tenon, the framing
is
approached.
If the
kerfs, instead
at
is
secure.
Pinning.
This
is
of
rendered more
the process of securing a tenon
by the insertion of a pin through both mortise and

tenon.
The joints of the main timbers of partitions,
and in fact all " quartered " work, should be treated in
this manner, unless secured by bolts, etc.
The pins
used in work of this description are sometimes called
E
66
" treenails,"
but the term
building localities.
Drawbore Pinning.
is
This
more common
is
to
ship-
another form of the
mor-
foregoing.
In
tise is first
bored through in a position near the shoulder
keeping
this case the material containing the
the pin-hole at a clear distance from the
shoulder equal to one and a half times the section of

the pin
then, having inserted
the tenon,
mark
the
centre of the hole upon the tenon by the aid of the

" bit/' first seeing
that the shoulders are in position.
withdrawing the tenon a hole may be bored

through it, and nearer the shoulder to the extent of
nearly half the section of the pin.
When framing up
After
work it may be found necessary to use a steel

drawbore pin for the purpose of closing the shoulders,
after which the wooden pins may be inserted, first
the
covering them with paint or glue.
Pins used for this
work should be split, so that the grain may run through

their length and not obliquely across, as is sometimes
the case with those sawn.
Secret
shown
Nailing.
at Fig. 75,
This
may
be
accomplished, as
and may be adopted
in all cases
where the wood is coarse grained or of a porous nature,

In fixing dado framing, etc., it
such as oak or teak.
is sometimes necessary to nail through the framing
AND JOINERY

from the face
with a thin ^
beneath
it
a small
in.
or
in.
the material
Another form of secret

face nailing,
this
portion of the grain
is
is
chisel,
and the
is
lifted
nail driven
then glued and replaced.
nailing, as' distinguished
adopted in fastening floor-boards.
case the nail
is
67
from
In
driven through the edge of the
board in an inclined direction, the next board
is
then
brought into position and treated in a similar manner.
The edges
of the boards being matched,
it
only requires
that one shall be fixed to keep both down, whilst the

boards, being fixed at one edge only, are free to shrink
and expand with the changes of temperature.
Fig. 76 represents a method of
Secret Screwing.
further securing the glued joints of work exposed to
/7
^ Z6
i
;
Id
TT
c t
the weather, by embedding screws along the length of
the joint.
The method
of procedure
is
as follows:
boards having been jointed in the usual
way
The
are set
68
and parallel lines marked across the

joint in pairs and at intervals of about 2 ft.
The
distance between the parallel lines should be from 1^
in. to 2 in., but must be equal throughout
in order
up
in the
vice,
to take a slip of
to secure this, it is well
parallel edges
wood with
and of the required width, and, having
laid it across the joint in the required position, pass
the pencil along
its
The top
edges.
removed, a stout 1|
piece having been
or 2 in. screw
in.
is
inserted in
shown
the centre of the joint and at the rear line, as
at
in the figure
a hole large enough to receive the
head of the screw is then bored in the centre of the

edge of the top board and at the forward line
from
this hole a slot is cut large enough to receive the
;
shank of the screw, and back to a little beyond the

A view of one of these sockets is shown
at D, Fig. 76, whilst an enlarged elevation of the joint
at the lines is shown at B and C,
Splayed Heading Joint. It is a difficult matter
in laying floor boards to pull up the butt joints, and
the method of closing them more generally adopted is
rear line.
to cut
last
them sloping
board laid being
or splayed, the top edge of the

left long,
cut to the reverse of

the board to slide
this.
down
whilst the
first
board
is
This arrangement allows
into its place, the nailing of
the board completely closing the joint.
Common
Dovetail.
are several kinds

are
the most
Of
the dovetail joints
there
but the three shown on page 6 9
important.
Fig.
represents
an end
elevation of the pins and side elevation of the sockets

of the
is
common
dovetail
pitched at about 80,
the sloping side of the pin
and should be from one-sixth
to one-eighth the thickness of the material at its thin
AND JOINERY
69
70
Pins should not be placed nearer the edge than
edge.
half the thickness of the material, although this
may
culty
be overcome, should the necessity
placing the half pin at the extreme edge.

idea
the form of the joint
of
Fig. lA.
Lap
Dovetail.
may
side.
For
this reason
it
from
and 2a (page 69) represent
Figs. 2
that the end-grain
is
by
better
be gained
the lap dovetail; the advantage gained over the

dovetail
diffi-
arise,
common
appears only
on one
used at drawer fronts and
is
in similar positions.
Secret, or Mitre Dovetail.

3
and 3a (page 69);
strong
as
is
it
the foregoing,
as
This
a
is
shown
at Figs.
form of joint not so
the
dovetailing
extends
only to a portion of the thickness of the material.
advantage
Its
that the end-grain of the dovetails do not
is
appear upon the face of the work, a mitre line being

all
that
is visible,
hence
Flooring Joints.
its
name.
Figs.
to 8,
various sections of floor boards.

tation
page 71, illustrate
Fig. 1 is a represen-
dowelled joint, the boards being secret
of a
nailed through
its vertical
edges, the fastening of one
being sufficient to secure the other.
through ploughed and tongued
being in this case of wrought iron
than this
Fig. 2 is a section
the
tongue
a better
method
flooring,
;
to rebate the flooring, placing the
is
tongue
at the bottom, as, in the repair of sections, the tongues
must be
left
out.
Figs.
3,
4,
6, 7,
and 8 are other
forms, but the splayed joints are a disadvantage from
when worn in places they exhibit an

and unsightly line.
Fig. 5 is an illustration of a double dovetail slip
feather more suitable for block flooring than for battened.
the fact that

irregular
AND JOINERY
i/oints.
Tîg. 5.
reg.y.
rip. a.
a.
Fog JO.
FcgJ/.
Fcg./2.
71
72
Figs. 9 to
12, page 71, and 1 to 12, page 73, are
made up of a combination
and named accordingly.
They are
the vertical angles of dado framing and
illustrations of various joints
of the foregoing
suitable for
casing generally.
AND JOINERY
tjbonts.
7=tg. 3.
rig. 6.
Fig. 8.
rip.7.
PepJO.
Hp. a
ng.9.
73
CHAPTER
IV.
FLOORS.
FLOOR may be described as that portion of a building

which separates or divides the structure into stories or
They may be
flats.
and
iron, or, as is
of wood, a combination of
now
wood
often the case, especially with
buildings of the warehouse class, of hard and incom-
and water
would be beyond
bustible material, rendering the floor

proof.
To
discuss the latter class
fire
the scope of the present wôrk.
The term "ground

nearest
to,
or
street level.
floor" is applied to that
which
is
approached directly from, the adjoining
is
The
floors
above this are known as
first,
second, or third floors respectively as they range up-
wards,
floors.
known
below are known as basement

The whole of the series enumerated above are
whilst
those
also as
main
floors,
whilst those not passing
throughout the building, or not upon the same level as

the main
The
floors,
are
known
as ''mezzanine floors."
upon which the

which much
consideration is required, is not by any means the most
important point to consider in building up a system of
flooring.
It is to the design of the framework beneath
floor boarding, or that portion
foot rests, although in itself a subject for
76
amount of attention is required.

The timbers which go to make up the supporting
framework are known as naked timbers, both as rethe
that
greatest
garding the timber previous to receiving
covering
its
and in the consideration of the timbers apart from

such covering.
There
three
are
systems
distinct
building up flooring timbers, and
such
and
floor
material
it
economical
the
is
methods
or
disposition
are the primary considerations
that
of
the strength of
of
the
in
the
selection of the particular system to be adopted.
This
Single Flooring.
and
constructed
flooring
spans up to 14 or 16
joists,
and
11
to
in.
at distances
is
the
suitable
is
kind
of
only for small
Horizontal timbers called
feet.
deep, are
in.
simplest
placed parallel to
from each other of about
1 2 in. centre
their extremities upon wall

by 3 in., passing along the entire
It is upon
distance covered by the ends of the joists.
and
to centre,
plates, usually
the
upper
boards
are
ceiling
is
Figs.
rest with
4-|-
edges
fixed,
the
of
whilst
the
to
the
that
joists
flooring
and
2,
page
75, represent two
plans
portions of single floors, the clear span in each
being 16
of floor.
the
edges
lowest
attached.
ft.,
of
case
the largest span advisable with this form
Two rows
of strutting have been placed at
regular intervals along the joists; these stiffen the joists

considerably.
The two plans
are given
to
the method of treatment of the timbers, both

fireplace is parallel with,
to,
the
joists.
surrounded by
Timbers
in.
and
may
also
when
illustrate
when
the
at right angles
not be built into flues
brickwork,
it
therefore becomes
necessary to trim the timbers short of the chimney
FLOORS
77
trimming permits the flooring in and

around the fireplaces to the extent of 18 in. in either
direction to be built of hard and incombustible material,
Trimmer arches,
such as brick, stone, and concrete.
as shown in the sections at Figs. 3 and 4, are built
between the trimmed timbers and upon these hearth
stones are laid, embedded in concrete and cement.
In Fig. 1, page 75, the joists run parallel to the wall
containing the fireplace
a trimming joist is placed
eighteen inches from the chimney breast, and into this
are tusk-tenoned two short trimmers, carrying in their
It is usual to
turn the ends of the trimmed joists.
increase the thickness of trimming joists one-eighth of an
inch for each trimmed joist carried, and to make the
trimmers of the same thickness.
All joists, common
or otherwise, should rest either upon wall plates or
breast.
This
stone templates in pockets
illustrations of the latter
are given on page 84, Figs. 1

Fig. 2,
the
floor,
page 75,
common
is
of the
here running at right angles
breast,
plates,
inches
from
one on either side
with a clear space for a rendering
coat between the timbers and
eighteen
Two trimming
fireplace.
on the ends of wall
chimney
2.
a portion of a plan of a single
joists
to the wall containing the

joists rest
and
the
flue.
At
breast-line
a distance of
trimmer
is
placed in position, being tusk-tenoned at either end to

the
trimming
joists,
whilst to the
intervening joists are trimmed
trimmer
all
the
the latter are therefore
termed "trimmed joists."

As in the previous example,
the trimming joists are increased in thickness to the
extent of ^ in. for each joist carried by it.
In this
case there are two and a half joists carried by each
trimming
joist,
and as 2^
in.
joists
would be
in-
78
sufficient, the
next larger
size is
used,
namely
2-^ in.,
and the trimmer made accordingly of 2^ in. material.

Double Floors. Floors, the main timbers of which
are composed of either of the following combinations,
are known as double floors, plans and sections of which
are contained on page 80.
with ceiling
(1) Floor joists
which
is
shown
joists,
section
of
at Fig. 2, page 80.
Common joists
with binder, as shown at Fig. 77.

(3) Floor and ceiling joists with binders, as given in
section at Figs. 1 and 4, page 80.
(2)
F'loor cJoisCs
Double
floors
may
be constructed as such for two
distinct purposes.
(1) For the purpose of preventing the passage of
sound.
(2) For the purpose of economically increasing the
when the span

than would be recommended as a
strength and rigidity of a floor

is
greater
single floor.
FLOORS
79
Prevention of the Passage of Sound. The vibration and noise caused by the passage across floors is
often an objection in a great many cases.
To prevent
this the following schemes have been devised.
Sound Pugging. This is shown at Fig. 78, and
consists
of placing
series
of short
boards
called
across the opening between the joists

sound boarding
and about midway between the floor and ceiling
these rest loosely upon battens nailed to the sides of
the joists, and upon it is placed, to the depth of about
in.,
builders'
lime
passage of sound
is
rubble.
bodies
interposing several
It
is
of different
rendered more
found that by
densities,
the
difficult.
Another method of reducing vibration is to make

every fourth or fifth joist deeper by about 2 in. than
the remaining ones; this is shown at Fig. 2, page 80.
Ceiling joists are then added, notching and spiking
them to the deeper joists. This is known as a double
floor, and is designed more for the purpose of preventing the passage of sound than of increasing the
strength
that
or
to
of
floor
fourteen
the
joists
feet
floor.
It
should
not
in
length,
has
been
greatly
or
recommended
exceed
they become
twelve
liable
excessive vibration, causing the plaster ceiling
to
FLOORS
crack
become unsightly;
and
8i
it
becomes
therefore
necessary, in spans greatly exceeding these dimensions,

to
diminish the
" bays,"
is
shown
at Fig.
22
ft.,
whilst in the other direction
it
23
is
It will be seen that the single flooring could not
ft.
7,
In this case the least distance between the
page 80.
walls
by dividing the Hoor into
distance
placing binders between, as
Two 12
applied in this case.
having a clear span of 22
in.
by 7
in.
be
binders,
are placed from wall to
ft.,
on stone templates and in wall

pockets specially constructed.
As in the last example,
wall, resting at their ends
the ends of
timbers are kept clear of the walls, and
all
constantly in contact with a fresh supply of

line parallel to the wall plate at Fig.
cleat fastened to the surface of the wall, to
made
ends of the ceiling
fast the
trimming round the
joists,
air.
which
are
being the same in plan
fireplace
shown
at Figs.
Sections across the binders are

either one being applicable.
detail of Fig.
the cogging at
is
shown
is
the method of
as in the last example, whilst sections through
and
The
7 represents a
AB
and 6 respectively.
at Figs. 1 and 4,
isometric view of the
shown
An
at Fig. 3, giving the detail of
and that of the chase mortice at B,
Double Framed Floors.
When
both the length
and breadth of a floor space are so great that if

binders alone were used they would require to be
of such dimensions as would cause the framing to
be of unnecessary expense, as in the example given on
page 82, girders and binders are rendered necessary.
In that case the larger and more important timbers
are framed together, hence the name " double framed
floor."
The larger span is divided up into two or more
" bays " by placing girders across the shorter span and
F
FLOORS
83
from one another, not less than sixteen

feet,
Into these latter,
but usually about twenty.
binders are framed, at distances from each other ranging from eight to fifteen feet, and upon these the joists
at a distance
little
In the illustration given on page 82, a

more than a third of the plan of a double framed
floor
is
are carried.
given, the clear spans in length and breadth
being 46
ft.
and 34
3 in. respectively.
ft.
The longer
distance has been divided into three smaller spans by
placing two flitch girders across in such a position as

to
divide
it
into
equal
three
"
bays."
Into
these,
binders are framed, dividing the smaller span also into
upon them the flooring and

The flooring joists are shown
resting upon the tops of the
three equal bays, whilst

ceiling joists are carried.
in the
two top
bays
"
binders, whilst on the top of the flitch girder
is
placed
a furring piece, the top edge being in line with that of
the floor
Fig.
joists.
3,
page 84, represents a section through the

in this case the whole of the
girder of such a floor;
floor timbers are hidden between the floor and ceiling,

and greater head-room is given. The girders in Figs. 3
and 4 are sawn into half timbers called flitches, and the
wrought-iron flitch-plate inserted between them, being
bolted, as shown in section, by the dotted lines of Figs.
3 and 4, and in elevation as at Fig. 5.
This gives an
opportunity to reverse the timber, thus equalizing the
throughout its length and minimizing the

weakness caused by the local defects, snch as large
strength
knots, twisted fibre, etc.
Flitch plates should in no case be of the full depth

of the timbers, but should finish J in. within the top
and bottom surfaces otherwise, as the timber shrank,
;
84
FLOORS
85
or by the unequal resistance of the material, the

narrow edge of tlie metal plate would form a knifeedge and, bearing alone upon the template, tend
to create
a fracture.
Timber, in being
fixed,
should
have the heart exposed to the air, as it is that part

that is most liable to decay.
In Fig. 3, page 84, the
hearts
are
exposed
and the
outer
rings
placed in
contact with the metal plate.
Large timbers should under no circumstances have

their ends built into walls.
In the case of some of
the softer and more porous bricks, they are
absorb nearly their
damp
damp
houses,
or
own weight
buildings
known
to
This,
in
of water.
erected
without
proper
would be readily taken

up by the absorptive nature of the woodwork, and the
most important part of the timber its bearing surfaces
would at once be liable to decay.
In building
houses of several stories, the walls at the base would
or ventilating courses,
86
of necessity be of greater thickness than at the top

this
diminution usually takes place at ceiling
and
in offsets of
4|
The
in.
offsets
may
level,
be utilized
purpose of supporting wall plates (4 J in. by

upon which the ends of joists may rest and the
necessity of building them into walls would be reduced
for the
in.),
(see
Fig. 79).
places, the
Should no
brickwork
may
offsets
occur at convenient
be corbelled out as shown
V////////////X/////A
at Fig. 80.
cases
the
These will not be conspicuous, as in most

Should the former
cover them.
cornices
methods however not be practicable, small
'
pockets
'
should be provided in the walls slightly larger than

the section of the material, so that the air
to
may
be able
pass in and around the ends.
Wall plates, if built into walls, should be looked

upon with suspicion, as they are likely, by shrinking
or rotting, to cause the wall to lose its support and
thus tend to overturn
it.

FLOORS
87
Timbers resting on, or embedded within walls should

be thoroughly dry and have their surfaces coated
with bituminous or other material impervious to
moisture.
When
large
timbers, such
girders, rest within walls,
shown
as
in elevation
'
beams, binders, or
as
pockets
should be provided
'
and section at
Figs.
and
2,
page 84, support being given to the wall above by

means of a 4| in. brick arch, or a stone lintel
Derby
sometimes called a
"
of
to
one or two courses of brickwork and
at
its
extremities to the extent of
Basement
Floors.
The
4|
of
joists
equal
thickness
supported
in.
basement
floors
rest at their extremities upon wall plates, as described
above, and, at intervals along their length, upon plates
by sleeper walls resting
carried
directly
damp
foundations and provided with
upon the
courses
these
timbers and at least 6
latter should be below
all
above the surrounding
soil.
No
in.
trimmers are neces-
sary here, as the hearth stones are carried upon walls

at
least
These
in.
thick and
latter not only
hearth stones
known
carry
^'fender
walls."
extremities
of the
as
the
but also the ends of the
plates being provided as in
Ventilation of Basement Floors.

of basement floors
is
joists,
wall
other cases.
subject to the
The wood-work
damp
arising from
soil, and this, when combined with heat generated

by kitchen ranges, etc., usually located in basements, is
favourable to the growth of fungi which feed upon the
moist wood-work, causing its destruction.
To prevent
the
this,
the air beneath the floors should be subject to
constant change so that

as
it
may
be kept as fresh and cool
the surrounding atmosphere
this
is
best accom-
88
plished by perforating all sleeper walls and creating in
the others ventilating courses of vitrified and perforated
These latter not only act as ventilating
brick -work.
courses but, being vitrified, are impervious to moisture,
preventing
work.
it
from rising
to the
main body
of brick-
CHAPTER
V.
PARTITIONS.
Partitions are the constructions by which the various
or
stories
flats
of a building are divided
several compartments.
into
their
Besides those which the main
walls of a building supply, and which range upwards
throughout the entire series of
may
floors,
the following
be considered
(1) Studded Partitions.
(2) Bricknogged Partitions.
(3) Trussed or Quartered Partitions.
The following
is
some
a description of
of the parts
employed.
Studs.
These
and plaster
nailed the laths
When
of a lath
upon the edges
of which are
wide and of a
that of the main timbers, from 4|
they are usually 2
thickness equal to
to 6 in.
members
are the vertical
partition,
in.
the studs are cut short, as over the
heads of doorways, they are termed
"
puncheons."
The assemblage of main timbers upon

Framing.
which the partition depends for its strength.
Wall
Posts.
The
vertical
pieces
joining the wall and passing from

Sill.
sill
of
framing ad-
to head.
The lowest horizontal member of the framing,
90
the piece into which the lowest ends of the studs are
fixed.
Head.
The
framing.
Struts.
The
from central
the
that
They
highest
member
horizontal
of
the
inclined pieces which carry the load
lower positions, and in such a manner
to
thrust
first
is
received
by horizontal
ties.
are sometimes termed "braces."
Interties.
These
are
members
horizontal
of the
framing, passing from wall to wall, usually at the head
and providing an extra tie in cases of

Sometimes the door posts pass without
interception from sill to head; in such a case, the door
head is tenoned to the posts at a convenient height.
This method is not recommended for the heavier
of the doorway,
necessity.
classes of work.
Nogging
Pieces.
These
are small horizontal pieces
notched to the studding at vertical distances of about
ft.,
and are intended
to stiffen the studding.
Studded Partitions. These
are
common
partitions
usually erected after a building has been completed;
they are not self-supporting, but usually rest upon the
The head and
floor.
sill
are placed in position,
and
between these are placed studs stump-tenoned to the

head and sill, usually 4 in. or 4| in. by 2 in., provision, of course, being made for doorways, borrowed
No strutting is here employed, but nogging
lights, etc.
pieces should be used at vertical distances of about
4
ft.
some
for
the purpose of stiffening the studding.
classes of
work studded
one or both sides
in place of the lath
Bricknogged Partitions.
41
in.
brick
partitions
In
partitions are boarded on
These
and
are,
strengthened
plaster.
practically,
at
frequent
PARTITIONS
These should
by timber studding.
intervals
91
range
equal to the multiple of half
vertically at distances
a brick, so as to avoid unnecessary cutting and the
Partitions filled in in this manner,

consequent waste.
and plastered, are considered to be warmer than when
the position should be dry and the woodleft hollow
work thoroughly seasoned and coated, otherwise dry
rot will attack the timber-work and render it useless.
These are the
Trussed or Quartered Partitions.
most important of the timber partitions. They may be
;
made not only

to
self-supporting, but
may
be constructed
some
support either the floor or ceiling, and, in
both floor and
cases, to support
tion given
on page 92
ceiling.
The
illustra-
that of a trussed partition,
is
constructed to support both floor and ceiling, and
intended to show
may
how
is
the various parts of the framing
be disposed.
The most important principle that one should bear

in mind in framing trussed partitions, is to economically
dispose the timbers in such a manner that the weight
is brought vertically upon the walls.
In order that
this
may
be properly accomplished, struts or inclined
braces should be connected directly to the horizontal

or intertie, and not to wall posts.
ties,
such as the
The
latter,
ties,
are least capable of withstanding the thrust.
The
sill
being usually only stump tenoned to the

in the illustration given
sill,
on page 92,
lies
floor joists,
and
below the level of the bottom of the
may
be cased similar to a binder.
tionable, the
the flooring
sill
may
this is
are parallel to the

titions
are
If this
is
objec-
be arranged within the level of
more convenient when the
sill.
required in
Where
a
direct
joists
a series of such parline
up through a
PARTITIONS
93
building, they may be arranged so that the head of

one becomes the sill of the next above or the intertie
may, if the rooms are not lofty, supply the place of
;
the head of the lower portion and
of the upper.
sill
In some partitions the doorways are made extremely

wide for the reception of folding doors in this case the
;
door-head should be supported at intervals by means
upwards to the head

The horizontal timbers of framed
of bolts passing
be
let into the walls at either
end
of the partition.
partitions should
additional support
may
be rendered by means of stone corbels, or the

brickwork itself may be corbelled out to receive the
framing, as
81
shown
in Figs.
82
81 and 82.
represent
two other forms of
trussed partitions, the doorways
being in the centre
Figs.
and at the
4 J in. by 6
and
side.
in.,
The heads,
interties,
and
the braces and posts 4 1
in.
sills
being
by 4 1^
in..
94
and the straining pieces 2 1^ in. by 4 1 in.

The diagrams represent the principal trussing only, the studding
The position of the necessary bolts and
being left out.
by dotted
straps are indicated

joints are
shown
in
Chapter
lines.
Details of the
ill.
Brandering or Counterlathing. When wide timbers are employed in trussed partitions, their surfaces
should be counterlathed or brandered, as
times called, so that the plaster
Laths are
surfaces.
others nailed
first
upon them
may
is
it
some-
be keyed to their
nailed across their width, and

at right angles, thus permitting
the plaster to pass in behind.
Laths.
The
laths used for plastering purposes are
of three thicknesses, viz.
Lath,
Lath and half,

Double Lath,
T6- i^- thick.
in.
in.
PARTITIONS
The scantling
from the
95
may
of partitions generally
already furnished.
sizes
It
practicable to furnish a table of sizes,

differ materially
able,
the various
statics, to
members
would be imas these would
the student will be

determine the stresses in
with the design
by the aid of
be inferred
of a particular design, the weight
generally being taken as from 13 cwt. to 15 cwt. per
square
when
covered.
83 represents the
Fig.
joints around the door-head
of the partition given in Fig.

dissociated, so
81
that their forms
whilst the strut has been
the joints are here
may
be readily seen,
moved from
its
position for
the same purpose.
84 and 85 represent two forms of nogging

and the mode of fixing besides being notched
Figs.
pieces
96

Sometimes, in
to the studding,
they should be nailed.
common
nogging pieces are cut clear of the
work,
studs, the only fastening they receive being
by
nailing.
CHAPTER
DOORS, DOOR FRAMES,
VI.
AND
LININGS.
The construction of the work described in this chapter

may be considered as forming one of the chief items in
the occupation of the joiner, and, although considered
chiefly
itself,
from a point of
in
some
cases, to
utility,
may
be
made
to lend
elaborate architectural treat-
ment, both with regard to exteriors as well as interiors.
It
is
intended in this work to describe only the
plainer varieties, having in view their construction under
ordinary circumstances.
In this series may be considered

Battened Doors.
Ledge doors ledged and braced framed
and battened and framed, battened, and braced, the
latter being sometimes termed framed and braced.
Ledge Doors. This is the commonest variety of door,
and chiefly used in outhouse work.
It is constructed
by fastening a series of battens (grooved and tongued)
together by means of horizontal ledges nailed, or nailed
and screwed, to them.
In the better class of work
the ledges are fastened to the two outer battens by
means of two screws at each of their ends, whilst the
the following
intermediate battens are simply nailed
the latter should
98
be of steel or wrought-iron, and should pass through

both ledge and batten, and have their points turned
at the
back
this process is
their support
known
as clinching.
away from each
the battens shrink
and the
nails not
support them, the door drops at
its
Ledged and Braced Doors.

the ledge door from dropping at
being sufficient to
closing edge.
In
its
As
other, they loose
order to prevent
closing edge, braces
are placed obliquely from ledge to ledge, passing up-
wards from the hanging
to
These
the closing edge.
act as struts, preventing the outer edge of the door from
dropping.
As
the struts or braces are always in com-
pression, all that

is
is
required at the points of support
a plain butt joint, a portion of which should be at
right angles to the direction of the brace.
As with
the ledges, the braces are kept in position by nailing,
Page
99 contains an exterior and interior elevation of a
ledged and braced door.
The hinges and latch have
been placed in position mainly for the purpose of indicating the direction to which the braces should incline.
Framed and Braced Doors. This is the best form
of the battened doors, and when not braced it is usually
termed a " fram.ed and battened door."
The stiles and
the points being clinched as in the former case.
top rail should be of the full thickness of the door,

whilst the middle and bottom rails and the braces are
of the thickness of the door, less the battens.
2 -in. door, the battens would be about
|-
in.
In a
thick,
whilst the braces and middle and bottom rails would be
1^
in.
The middle and bottom
bareface tenons, so that they
rails are
may
provided with
be brought as near
to the centre of the thickness of the stiles as possible.
The top
rail
and
stiles are
ploughed for the reception
DOORS, DOOR FRAMES,
AND LININGS
99
lOO
formed upon the top end of all the battens

and the extreme edges of the two outer ones.
The
battens, besides being tongued to the outer framing, are
nailed to the bottom and middle rails, and also to the
of a tongue
braces,
the
nails
The braces
scribed.
position that their
the framing
length
being
is
by
clinched
are
as
previously
usually placed
in
such
de-
centres pass through the angles of
this precaution the thrust along their
equally distributed to the framing.
These act as struts, and should incline upBraces.

The
wards from the hanging to the closing stile.
extremities are sometimes plain-butted against the
framing, and sometimes tongued in the latter case they
must be placed in position previous to wedging up.
Doors of this kind are usually used in external
When
walls, and for warehouse and stable work.
used in positions where both surfaces are exposed to
the wet, the top edge of the middle and bottom rails
The bottom
should be weathered (inclined outwards).
rail should be kept about 1^ in. or 2 in. from the
lowest edge of the door this is done for the purpose
of keeping as much of the material as possible away
from surfaces inclined to be damp.
The exterior and
interior elevation, also the vertical section of a framed
and braced door, are shown on page 99.
A form of this door is used with church work of the
mediaeval type, the battened portion passing over the
whole of the framed portion, whilst upon the outside
or battened surface mouldings are fixed to form panels.
;
Panelled
Doors.
Of
varieties, distinguished
by the
finish given to
these
there
are
several
by the number of panels and

them.
Interior doors are not required to be of such a large
DOORS, DOOR FRAMES, AND LININGS
lOI
I02
upon the exterior
size as those
page 101
the elevation given on
of standard size, being of a height of 6
is
ft.
and in width 2 ft. 6 in.

other sizes range
upwards, increasing by inches in both dimensions, so
that a door 6 ft. 9 in. high would be 2 ft. 9 in. wide,
and one 7 ft. high would be 3 ft. wide.
The position of the middle rail is governed largely
by aesthetic principles, but mainly for the purpose of
6
in.,
fixing the lock.
convenient position for handling
may
be considered as 2
this
may
ft.
in.
from the
floor line
also be taken as the height of the centre of
the middle
rail.
It has
been recommended that the
height of the top line of the middle

distance of 3
ft.
1 in.
from the
rail
should be at a
floor line,
alters the height of the centre of the
but this rule
middle
rail as its
width increases or diminishes.
The
elevation given on page
101
is
that of a four-
panelled door, with the positions of tenons and panels

dotted
in.
instructions
These have been arranged according to the

furnished in Chapter ill.
The different
methods of finishing are shown at Figs. 1 to 8. Fig. 1

is a section through what is known as a square framed
door with
flat panels.
Fig. 2 represents a similar door, with drop or
mouldings of the quirked and

Fig.
is
filleted
sunk
ogee type.
a similar section, having
beaded and
quirked ogee moulding, another form of which
is
shown
in Fig. 4.
The
section
shown
at
Fig.
has a filleted ovolo
moulding.
shows a section through the stile of a square

framed door, with flat panel and sunk moulding on one
side, and flush panel on the other.
Fig. 6
103
In the section at Fig. 7 both moulding and bead

have been worked upon the framing, the external
appearance being somewhat similar to the above.
Fig.
is
or " fielded
provided
"
through the
section
framed door, with
flat
panel
stile
of a square
panel on one side, and a raised
upon the
other,
with bolection mouldings.
the latter being
Mouldings pro-
jecting beyond the face of the work, and being rebated
over
An
the framing, are termed " bolection mouldings."

elevation of two raised or fielded panels provided
with bolection moulding
is
shown on page 107.
Frieze Rails.
These pass across the door between
the middle and top rail, as shown at Fig. 86.
The
panels
above
the
frieze
rail
are
known
as
frieze
panels."
Ftg.86,
The width
muntins and
so wide as the stiles by \
of
Fig. ay.
frieze rails should not
in.,
this
be
portion being
104
hidden upon one side by the rebate of the linings.
Sometimes the muntins do not pass beyond the frieze

This
and a long frieze panel is then necessary.
is the method usually adopted in the formation of a
five-panelled door.
Six-panelled doors are sometimes
arranged, as at Fig. 87, with two muntins passing up
through the door.
The advantage of this arrangement
with wide doors being that 1 1 in. stuff, or less, may be
used without the necessity of jointing up, and the
rail,
not so
panels
being of less width, the shrinkage
great.
Folding doors are those which are hung in
pairs,
one from each jamb, as shown in elevation at
They may be made
Fig. 88.
to
swing or
is
to close into
rebates.
When
doors are required exceptionally wide as com-
pared with the height, and where they would otherwise
appear unsightly, they are made to appear as in Fig.

88, but in reality they would open as one.
These are
and are constructed as
follows
The two halves are framed separately, but,
previous to wedging up, the two inner stiles are fitted
with three pairs of dry hard-wood folding wedges. The
top pair should pass through the stiles about 3 in.
The
below the top rail, as shown at A (Fig. 89).
other two pairs pass through the stiles 3 in. above the
bottom and middle rails respectively. The rails of the
two doors are first glued and wedged to the inner
stiles, which have previously been prepared to the
section shown in the figure, and properly jointed.
The
two inner stiles are then glued and wedged together,
the ends of the latter having been cut clear of the
plough groves, the panels are inserted, and the process
of wedging up is then proceeded with in the ordinary
"
termed
double-margin
" doors,
io6
The
between the two halves is provided with a double-quirked bead, either worked upon
the edges of the stiles, or planted on separately, as
manner.
joint
shown in section at Fig. 89.

Page 107 contains an
Sash Doors.
vertical and horizontal sections of what
elevation, with
known
is
as a
''gun-stock sash door."
When
with
constructed
are
poses,
being used for ordinary pur-
doors, besides
purpose of admitting
light,
glazed
panels
the
for
they are said to answer the
double purpose of a sash and door, and are therefore
termed
" sash
doors " or
Sometimes the
glass doors.''
from top to bottom rail, as is the case

fronts, in which case they are
glass extends
with doors for shop
known
as " all-glass doors."
Diminished
Stiles.
Doors
which have the upper
panels glazed should be constructed with diminished

stiles,
stiles
tapering off to a narrow width as they
approach the glazed portion,
much
so
may permit
so that they
light to pass as is possible.
When the diminution takes the

Stiles.
form of a mitre line of 45, passing from the lower
corner of the middle rail back to a point in direct
line with the diminished portion, and takes up a
Mitred
square shoulder line at

a ''mitred
stile."
Gun-Stock
III.,
shoulder
the
across the
is
a "
made
Stiles.
rail,
this
When,
point,
direct
with this
but
line, it
obliquely
of the
stile
known
is
"
as
gun-stock
stile," and the shoulder as a
Gun-stock sash doors are those provided
gun-stock
shoulder."
as
82, Chapter
and when the shoulder
to correspond
known
is
as in Fig.
passes
line
it
with the gun-stock
stiles
described above.
G un
sfoc/c rSos/? - door.
io8
Panels.
forms.
has
that
These
its
it
may
panel,
flat
be
finished
in
speaking,
strictly
variety
of
one that
is
surfaces perfectly plain
and of such a thickness
may
groove without rebating.
be entered into
its
These are illustrated in part section by Figs. 1 to 5

inclusive on p. 101.
A flush panel is one that has its
surface or surfaces finishing flush or level with that of
the framing, and
may
be so upon one or both
Panels flush upon one surface only are
one
side."
tongue
is
known
sides.
as ''flush
formed upon their edges by

it and the framing being
rebating, the joint between
usually provided with a bead.
Bead
Butt.
Flush
panels
having
edges only provided with a bead are

butt
"
or " bead
and
known
vertical
as " bead
butt."
Fig,
Bead Flush.
their
When
four edges of the panel,
89
a.
the bead passes around the

it
is
known
as " bead flush."
In place of working the end bead in the solid, a small

of the material is cut away, and a special
portion
109
worked bead glued and braded in its place. This

method is objectionable, as the panel is not free to
shrink and expand with the changes of the atmosphere,
A better method is
and often splits in shrinking.
to work the bead upon the framing as shown in the
section of Fig. 7, page 101.
Battened Panels.
Panels
which are made up of
a series of battens, with matched joints, are

as
battened panels
known
they are often arranged so that
the battens are placed diagonally, and, in this way,
may
act as braces or struts.
Raised or Fielded Panels. These are panels which

have had their margins recessed, the recessing usually
Elevations and sections
being inclined to the surface.
of these are shown on page 107.
Draped Panels. These are panels which have been
moulded upon their surface to imitate the folds of
They are
linen, the ends being returned to match.
"
sometimes termed linen panels."
Doors leading to private apartments,
Jib Doors.
and not intended to be conspicuous, are sometimes
They are usually flush with,
constructed in walls.
and take up, the line and character of the surrounding
work, and are termed "jib doors."
In some of the best classes of work, doors are
finished with different woods upon their surfaces.
They are usually constructed in halves, each side
beino^ of the same material as the work surrounding
it.
They are fastened together by means of dovetail
keys driven through the inner surface of the
stiles
the joints at the edges of the door are then covered
with a veneer of like material.
Frames.
In
buildings of the warehouse type, or
no
where the walls are left bare, doors are hung to solid
frames, fixed upon the surface of the wall or in rebates.
External doors are also hung to solid frames.
buildings
of
interiors
of
the
dwelling-house
In
type,
around the door-
linings, panelled or plain, are fixed
ways, and the doors hung to these.
Solid Frames. Fig. 1, page 111, is a section

through one jamb of a solid door frame fixed to a
upon the interior. The 4| in.

by 4 in. solid frame is moulded with an ovolo upon
its front edge, the rebated joint between the door and
frame being beaded.
The frame is made fast to the
quoins by boring, plugging, and screwing the heads
of the screws are sunk below the surface, and the
holes plugged.
The jambs upon the interior are
furnished with plain linings, and finished with a
band moulding.
Fig. 2 is a section through one jamb of a solid
frame fixed in a doorway, the brickwork of which is
stone wall, battened
If the door frame
left bare.
being built, the head
and
may
be
is
left
fixed as
the wall
is
long to the extent of
This method
3 in. or
usually
adopted in doorways having segmental arches
in.,
built into the wall.
is
and, consequently, no lintels, the head of the frame
being
made
Jamb
to " take
up
the line of the arch.
Lining's serve the double purpose of covering
and providing
hang the door.
or lining the edges of walls at openings,
framework
of
wood from which
to
Rebates are provided at both edges, although
seldom that both are used.
They are
it
is
in width (rebates
included) equal to the thickness of the wall they cover

plus
"
the rendering on both sides, and
grounds
"
or blocking at the back.
are fixed
to
set of linings
Soled Jromes
8f
fJamb LCnings.
in
112
consists of
or
two jambs or
vertical pieces
and one head
soffit.
Plain Linings. In some cases the linings are so

narrow that they will not allow of being panelled
;
they are consequently
shown
left plain, as
page 111, and the rebates worked on the
in
Fig. 4,
solid.
Panelled Jamb Linings. Fig. 3, page 111, is a

section through one jamb of a set of panelled linings,
with a half-plan of the soffit, looking up. The framing
is taken at 3 in. wide, and the rebates are tongued on.
This
latter
process
is
recommended
as
giving
the
opportunity of covering the ends of the tenons and

providing a more substantial edge for hanging purposes.
Splayed grounds are provided upon either
side, and the

between the plaster and grounds covered by
joints
band mouldins^s or architraves.

The term "architrave" was originally applied of the
lowest member or division of an entablature, and which
rests immediately upon the capital of a column, and is
now applied generally to the moulded margin around
window openings.
the front edges of linings to doors or
not recommended to carry the delicate members
It is
them
upon a
of the architraves to the floor level, but to stop

at about
plinth
Fig.
3,
10
in.
block, as
or
12
shown
in.
at
above, and finish

Fig.
88, and
in
plan at
page 111.
Band Mouldings.
When
the
moulded
margin
around a door or window opening assumes the less

dignified form shown in the upper portion of Fig. 3,
page 111, it is known as a "band moulding," another
section of which
is
shown
at Fig. 1
page.
Double-faced
Architrave.
When
upon the same

an
architrave

presents two plain
surfaces,
faced."
portion of Fig. 3, page 111,
is
known
is
it
The architrave shown
113
double-
as
in section at the lower
known
as double-faced.
Grounds. The wood foundations upon which architraves and band-mouldings are fixed are termed
Their backs are grooved, rebated, or splayed
grounds.
purpose of forming a key for the plaster, and
for the
are fixed
wood
by means of
plugs,
and, in
bricks,
wood
and
sometimes
pallets or joints,
they
addition,
are
by rails dovetailed between

them.
When mortised and tenoned together, they are
known as " framed grounds."
Plugs are small pieces of tapered wood driven
framed from back
into a wall after
winding,
so
to front
it
that
has been built
they
they should be cut
may have an
opportunity of
holding to the wall, even after shrinking.

Pallets or
Wood
Joints.
These
length and width as a brick (9
in.
same
and of
are of the
by
4-i-
in.),
a thickness equal to the mortar joints (about ^ in.).

They are built in with the work as it proceeds, at
distances of about 18
found
to
in.
from each other.
These are
be by far the best means of fastening,
being thin, the liability to shrinkage
is
as,
reduced, whilst
no necessity of raking out the joints of brick-
there
is
work
so soon after being built.
Wood
Bricks are sometimes used for fixing, but

liable in dry walls to shrink away and
become loose, whilst in wet walls they are liable to rot.
These are made of a composition
Fixing Blocks.
of coke-breeze and cement.
They are of such a nature
that a nail may be driven into them, and at the same
time they are not subject, as is the case with wood, to
dry rot.
they
are
CHAPTER VIL
SASHES AND SASH FRAMES, LANTERN LIGHTS,
SKYLIGHTS,
The
Etc.
construction of sashes, sash frames, and skylights
forms another important section of the work that may

be said to come strictly under the category of joiners'
may
Perhaps the most useful and convenient
work.
be considered as
being
the sliding
sashes in cased
frames.
Figs.
1,
elevation,
spectively
and
2,
with
3,
page 115, represent the interior
vertical
and
horizontal
a pair of vertical
of
sections
sliding sashes,
known
With the
re-
with
cased frame, and sometimes
as
sashes with cased frame."
half plan or hori-
zontal section,
is
the top of the

practice to
trate
show
shown
a half plan looking
head.
this, it
Although
casing
is
down upon
not usual in
illus-
the head of the sash.
be seen on looking at the sections that the

is
simply nailed together without
this being the
of work.
tonguemg,
method adopted in the commonest class
The following
various parts
Sill.
it
has been done here to
the method of blocking
It will
"double-hung
This
is
a brief description of the
is
the lowest
member
of the framing
it
SASH AND SASH FRAMES, ETC.
Fig
3.
ii6
should at least have
top surface weathered, so that
its
may not lodge upon it but it is far better

have at least one sinkage upon its surface, and if
this is throated the water will be prevented from being
driven back to the interior.
Fig. 3, page 117, represents a part section through such a sill provided with
the water
to
The
a ventilating bead.
section has been taken with
the sash lifted to a height equal to the thickness of

the meeting
This allows a current of air to enter
rail.
the room through the open joint between the meeting

rails.
The splayed
baffler,
sending the fresh air back to the glass, and
dispersing
it
joint of the meeting rails acts as a
about the room without creating direct
currents of cold
satisfactorily.
It is
air.
found to act in every way
should be constructed of hard and
Sills
durable wood, such as oak or teak, as they are fixed in

positions
which render them
liable to
dry
rot.
These are the vertical side pieces

Pulley Stiles.
against which the sashes slide, the parting bead being
tongued along the centre.
Pulley stiles are fixed by
being sunk into the
thickness
of the
spiked (nailed).
stile
when
stiles
shall
about half the
they are also wedged and
most important that the pulley
take up the irregularities.
Pulley
be either plain or tongued at the edges
exposed situations
They
It is
be faced up perfectly true, or the casing
fixed will
may
to the extent of
sill
latter
it is
are usually constructed in
class of work,
mahogany
in
necessary to have them tongued.

or teak
fir,
is
but in the better
used.
Heads. These connect the tops of the

pulley stiles, and are either housed or tongued, and
grooved at the joint.
They are, with the exception of
the centre groove, usually of the same section as the
Pulley
ii8
pulley stile
not usual to provide a parting bead
it is
head except in exposed situations.

These are nailed to the inner edge
Inner Casings.
of the pulley stile, to the sill and head, and in the
better class of work are of the same material as the
interior fittings of the compartment, and are of a thickness ranging from f in. in common work to 1 in. in
the better class, and of a width varying with the
at the
surrounding circumstances.
Outer Casings.
fixed
to
the
These
outside
are the casings which are
edge of
the
pulley
extreme edge projecting to the extent of f

beyond the face of the pulley stile.
Parting Beads.
centre of the pulley
These
beads
fixed
the
or f in.
to
the
and which form the partitions

which the sashes slide.
They
stiles,
between the channels in

are usually of the
are
stile,
in.
same material
as the pulley stiles,
are f in. in thickness, and should project beyond the

face of the pulley stile to the same extent as the outer
They are tightly fitted to the groove of the

pulley stile, and by this means only should they be
casing.
held in position.
Stop Beads.
These
are the movable beads, nailed
or screwed to the edge of the inner casings.
They
should be of such a thickness that the inner surface
is
crown of the parting bead and

They are sometimes of
the edge of the outer casing.
such a width that they pass over the joint between
the casing and pulley stile, and in the better class of
work are sometimes fixed in rebates by means of brass
" cups and screws."
Parting Laths or Slips. These are contained
inside the casing, and are hung loosely from the centre
in direct line with the

of the
ends of the pulley
stiles
they prevent the
In ordinary work
weights from striking each other.
they are of
work they are
Back
and about ^
fir,
in.
119
thick
but in the best
often of stout zinc.
Linings.
These are usually of f
in.
material,
tongued to the inner casing, and nailed upon the back
They complete the boxing
edge of the outer casing.
of the weights, and prevent the latter
being caught
upon the rough surface of the brick rebates.

The sashes slide in vertical grooves formed by the
casing, and are balanced by lead or cast-iron weights
attached
cords
to
being fixed about

stiles.
over
passing
3
in.
pulleys,
the
latter
from the top of the pulley
The joints between the meeting rails

Brackets.
and stiles of sashes are sometimes dovetailed, but if
the ends of the stiles were allowed to project, the
ordinary form of tenon would suffice, and is calculated
to
make
the stronger joint
the ends of the stiles in
this case
should then be moulded in the form of a
bracket.
This method
2,
and in practice
run
is
shown on
115, Figs. 1 and

found to cause wide sashes to
is
p.
" freely.
Window
Boards.
sometimes only 1|
surface of the
sill,
Narrow
in.
"
boards
"
or
battens,
wide, are tongued to the inner
to create a finish
and
"
break
"
the
and the plaster below.

They have
their front edges moulded (usually a half-round) and
returned," and are convenient for butting
the ends
the ends of the band moulding upon.
Page 120 contains an interior elevation of a pair of
2 in. double hung sashes and cased frame, fixed in a
two-and-half brick wall, with splayed boxed shutters
joint
between
it
I20
Arclntrn,-f.
INTERiOR
f.LEVAT/Oif
121
122
and with window back and elbows complete, enlarged

details of which will be seen on pp. 117 and 121.
Boxed Shutters. These are shutters which fold
back in "leaves" into boxings as shown on pp. 117, 120,
Page 121 contains an example of
121, and 123.
splayed boxed shutters in a 22| in. brick wall. The
wall, in this case, being thick enough to receive the
whole of the shutters without the necessity of the
boxing standing out into the room.
Square Boxed Shutters
may
be arranged within
in the section
may
stand
taken in
seat
on
p.
its
which
those
are
stand
In thick walls, they
out at right angles to the wall.
thickness
123, the wall
is
but when, as
thin, the boxings
Advantage may be
out into the room.
such an arrangement to create a window
whilst the only objection
is
that the boxing
is
apt to block the light from parts of the room.
This latter objection
may
be obviated by allowing
the shutters to close back in narrow recesses asjainst

o
the face of the wall.
The first panelled leaf is then
provided with a plain return piece, wide enough to

allow the shutter to close back into
having at the angle a rule

Vertical Sliding
its
boxing and
joint.
Shutters.
Another
method
disposing of shutters, especially where the wall

a thick one,
is
to
slide
behind the window breast
them
vertically
is
of
not
downwards
a vertical and horizontal

shown on p. 124. They are balanced in the
same manner as sliding sashes, casings being required
as for the latter.
The window board is here made to
answer the purpose of a cover or flap which, when open,
section
reveals the shutters.

to
is
close
against
the
Similar flaps
vertical
may
portion
be provided
of the
casing.
ffjiôug^
123
one scde of a
window fof^Q 3 6 opening
Stone CtU
(weotljereci)
Oafslde
lininj)
OoA CiU
-
Pa//ey stilt'
'
efs^5
f/^"
Stop Bead
Window Tdoord
Square
Strutters
124
Verftcaf Sliding S/jutfers

Advantage
is
taken of the depth behind the joist and
wall plate to allow the shutters to pass
The shutters
them.
125
are usually
made
down behind
for this purpose
two leaves, and, in the case of lofty windows, require

even more depth than has already been suggested for
this purpose the brickwork may be recessed to the
extent of two or three courses behind the wall plate.
in
Kings are provided in the top edge of the shutters for
and are so constructed that, when not

in use, they fall below the surface of the top plate.
French Casements. This is another form of sash
door, but in this case the sash, which was primarily
constructed for the purpose of light, has been made to
take the form of a door for the convenient approach to
a veranda or balcony. Page 127 contains half elevations
that to the left of the centre line
of such a casement
represents a half elevation of the exterior, whilst on the
lifting purposes,
right
shown a
is
stiles,
in
this
The
half elevation of the interior.
case, are
made
so
advisable to sink the lock below
frail
that
its surface.
is
not
For
this
it
and bolts are provided the latter

are known as espagnolette bolts
they are screwed upon
the surface of the stile, and are constructed in such a
manner that by turning a small handle, placed in a
reason, special locks
convenient position along
it,
the lengthened bolt en-
gages with the sockets both at the top and bottom.

Sections of the above casement are given on page 128.
Sashes of this kind are
made
to
open outwards as well
as inwards, special advantages being claimed for each.
In exposed situations,
results
are
it
is
suggested that
obtained by hanging
the
the best
doors to
open
towards the outside, as when the force of the wind

presses against them, they are closed into the rebates.
126
When hung
liable
that
it
may
the
sill.
In
the
fasten
to
When
not slam.
the interior there

at
open, they are
left
be caught by the wind, and great care has
to
be exercised
to
manner, and
in this
is
when
door
open,
so
the doors open towards
a difficulty in closing the joint
order
to
overcome
this
difficulty
several patent water-bars have been introduced with
The section given on page

or less success.
128 has been provided with an ordinary wrought-iron
greater
tongue against which the door
closes,
jecting weather-board has been fixed
whilst a pro-
upon the outer
edge.
The frame has here been provided with a transome and transome-light for ventilating purposes.
As
will be seen from the section, the light has been hung
from the transome
this arrangement prevents down
draughts, and disperses the air along the ceiling, where
it mixes with and dilutes the vitiated atmosphere of
;
the interior, purifying
it,
and rendering
it
less objec-
In the horizontal section two methods of

closing the joint at the stile are shown
tlie lower one
tionable.
is
considered to render the joint more secure in exposed
situations.
The frames
but
rail
may
for
French casements are always
shown on page 127.
Casement sashes with
frames are sometimes used in work
bethan
solid,
be constructed with or without the transome
"
;
known
solid
as " Eliza-
they are somewhat similar in detail to the
They are
French casement, but are not used as doors.
sometimes constructed in sets with solid mullions
dividing them into double, treble, or quadruple lights,
and are known as two-light or three-light casements,
according to the number of divisions contained by
These are also constructed with or without
the frame.

member known
the horizontal
top
surfaces
framing
the
of
as the transome.
exposed
off.
It
is
that the water

section of a
advisable
may
wood
to
throat
may
them
not be driven back.

sill
All
the
to
should be weathered so that the .water
run
129
Fig.
rain
easily
so
also,
90
is
weathered and throated.
rig
Capillary
Attraction.
When
two
surfaces
are
placed so that only a small space exists between them,
and when placed with
their
with water, the latter will
lower edges in contact

rise vertically
to a
con-
siderable extent above the normal surface of the liquid,
not by absorption alone, but by capillary attraction,
and the height
to
which the water may
as the space diminishes.

I
rise increases
I30
Throating. Water has also the power of adhering to

the under side of horizontal surfaces, and, if allowed to
do so, will travel some distance in this manner, and often
To avoid this, grooves wide

find its way to interiors.
enough to prevent capillary attraction are sunk into
the under surface of projecting wood-work
this is
Another form of throating is
termed " throating."
adopted on the vertical edges of sinkages on wood sills,
to prevent the wind from driving the water from the
lower to the higher surfaces the force of the wind is
checked by the throating, and the water thrown back
upon the lower surface.
It will be seen from Fig. 90 that all these points
have been considered in the design of the joint not
only that, but the joint between the bead of the sill
and the bottom rail has been prepared in a manner
somewhat similar to that of the meeting rails. It
;
requires but
and
all
is
additional labour in its preparation,
cold currents of
once clears
is
little
the means, in exposed situations, of keeping out
itself,
air.
The
sash, as it is lifted, at
and no loose joint or other clearance
required.
The approximate area of window surface for the

room may be found by extracting the
square root of the number of cubic feet obtained by
lighting of a
multiplying together the length, breadth, and height as

follows
Area in
sq.
ft.
= \/Length x
Borrowed Lights.
These
Breadth x Height.
are small sashes placed
in partitions for the purpose of giving light to inner
rooms or staircases not

sources.
They
sufficiently lighted
from other
are fixed in framing, formed of a set of
131
with window-board, the latter usually extend-
linings,
ing beyond the surface of the wall, and having
The
edges rounded.
its
band
and butting upon
linings are provided with
moulding, mitred at the top angles,

the window-board at the bottom.
Horizontal
outhouses
sliding
hinged
ordinary
They
results.
when one
sashes
they are more
casements,
peculiar
are
sash (the outside)
frame, the other sliding
known
they are
joint
is
sometimes used in
to construct than
and do not give good
are
difficult
some
to
localities,
and
constructed with the
is
upon a tongue
or in rebates,
as " Yorkshire lights.''
The
closing
provided with beads projecting from the face
of the sashes
and forming
Pivoted Sashes.
page 132
warehouse
rebates.
This
form of sash
is
shown on
they are used principally in buildings of the

class,
and
in
stables,
and the method
is
often adopted for the opening of the ventilating sashes

in lantern lights.
position
is
The advantage gained
in the latter
obvious from the fact that the sash, always
balanced upon the centre pin, requires
little
power
to
open it.
The position to which the sash may be
opened may vary from the horizontal to the position
Some
indicated in the illustration.
architects prefer
the former, whilst others are of the opinion that the
The
sash should incline as indicated.

centre
pin
should be a
little
above
gravity, so that the preponderance
of the closing of the sash.
is
position of the
the
centre
good rule to adopt
to place the pivot in the centre of the clear line
between the
" squares."
of
always in favour
is
midway
It will be seen that certain
parts of the beads are fixed to the frame, whilst the
others are fixed to the sash.
The exact
position of the
132
Pivoted Sqs/^ ond Solid JTôme.

V/////////
Mortar Screed p
to closeJoint
Segmental
Sqs// oper2ed
cutting
of ^heQois
to s/êM/
iiull-nose
7?>ricks
may
joint
133
be determined by placing lines across the
side of the frame in the direction and position occupied

by the crowns of the beads when the sash is open.
These lines will mark the extreme points of the joints,
and, if from the centre of the position of the pivot, a
circle
drawn, having for
be
between
radius the distance
its
and the extreme points alluded
this point
to
above, then tangents to this circle will represent the

line of junction
The ''centres"
between the beads.
for
the above are sold in pairs, one having a pivot upon
the plate, whilst the other has a corresponding socket
grooved from the side for the convenience of hanging.
The pivot may be attached

socket to the frame
in
this
the sash, and the
to
case the groove of the
socket has to be carried to the edge
This method has
the
objection
groove, appearing upon the surface,
avoid
may
the pin
this,
socket to the sash
the
of the
frame.
that the end of the
To
unsightly.
is
be attached to the frame, and

in
this
case
the groove
is
carried to the splayed butt-end of the bead, and, in that

position,
this
case,
not so conspicuous.
is
be
made
Allowance must, in
by
in the joint of the outer bead
raising the joint to the extent of half the thickness of
the sash, so
that
the
position.
Dormer
in
Lights.
the sloping
sash
These
surfaces
of
may
be
passed into
its
windows constructed
roofs.
They are distinare
guished from skylights by standing vertically, whilst

the latter
lie
in a surface parallel to the plane of the
They are often constructed as casements, but

may be of any of the forms previously described.
roof.
Skylights.
These
are
sashes of a
peculiar
con-
struction lying in the plane, or parallel to the surface
134
of
the
They
roof.
are
fixed to, or
upper portion of a curb or

of fixing skylights, the
lining.
common
hung from, the

For the purpose
are cut and
rafters
trimmed in a manner somewhat similar to the trimming of joists, and a curb or lining is fixed as shown
on page 135.
The bottom rail of a skylight is known
as an apron piece, and is thinner than the light by the
depth of the rebate and plus a small amount usually
allowed for the escape of the moisture which conin some
denses upon the cold surface of the glass
;
cases channels are cut in the top surface of the apron
piece for the

of the joint
the latter
is
same purpose. Two methods are shown

between the bars and apron piece, whilst
joined to the stiles of the light by means
of bareface tenons.
Lantern Lights.
These
are glazed enclosures con-
upon lead
and ventilation to rooms
They are a decided improvement
or staircases below.
upon skylights, but are more expensive to construct.
The roofing timbers are trimmed around in the usual
way, and curbs are made to stand at least 6 in. higher
These are
than the highest part of the roof adjoining.
firmly secured at the angles, by dovetailing or other
means equally secure, and with the trimmings cased by
Solid frames
plain or match boarding or by panelling.
with projecting sills of hard wood rest on, and are
secured to, the curbing, the whole being crowned with
structed
flats,
at the
ridges of sloping roofs or
for the purposes of light
a lead
flat or
glazed top lights, as
shown
in the part
and elevation contained on page 136. Between

the glazed side lights and the panelling or " combing,"
as it is sometimes called, a gutter should be fixed so
that the condensed vapour may pass away to the
section

The
exterior.
may
details of construction
on examination of section on page 136.
best be seen
The top
lights
the horizontal width of the margin
obtained by developing the angle, as seen at Fig.
1,
are nere hipped

is
137
page 136, 0 being the angle of inclination of the top

lights.
Fig. 2, page 136, represents the method of
obtaining the bevel of the joint at the hip, and which
may be described as follows

ABC, representing the plan
Draw
Construct the
the plan of the hip.
the single lines
BD
BAD
equal
angle
of the angle, with
as
to
Draw FB equal to BB,

(0).
BB. Join F with B. Draw
BB, and intersecting it in G.
the pitch of the top lights
and at right angles
AC
to
at right angles to
From G
construct
tersecting
it
GH
in point
H,
FB, and incentre, and GH
at right angles to
With G
as
RI, intersecting BB in /.
and IC
AIC is the angle between the
For the
the top lights, and AIG its mitre.
as radius, construct the arc
Join
AI
planes of
purpose of covering the angles, ridge

these
are
page 136.
shown
in
position
upon
rolls are
the
required
illustration,
CHAPTER
VIIL
EOOFS.
In our consideration of
so
much
of its
span,
roofs, attention will
not be paid
means
They vary in outline according to
character of work it is intended to cover, and
to the actual covering itself as to the
support.
also to climatic conditions.
Pitch,
In some parts
are favoured with
tendency
is
much
of the continent,
sunshine and
to construct flat roofs
eaves, so as to produce as
where they
little rain,
the
with wide overhanging
much shade
as
is
possible
whilst towards the north, where heavy rains and snows

prevail, the
custom
is
to
make
the roofs steeply pitched.
Again, the character of the building to be covered in-
In classic build-
fluences the pitch to a great extent.
ings the roofs are usually pitched at about 25, as were

also those of the late Gothic, whilst those of the
German
renaissance and early Gothic were steeply pitched, even

to the extent of
about 60.
Page 140 contains a

method of
45 ft. and above.
of single line diagrams illustrating the
ment
of spans
from 8
Lean-to Roof.
ft.
to
This roof
is
intended for small out-
buildings constructed against the walls of

ings.
Common
rafters
only
series
treat-
are
main
build-
used in spans up
ROOFS
10
to
ft.
spiked
are notched or
these
wall
the
to
attached.
The
upon the
fixing
139
stability of
the
at
and
plates,
birdsmouthed and
the
roof
covering
such a roof depends greatly
tops of the rafters
unless
thoroughly well supported here, the thrust along the

rafters has a
tendency to overturn the lower walL
Couple Roofs.
In
this
case
common
rafters are
used in pairs or couples, one from either wall.
They
by spiking to the ridge piece, the lower

ends being notched or birdsmouthed to the wall plates.
In this case the weight of the roof and its covering is
thrown obliquely upon the wall, but the tendency to
are secured
overturn
is
lessened as the pitch of the
It is not
creased.
recommended
roof
is
in-
to adopt the couple
roof in spans exceeding 12
Collar Roof.
ft.
See Fig. 2, page 140.
diagram furnished by Fig. 3,
The
page 140, shows this roof in its simplest form. When

the span is greater than 12 ft., the timbers need tying
The
together.
up the
tie
An
" collar."
in
this
and in
rafters,
this
case
is
placed half-way
position
is
known
as a
elaborate form of this roof with trusses
sometimes used in Gothic structures, and the increased span is provided for by means of brackets or
is
See page 159.
ribs.
Couple Close.
When
the feet of the rafters are
page 140, they

and the arrangement of the
tied together horizontally, as in Fig. 4,
are
said to be closed
roofing timbers in this

close."
manner
is
known
as a " couple
In the smaller spans the wall plates are tied
at. intervals of
every 3 or 4 feet;
but
if ceilings
are
attached, then each closing piece forms a ceiling joist,
and needs
12 inches apart.
In
and where ceilings are
to be spaced at about
long spans, from 16 to 18
feet,
I40
ROOFS
attached, the ceiling joists
141
need to be supported at
by iron rods.
King-post Truss. In the foregoing examples common rafters only were used, but in spans from 18 ft.
that at
upwards trusses or principals are necessary
their centres
Fig. 6
is
known
as a " king-post truss/' suitable for
18 to 30 ft.
A full elevation of this
shown on page 142, with common rafters, ridge
piece, purlins, and pole plates added.
It will be seen that the king-post truss is composed of
principal rafters, tie-beam, king-post, and struts. These,
spans
truss
from
is
when framed together, complete

The advantage of trussing is
the truss or principal.
by its means, the

weight of the roof is carried vertically upon the walls.
The trusses should be arranged to span the building
at intervals of from 8 to 10 feet, and between
them
that,
are carried the ridge piece,
plate; to these are fixed the
common
their turn, carry the roof covering.

is
carried,
piece,
purlins,
rafters,
and pole
which, in
Thus the weight
by the common rafters to the ridge

and pole plate, and, by them, concen-
first,
purlins,
trated at their junction with the principals.
The detail of the joint at the head of the king-post

shown by the enlarged sketch at Fig. 1, whilst the
joint at the purlin is shown at Fig. 2.
To prevent
is
the purlin from being turned over, short pieces, called

cleats, are
sunk into the top or back of the

and spiked or bolted.
partially
principal rafter,
In order that the nature of the stresses in the various
members may be understood, we

truss in sections.
in position
First, place the
upon the
been placed at
will
build
two principal
up the
rafters
and consider that a load has

the apex or head.
The load has a
wall,
ROOFS
143
tendency to push the walls out; to prevent this, place

the tie-beam in position, making good the joint between
it
if
It will now be seen that,

and the principal rafter.
the tie-beam and its joints are strong enough, the
feet
of the
rafters
We may
kept in position.
are
infer from this that the principal rafters are in comNow, place
pression, and the tie-beam is in tension.
the loads at points half-way up the principal rafters
(the
position
of
purlins), and,
the
heavy enough, the rafters will

sag, and approach a point near
beam. To prevent this, place
struts in position, passing from
beam up to the centres of the
the
if
loads are
be seen to bend or
the centre of the
the
tie-
two supports or
the centre of the
tie-
principal rafters.
It
now be seen that the weights at the purlins are

conveyed across the principal rafter and down the
will
and the principal
strut to the tie-beam,
only as the tie-beam

post
in
position,
is
bent.
supported
Now,
head
the
at
rafter
bends
place the king-
between
the rafters, and allow the struts to rest against the
enlargement at the base.
If the king-post is strong
enough, and the joints are properly constructed,
it
will
be found capable, not only of holding in suspension

the weight carried along the struts, but also of assisting to carry the tie-beam with
If the king-
its load.
post were constructed of material sufficiently elastic,
should find
in tension.
stretched by the weight

The following is a summary
it
Member.
Principal Eafters,
Struts,
it is
we
therefore
of the results
Nature of
Stress.
Compression.
Compression.
Tie-Beam,
Tension.
King-post,
Tension.
144
Camber.
may
they
Horizontal
timbers,
however
straight
be previous to being placed in position, have
a tendency to deflect or sag in the centre, even from
own
their
weight.
This
is
very noticeable, and gives
Even a small deflection

be much more than is actually
the impression of weakness.
appears to the eye to

the
To counteract
case.
joists, etc.,
beams, bressummers,
this,
should be placed with their rounded edges
uppermost, and in framed timbers an allowance,

as "
known
cambering," should be created.
Arching or cambering the timbers was

considered to give increased strength
one time
at
this
may have
been so at a time when walls were built stout enough

to
withstand the oblique thrusts, but in modern con-
struction
is far
it
or cambered
from being the
beam assumes the
tendency to thrust outwards
its
case.
As an arched
straight line,
it
has a
supports, so that care
must be exercised that the camber is not too great.

Cambering the tie-beams of wood trusses has the
effect
subsequent settlement of the
of reducing the
The king-
structure.
or queen-posts are, for this pur-
pose, cut short to the extent of 1
every 20
effect,
ft.
when
tightening
all
1^
or
in.
for
This has the
have been drawn up, of

the joints throughout the truss, so that
the shoulders
any subsequent settlement due

vented.
in.
in the length of the span.
to this cause is pre-
When the span exceeds 30 ft.,

Queen-post Truss.
two vertical posts are used instead of one these are
known as "queens," and the truss is called a " queen
Page 145 contains a part elevation of a queenpost."
post truss for a span of 37 ft., whilst enlarged details
are shown on pages 146, 148, 149, and 151.
;
ROOFS
145
ROOFS
The
147
around the head and foot of the queenpost are shown on page 146, with the necessary
joints
ironwork,
that
at
the
being
foot
known
as
the gib
and cotter joint.

The method of using the gib and cotter strap
best be seen in the section, page 146.
underneath the
mortise
is
tie
and up the
The
will
strap passes
sides of the posts.
cut in the latter in a position slightly above
the holes provided in the enlarged ends of the strap.
Iron gibs of the form shown in the figure are then

inserted, the ears keeping the strap in position whilst
the iron wedges or cotters are driven.
It will be seen
that the gibs are in contact with the iron strap at the
top,
and with the wood post underneath.
The driving
of the cotters has the effect of opening out the gibs
these in their turn press against the strap at the top,
and bringing up the tie-beam with it, whilst

the cotter below presses against the post, keeping it
down and consequently closing the joint. The gib and
cotter strap may be applied in the same way to kingposts, and to the support of sills in the framing of
lifting
it,
partitions.
Eoof trusses are placed

surrounding
Where
this
at
circumstances
dimension
is
distances governed
usually
or
10
by
feet.
exceeded, the purlins require
to be greatly strengthened either in their scantling, or
by trussing or strutting.
The section given on page 148
Parapet Gutters.
shows the method of treatment of the timbers at the
foot of the principal rafters
when
be formed against a parapet.
a flat gutter has to

In this case the gutter
bearers are notched over and spiked to the

rafters, the latter resting
upon a wall
plate.
common
Pockets
ROOFS
TdlocHirzQ
9dox Guttler
149
Course Finish
and
Cess/dool
ISO
have here been provided for the reception of the end

of the truss, and provision made for the ventilation of
the
timbers, by placing
roofing
The
above the cornice.
flov7 is
an
air
grating just
given to the gutter in
by varying the height of the gutter bearers

necessarily makes the gutter wider as the height
this case
this
of the bearer increases.
Box
method
Gutters.
The
section on page
of forming a box gutter.
The
149
gives the
pole-plate
is
made
use of here, for the purpose of carrying the ends of the
common
rafters, instead of the wall plate, the essential
between the two being that the wall plate

rests throughout its length upon the wall, whilst the
pole plate rests only at intervals upon the ends of the
The full depth of the pole plate is here
roof trusses.
difference
taken advantage of for the varying height of the gutter
which are tenoned into
bearer, the ends of
its
sides,
The cessforming an approximately parallel gutter.

pool is a form of tank or cistern for the purpose of
collecting or receiving the rain-water previous to its
being emptied into the down-pipe
it
may
be formed
within the depth of the tie-beam, where the position of

the latter does not prevent
it.
Eaves Gutters.
The roofing timbers
are illustrated on page 151.
These
wall at least
1.8
are carried over the edge of the
ins.,
the
common
rafters being sup-
ported either by jack rafters or by a pole plate.

bearers are carried out from the wall, and
the ends of the

or covered
by a
that the gutter
common
fascia board.
is fixed,
ing the gutter to
The
soffit
is
rafters, the
made
Soffit
fast to
ends being closed
It is to the fascia board
the depth of the former allow-
be fixed with the necessary flow.
covered either by boarding or lath and
152
plaster
whilst at intervals air gratings
may
be fixed
for the purpose of ventilating the roof timbers.
Abutments.
thickness
by increasing the
are formed
immediately
of walls
when
timbers,
These
increased support
underneath
required
is
or brackets of stone are also used for the

pose.
By
alteration
slight
of
the
bearing
;
corbels
same pur-
scantling,
details at the foot of the principal rafter, as given
pages 148, 149, and 151,
and queen-post roof
may
the
on
be adapted both for king-
trusses.
On page 1 5 3 is shown a complete

mansard roof truss, with common rafters,
purlins, curbs, and pole plates added.
It is a combination of king- and queen-post trusses, with two
roof planes on either side.
The advantage of this
form of roof is that increased accommodation may be
Mansard
Roofs.
elevation of a
obtained without the expensive construction of walls.

It is a
common
several
tiers
occurrence on the Continent to find

rooms within the roof itself.
The
section given on page 154 shows how a similar form of
roof may be constructed upon purlins without the use
of a truss.
It is intended here to finish with parapet
wall at the front, and with overhanging eaves gutter at
of
the back.
The truss shown on

Philibert-de-Lorme Truss.
page 156 is an illustration of what is known as a
Philibert-de-Lorme " truss.
The main rib is formed
up
of a series of short lengths of boards in three thick-
These
and with butt joints.
by being fastened with radiating pieces
to a blade of 11 in. by 4 in. material and to the
uprights.
The radiating pieces are made slightly orna-
nesses, placed vertically,
are stiffened
mental in character, whilst the top
five are
made
to
ROOFS
The
support the skylight and ventilators.

here constructed,
The strength
truss,
as
intended for temporary use only.
is
of curved ribs of this kind, as
to a solid rib, is equal to
thickness, less one rib.
compared
one of the same breadth and
Another form of truss with

Colonel Emy Truss.
In this
laminated ribs is that shown on page 157.
the
case
boards
cylindrical,
or
well
laminations
bolted
are
concentric
These
together.
are
and
built
upon a rough platform or "centre," the boards being

forced to " take up " the curve by means of cramps.
It
is,
however, found that
when
the laminations are
thoroughly jointed at the butts, and kept well together
by
is
tendency to spring, on being released,
bolting, the
but
And
little.
this is entirely counteracted
by the
subsequent external bracing and strutting.

This method of building
adapts
itself
up
ribs
by laminations
to
the
construction of
admirably well
bridges and large roofs, where
economy and strength
are the chief considerations.
Gothic Roofs. The truss illustrated on page 159 is

an adaptation of the collar beam mentioned in the
previous part of the chapter.
The
collar is secured to
by a stump mortise and tenon,

and by means of a collar strap with bolts.
The tendency of roofs of this description is to push the walls
the
principal
blade
outward, the angle at the collar opening, whilst that

at the foot of the rafter closes.
The
up
and
ribs,
for the sake of economy are built

made fast to the blades and collar
by means of small purpose-made oak
which
in sections, are
to each other
tenons about 8
in.
bore-pinned with f
long and 4
in.
in.
wide, firmly draw-
or i in. oak pins or tree-nails,
ROOFS
Colonel
SmoU po/^tcori
^;72(/
77"c/ss.
s/ôwinc? draccrrg
of
S^_nrig^cnp_Z.cne^
f^cds
senile I rct/lor
//y oift/u?e
158
The
between the
joints
ribs are spliced,
and
their joints with the blades, are tongued, as
the enlarged section.
11
in.
by
in.,
The blades
in this
whilst the ribs are 2^
these,
and
shown
in
example are
in. thick.
It is
desirous, in roofs of this kind, to carry the timbers to
as low a point in the wall as is possible.

In this case
an upright plate has been attached to the lower end of
the blade, and this, with the rib, has been carried down
to a stone corbel,
upon which
Hammer-Beam
Truss.
it rests.
This
truss
is
illustrated
upon page 160, the short horizontal hammer-beam coming out from the foot of the principal rafter giving the
truss its name.
Trusses of this kind lend themselves
to elaborate ornamentation, the
spandrils being filled
with tracery panels, and the ribs and blades moulded

to
such
an extent that the outline of the principal
in some examples, almost lost to view.

is,
The diagram represented at the bottom of the page is
that of the hammer-beam roof over Westminster Hall,
timbers
reputed to be the best example of

country.
its
kind in the
Three main ribs are here made use of on
either side of the centre, one passing directly from the
centre of the collar, whilst the others pass in either
from the end of the hammer-beam.

Wind Braces. In lofty trusses of the foregoing
kinds, it is necessary to afford some additional lateral
support in order to keep them in a vertical plane.
These are usually placed in the plane of the roof, and
pass, in the form of ribs, from one truss to the other.
Turret Roofs. The illustration given on page 1 6 1 is
that of a pyramidal or turret-shaped roof, octagonal in
direction
plan.
points
The
by
principal
strutting,
rafters
two
are
passing
supported at three
from
the
centre
i6o
ROOFS
i62
up from the foot

are made fast to the
post, whilst the third passes
These
queen-post.
latter
of the
by
ties
may
gib and cotter straps, whilst additional support
given to the struts by fixing short cleats on the
be
off-
side of the queen-posts.
Drips.
made
In arranging
gutters, consideration
must be
If that material be
for the covering material.
then the gutter should be arranged, as nearly as
lead,
possible, in 7
ft.
In practice
lengths.
found more
it is
convenient to work the lead in lengths not exceeding
At
this dimension.
which
these distances drips are arranged
an opportunity of joining the lengths in

such a manner that, although kept in position, they are
free to shrink and expand with the changes of temperature.
Page 163 contains five methods of forming
afford
the drip.
The
drip.
Fig.
lead
what is known as
worked up from the lower
represents
is
higher level, and tacked to a rebate.

end, the other being arranged
move
to
Fig.
is
to the
the fixed
as the top piece of lead
freely with the expansion
without buckling.
the
This
a plain
and contraction,
represents a sloping drip,
advantage of this form being that the lead
more
easily bossed at
the ends.
Fig. 3
is
represents a
rounded drip.
In this case the lead is not so easily
cut through in walking over it, as with the square
edge.
The section given in Fig. 4 has the advantage
of preventing the lead from rising when the gutters
are wide.
The
section of Fig.
5'
has been arranged to
prevent the passage of water through the lead joint
by capillary
attraction, a peculiar property of fluids
explained in the previous chapter.
Sections, with part elevations, are

Side Gutters.
shown on page 164, of the various forms of gutters con-
ROOFS
163
164
ROOFS
structed
upon the sloping
165
sides of roofs to
make
water-
tight their junction with rising stacks or gable-ends.
The sections in each case are taken through stacks or

chimney flues, the inside of the 4 J in. being parged,
whilst the outside has been rendered, this latter pre-
caution making
Dragon
it
Ties.
doubly secure against
In
hipped roofs
fire.
often found
is
it
desirable to give additional support to the wall plates,
and
to secure a better seating for the hip rafter
This
the wall plates afford.
is
accomplished by
bracing the wall plates together, as
and then
ing
it
at
to
The arrangement
known
as a "
to
dragon
tie."
Roofing Irregular
sometimes experienced
buildings
timbers
of the
Plans.
in
irregular in plan
such examples.
The
by inclining the
ridges,
its centre,
tops of the wall
the
in
this
Great
arranging
;
first
shown on page 166,
tenon a dragon beam to
the back
than
notchplates.
manner
difficulty
the
roofing
is
is
of
page 169 contains two
sometimes overcome
and sometimes the eaves, or
in some cases the roof plane has been twisted to meet
the irregularity, neither of which is considered to
produce a good effect.
Figs. 1 and 2 represent two
irregular plans.
In the first case two of the walls
difficulty is
are parallel, and, being the long walls, the ridge
be
made
parallel
to
may
them, and the ends hipped to
meet it.
The positions of the trusses are marked
by double dotted lines.
The irregular plan given in Fig. 2, page 169, offers
the greater difficulties of the two.
If the planes of
the roof are to be true, and the ridges and eaves horizontal, the only position
can
occupy
is
parallel
which the plans of the ridges

to
the wall
plates.
If four
ROOFS
167
means
ridges were adopted, then the
portion would be
central
adopted here
make
to
is
intercepted.
between them to
To draw the plans of the
collected
drain to the lower wall.

valleys, consider the
intersect in point
JN,
side ridges produced until they

(at the top of
bisecting the angle at
wall line in N.
of roof, as
is
intersecting the lower
may
be considered as the
By
between the ridges.
inclined valley line with the outliiie
developing this
joint
the page), and draw
J and
This line
of the valley
plan
The method
use of the upper three ridges
the water
only, allowing
of draining the
gutter
shown by the dotted
lines, the intersecting
obtained, its plan being immediately below
Then by joining up the plan
it.
of this point with the inter-
two remaining
The lengths of the hips and the
backing are shown in this example, the
sections of the ridges, the plans of the
valleys are obtained.
bevels of their
methods adopted being explained in the following.

To find the Length of the Hips. The hips may
always be considered as occupying the position of the
hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, the plan of
the hip being its base, and the difterence in the
altitude of the highest and lowest points of the hip,
the
perpendicular.
If
these
lines
be rotated about
the plan, into the horizontal plane, the length of the
hip
AB
may
readily
represents
difference
be obtained.
the
plan
of
in their altitudes.
at right angles to
length of the hip.
BA, then
In Fig.
the
By
AC
hip,
1,
BC
the
down
BC
and
turning
represents the true
This process has been repeated
with each one of the hips in Figs. 1 and
To
page 169,
2.
Backing of the Hip or the Angle

The dihedral
between the Planes of the Roof
find the

between the two roof planes is measured by
a third plane, mutually perpendicular to the first
angle
pair
between
angle
the
the
horizontal plane
plates,
intersection
of
lines
For
represents the angle required.
this purpose, the
brought up to the level of the wall
is
The plane used
line.
dihedral angle
is
measuring
for
which
the
always triangular, and made up by
the two lines including the required angle

line
by
the plans of the latter being represented
single
and the
Of
the horizontal trace of the plane.
is
this triangle three
elements are sought for the purpose
of its construction,
viz.,
the base, perpendicular, and
Taking the same
the position of that perpendicular.
corner as used in the last case, Fig.
we
1,
will pro-
ceed to find the angle contained between the planes

intersecting in the hip of
which
AB
In
the plan.
is
order that a plane shall be perpendicular to two others,
must be
at right angles to the plan
of the line of intersection.
is
The dotted line
AB, and represents
horizontal trace
its
therefore
drawn
base
the
at right angles to
the
of
AB
alluded
already
triangle
intersection (F) with
is
also
To
foot of the perpendicular.
Its
to.
the position of the
find
length, take
its
a side view of the hip or intersecting line {AC).
If
AC
and
from Fj a
intersecting
line
it
be drawn
in
then
(?,
of the perpendicular.
perpendicular to
FG
With
radius, construct an arc cutting
(the
length
of the
the angle required.
angles will all differ

to
as centre
AB
perpendicular)
position at right angles to

is
represents
H.
in
is
BF, and
the length
and
Then
rotated
the angle
The plan being
FG
as
FG
into
BHF
irregular, the
the operation therefore requires
be repeated at each corner.
ROOFS
J6'0
Pur/in^
and
rrêtfyod
of obtocnfrig
/ac/c ffo/Cer's
^/hevclrS
ROOFS
171
To find the Bevels for Purlins. Fig. 1, page 170,

may be considered as a portion of the plan of a
regular-shaped building, and
its
roof planes.
Two
ABC
a section through
enlarged purlins are represented
in section, each placed at different angles to the roof
For the purpose of obtaining a larger diagram,
plane.
the sides of the purlins have been increased to a width
equal to the length of the radii of the
The
circles.
extremities of these radii have been carried back to
the plans of the hips.
The ends
of the surfaces
when
developed represent geometrically the true bevel upon

the ends of the material.
To
irregular
this
the Bevel of the Jack Rafters. The

end of a building has been selected for
find
example, and
is
shown
at Fig. 2, page 170.
The
double lines represent the plans of jack rafters (short-
ened
eaves to
pitch
The perpendicular distance from the

the ridge has been found by developing the
rafters).
GFD, and then

One each
EF.
turning
it
into the horizontal plane
margin lines of the jack

rafters have been produced to meet the hips developed.
The angles between these lines represent those reat
quired.
of the
CHAPTER
IX.
AND TRUSSING
FISHING, SCARFING,
TIMBERS.
In some of the larger varieties of framing which the

carpenter has to construct,
it is
often a difiScult matter
to procure timbers of sufficient length for his require-
He
ments.
has, therefore,
resort to one or other
to
The
of the following means, viz., fishing or scarfing.
between the two being that, in

making a fished joint, the breadth or depth of the
essential
timber
is
difference
increased;
constructed within
Fished Joint.
its
In
length of the timber

for the fact that
it is
own breadth and

these
is
For
lost.
they require
no
joints
is
depth.
this
of
the
reason,
and
part
labour to construct,
little
considered the most economical method of length-
ening timbers.
sion,
whilst in scarfing, the joint
tension,
They may be constructed

and
transverse stress.
for
intended to resist compression
is
it
for
compres-
Fig.
91
is
the neatest of
the fished joints, as the plates do not project
much
Another fished
that shown at
plates have been
beyond the thickness of the material.

joint,
Fig.
used.
designed to resist compression,

92, in which
It
case
wood
fish
is
has been said that the strength of these
joints is equal to the strength of the fish plates; but
FISHING, SCARFING,
AND TRUSSING TIMBERS
173
the fact must not be lost sight of that the plates are
placed in the most effective position, and are, comparing equal sections, far more powerful here than in
the centre of the depth of the timbers.
designed to resist
a tensile joint,
Fig.
93
both compression and tension.
its
strength depends
upon the
is
As
ability
of the material to resist shearing, both with respect

jug
to
the
figure,
wood and
the
butt
iron.
is
On
ao.
XXX
the under
side
of
the
prevented from opening by the
The top plate is said to be

hard-wood keys or cogs.
purpose of resisting transthe
for
joint
A good
tabled.
verse stresses may be constructed by sinking a wood fish
plate a little below the surface of the side in compression,
side,
and by placing an iron fish plate upon the tensile

The bolts
and bolting the whole well together.
should be placed zigzag, to preserve, so far as possible,

the effective area of the material.
The
fish plates are
174
'T:
4f
rL-
<*
V
j'
'I
-4^
'-^3-
c?.
'3'
FISHING, SCARFING,
175
of a length equal to six times the depth of the piece
joined.
Scarfing.
of
scarfing
page 174, are representations

compression, and
tension,
transverse
In each of these cases, each piece
stresses.
away
Figs. 1 to 6,
for
is
to the extent of the length of the scarf.
cut
Fig. 1
represents a scarf suitable for compression only.
Fig.
an illustration of an example intended to
resist
is
both compression and transverse stresses.
4 are designed
for a similar purpose.
designed for the purpose of
are
ties,
calculated to resist transverse stresses.

are given to represent the
method
and
5 and 6
Figs. 3
Figs.
and are also

and 8
Figs. 7
of finishing the top
and bottom edges of the foregoing examples when they

are subject to
side
Fig.
thrusts.
7,
of the
two,
is
calculated to be best adapted for compression joints,
the
being
bearing surfaces
right
at
angles
to
the
direction of the thrust.
Strengthening
Horizontal
purpose a series of timbers

of
each other, the
strength
increased directly as the

If bolted
together in a
the flitched
may
Timbers.
For
this
be built up at the side
of
such
timbers
being
number of the pieces used.

manner somewhat similar to
beam (Chapter
iv.),
they are
rendered
considerably stronger, the strength increasing directly
Timbers placed above each other,

if properly designed and secured, are even stronger
than those placed side by side.
This will be
easily understood from the fact that the strength of
as
the
breadth.
rectangular timbers
the depth.
varies
directly
Upon examination
as
the square of
of Fig. 94,
it
will be
seen that the pieces or laminae, of which the whole
beam
is
composed,
is
liable to slide over each other as
176
they are deflected or bent down.

vented,
if
This must be pre-
the fullest effect of the increased depth
is
to
r
In Figs. 3 and
be secured.
4, p. 177, sliding is preindenting

the surface of one
vented by cogging or
piece below that of the other, and securing the pieces
by iron
It
straps.
is
estimated that, to
secure
the
from the above, the sum of the indents

should be equal to the total depth of the beam.
Trussing. This may be done within the depth of
best results
the beam, or
iron or cast.
in such a
may
it
extend beyond, and with wrought
If the latter be used,
manner
must be placed
to which it may
it
that the stresses
be subject, produce compression only.

not economically be used
to resist
Cast iron
tension.
may
In the
example given on p. 177, Fig. 2, the beam, which is

composed of two flitches, has been trussed by means
of a tension rod passing
vertical
wooden
down
to the lower
end of a
strut provided with an iron face plate.
The tension rod passes upward between the two

and through cast-iron shoes, specially prepared
and provided with splayed backs, directly at right
flitches
angles to the direction of the tie-rod.
previously
stated,
the
within the depth of the
trussing
beam
may
itself,
As has been
be carried out
and, in that case,
the face plate of the last example would be let into
the under side of the beam, the bar passing under
it.
FISHING, SCARFING,
177
178
A
to
beam may be
single
the
down
last,
is
manner
but in such a case the rods would pass
the outer
example
trussed in a similar
faces,
shown on
p.
one on either
side.
Another
194, the beam of the traveller
being provided with two
struts
support to the moving load.
to
afford
additional
In order to receive the
ends of the tension rods, the shoes
are,
upon both
sides,
provided with stout projecting ears, cast in the solid
Timbers may be trussed as shown at Fig. 1,

This is the method usually employed in
page 177.
supporting the upper levels of gallery flooring, and in
metal.
where parallel timbers are required both

at the top and bottom, and where the increased depth
Plain strutting, where possible,
is
an advantage.
should always be preferred to cross bracing, as less
labour is involved, and the full sectional area of the
timber employed is effective.
This is not the case
where timbers cross each other in the same plane, the
positions
cutting or cross bracing reducing the effective area of

the timbers joined by one half.
CHAPTER
X.
TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, AND CENTERING.

Timbering
Excavations.
excavated
be
for
the
When
has
earth
construction
of
to
foundations,
drainage, and other works, the sides need to be sup-
ported in a manner which will prevent

falling in.
The methods employed
with the character of the
moderately
stiff soil,
excavated
be
only
soil
and
will
its
them from
vary greatly
condition.
In
such as clay, and which has to

the
to
vertical poling boards,
from 8
depth
in.
to
of
or
10
in.
wide, and
ft.,
from 2 in. to 3 in. thick, are placed at intervals of

about three or four feet, and are supported by struts
4 in. by 4 in. or 5 in. by 5 in.
These are kept in
position by being firmly driven from the top and not
from the sides (see Fig. 1, page 180).
In loose, rubbly
soil
it
will be
advisable
to
support the sides with
poling boards, closely placed, and in lengths of about

3
ft.
Waling
pieces
are
placed
across
the
poling
boards near their ends, and these are supported by

the struts.
Waling
pieces require to
be of stouter
material than the poling boards, the thickness being
by the nature of the soil, and also by

The waling used in the excavations
largely controlled
the
spacing.
i8o
Timbering
Ejccq vq tions
TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, CENTERINCx

shown
page 180,
at Fig. 2,
In loose sandy
soil, it
is
of 7 in.
will be
by 3
t8i
material.
in.
found necessary to sup-
port the material by placing horizontal waling pieces

directly against the
soil,
supporting these by vertical
work pro-
poling boards driven downwards, and, as the

ceeds, strutting
waterlogged
soil,
them
In
at regular intervals.
such a& river-bed work,
to use specially prepared sheeting, as
it is
shown
soft or
necessary
in Fig. 95.
This
is
known
of thin material, driven
guide piles."
as
between
The sheeting
is
stiffer
timbers
driven before
excavating, the pointing of the ends of the boards (as
shown
in the figure) assisting to close the joints,
thus prevent, as
The
as possible, the escape of water.
matched in the manner shown, so that

being brought to bear upon any one board,
be distributed over a
Bearing
15
and
joints are
pressure,
may
far
in.
These are of whole timbers 10 or

and of a length varying with the
Piles.
square,
series.
l82
requirements.
They are used
for the
purpose of creat-
ing foundations on soft and treacherous ground over-
They are assisted in their

by being pointed at the lower
ends, and protected, as shown in Fig. 96, by cast-iron
The
points, secured by wrought-iron straps and bolts.
heads are protected during the process of driving by
lying a hard substratum.
passage through the
soil
wrought-iron rings.
The
wood-work,
by guy ropes, and having an
engine, by means of which a large weight, called a
" monkey," of from two to three cwt. is raised.
The
" monkey " is allowed to fall from a varying height.
pile driver is a vertical staging of
secured in
its
position
TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, CENTERING
183
regulated by the set required and by the resistance
The
of the pile.
"
monkey,"
the friction of
a
by repeated blows from the
pile,
driven to such a depth that, either by
is
its sides
against the
harder substance below,
it
is
soil,
or by reaching
capable of affording
the required bearing power.
The
resistance offered
following formula
by
piles
may
be found by the
WH
8i>
L = safe load in cwts. (cut off at the ground),

= set of pile by the last blow in inches,
11= height of the fall in inches,
W = weight of " monkey " in cwts.
When
1)
Shoring. This is the term given to the methods

adopted for temporarily supporting the walls of a building which shows signs of bulging, or of passing out of
the perpendicular, or of supporting the upper portion
of a wall during the process of underpinning, or alter-
ing the character of a portion of the building.
Raking Shores.
pass from
the
Those
ground
position are termed

of
whole timbers,
"
to
props or
the wall
raking shores."
of
width and thickness.
timbers which
in
an
inclined
They should be
the same dimensions, both
When
in
a series of shores pass
same platform
to different points in
the height of a wall, they are
known as double or
number of tim-
directly from the
treble raking shores, according to the
bers so situated.
It is the
custom, under some condi-
support from a point midway up the

and not directly from the ground such support
tions, to start a
shore,
is
known
as a " rider."
185
Illustrations of three varieties are given on page 184.
In order to
piece
is
fix
a shore, or system of shoring, a wall
fixed
first
the wall, covering the portion
to
inclined to bulge, and having mortised in
enough
for
the
"
needle
"
to
pass
holes large
it
These
through.
wood about 4 in. by

and about 18 in. long, which,
needles are rectangular pieces of
in.
or 5
in.
by 4
in.,
after passing partially into the wall, are allowed to pro-
Against these the head
ject about ten or twelve inches.
of the raking shore

first
is
placed, additional support having
been given by a cleat partially sunk into the
The
wall piece immediately above the needle.
foot of
the raking shore rests upon a platform composed of

short ends of deals, about 3
Upon
crossing each other.
long, crossing
ft.
this
and
re-
a sole piece rests in
a direction at right angles to the wall.
The
sole piece
In this case
sometimes takes the place of a platform.
the material should be of a width and thickness equal
to that of the shore itself.
The raking shore
adjusted by bringing the foot closer to the wall.
is
best
This
should be done with the aid of a handspike or crowbar,
applying
it
as a lever of the second order.
Jarring of
the frame-work should be avoided so far as possible,

in being
communicated
to the brickwork, the
as,
mortar
joints are apt to be destroyed.
Eiders are adjusted at either end by folding wedges,
and are made secure either by a bonding of hoop-iron,

or by planking.
In the latter case the planking may
be extended to the wall piece and made to serve the
purpose of
struts.
Iron
dogs
"
short pieces of |
in.
round or square iron, with the ends pointed and turned

through an angle of 90
are then applied to keep the
several parts in place.
Shores, flying or raking, should
//onôntol or I'lytng
TJouble SysCcm.
S/?o/ês.
i88
be applied to walls in positions thoroughly well supported, such as the junctions of floors, or against the
edges
Details of raking
of other walls.
shores
are
shown on page 186.
Flying Shores. These are horizontal shores passing

across the space between two houses
and, as is the
case with raking shores, as one, two, or three horizontal
shores are used in the same trussing, so is the system
;
known
as single, double, or treble flying shores.
Wall
and needles are used in this, as in the raking

The shores are cut a little short of the distance between the wall pieces, and rest temporarily
upon cleats. They are then adjusted by means of
folding wedges, additional support being rendered by
strutting.
The illustration given on page 187 is that
pieces
shores.
of a double system of horizontal flying shores.
Dead
These
shown on page 189. The

removed for the
insertion of a shop front.
The upper floor windows
are first strutted to prevent settlement, and then holes
are drawn in the solid brickwork for the insertion of
the needles
these must be in positions where they will
Shores.
are
front wall of a ground floor has been
not interfere with the progress of the work.
Brick-
work, to the extent of about 1
ft.,
ft.
in.
or 2
on
either side of the needles, may, with care, be left un-
supported, or may be removed in steps upwards in the

form of a rough arch.
The needles are supported at
either end by upright timbers known as " dead shores,"
resting upon " fenders " or
sleepers," and, as will be
seen in the section on page 189, the shores may be
made
the
intervene.
of
11
in.
means of supporting the floors that may

The floor is here carried upon a long plate
by 3
in.,
supported by the shorter shores,
lY/ôie 77r/7bers
7)eac/ S/^ôre
/f Tdnch yvol/
It
189
190
and adjusted by folding wedges at the base, the difference between the top surface of the floor and the
underside of the needle being taken up with short
cleats or plates resting on at least three or four joists,
and this again adjusted by means of folding wedges.
must be
Sufficient space
left
between the shores and
the wall on either side to carry on the progress of the
The joints are all plain-butted, and are secured

by iron "dogs." Upon removing supports of
kind, it is always advisable to do so by degrees, so
all new work may take up its bearing gradually,
work.
in position
this
that
and without
fracture.
Centering. A ''centre" is a rough, temporary platform of wood, upon which arches are sprung.
It
should, in the outline of its elevation, be of the exact
composed of two or more

firmly secured together, whilst upon
form of the archway.

cheeks or ribs
their
upper edges
It is
pieces, called
laggings," are
fixed,
ranging in size from small battens to heavy planking

according to the nature of the work.
It is
upon the
laggings the voussoirs or arch stones rest during the
building of the arch.

rule
and
straightedge,
laggings a
little
In order to apply the plumbit
is
necessary
to
keep
short of the face of the work, |
the
in.
upon each
As
side being sufficient in small work.

the " centre " takes the weight of the voussoirs
until the keystone has been placed in position
centre
" struck,"
upon the correct
great
care
positions
is
for
required in
the
struts,
and the
deciding
so
as
to
economically carry the superincumbent weight with

safety.
It has
been found by experience and investigation
that arch stones do not begin to slide upon their beds

until
191
the joints are inclined at angles of about 30^,
varying according to the material, the condition of

surface,
and
also
material employed.
to
the
nature
of
its
cementing
the
It is therefore obvious that centres
are not required to lend support to the voussoirs until
the
have
bed joints of the latter
known
as
the
"
angle
of repose "
what
reached
of
that
is
material.
This tendency goes on increasing with the angle of the
bed joints until a perpendicular line through the centre

of gravity of any voussoir falls without
which case the whole weight

borne by the centre.
its
base, in
of the stone has to be
Fu) 97
Fig.
97
is
an example of centering for a semicircular

which is 18 ft.
Up to this span
arch, the span of
ordinary planking ribs
may
be used.
These
nailed together with butt joints, and in suah a
that they break line with each other.
may
be
manner
192
Centres.
Segm ento
I.

When
arches exceed
the span
given in
the
193
last
example, the centres need to be trussed either with
Two
small king-posts or with queen-posts.
amples are shown on page 192.
Striking or Easing Centres.
After
such ex-
the keystone
has been placed in position, and before the mortar or
cementing material has had time to set, the centre

should be eased, or allowed to drop slightly from its
position, so that the voussoirs
their
own
bearing.
may
be able to take up
This should be accomplished by
degrees and with great care, avoiding
all
jarring or unequal settlement, or fracture
unnecessary
may
occur
and the work be rendered insecure.

For small work the striking is carried out by easing
the folding wedges inserted between the centre and its
supports
but in the larger varieties tapered and
stepped cotters or keys are employed, as shown on
page 192.
These are allowed to project until the arch
is
completed, and then, by driving them back by
degrees, the " centre " drops from its position.
For the purpose of lifting heavy masonry
Gantries.
or other work, a gantry, similar to that shown on
page 194, is constructed, the standards passing down on
either side of the work.
These are usually arranged
with a traveller and hoisting gear, so that material
may be lifted from any position of the work. In some
important work the movement of the traveller and the
hoisting gear is controlled from one point, usually at
ground level.
;
194
CHAPTER
XI.
MOULDINGS AND CIRCULAR WORK.

The mouldings which
are used at the present day are
mainly of Grecian and Roman origin. They are shown

separately on page 196, whilst a combination of some
of them will be seen in the cornice, frieze, and archiSpeaking generally, the mouldings
trave on page 199.
of both types will be found to be of the same com-
but with this distinction

the Roman
binations,
morldings are of circular outline, whilst the Grecian
mouldings are
the
other than the circle.

narrow band alike both in
elliptic, or of curves,
This
Fillet.
Roman and
is
flat,
Grecian.
divide the combinations of
cyma
caps the
Torus.
time.
recta
This
It
is
is
It
is
used principally to
the other mouldings, and
and cyma reversa.

the bead as
commonly used
known
as
at the present
plinth
or
base
moulding, and gives the appearance of strength and

support.
Ovolo.
convey
cyma
This
the
reversa
for the
is
another of the mouldings which
impression
and
same purpose
or capping moulds.
of
scotia
support,
other
and
with
the
mouldings designed
are usually placed in cornices
'
196
Mouldings.
GrecCon.
f(om on.
]
ratet.
Torus.
Oi/olo.
or
Coi/etto.
Fascia
%eta.
f(et/ersQ.
TTôcîtus
or
ScotcQ.
MOULDINGS AND CIRCULAR WORK
Hollow or Cavetto.
viz., annulets and cyma
197
two following,
are intended to convey
This, with the
recta,
an impression of shade, whilst the fascia gives the

impression of light.
Astragal.
This
is
projecting
bead-shaped moulding, shown in

Figs.
98
Fig.
to
98
or
103.
is
a representation of the true astragal as a
horizontal band
as Fig. 99,
its
semicircular
various forms at
it is
when
known
situated as a vertical moulding,

as a
cocked bead.
When
sunk
below the surface, as at Fig. 100, it is known as a

Fig. 101 is a representation
double quirked bead.
of
a returned
bead, whilst at
ordinary or single
upon the edge
of
Fig.
quirked bead.
102
The
is
seen the
latter
stuck
matched boards, or boards placed
with their edges in contact with one another, has the

198
shown
effect
and counteracts the unsightly
in Fig. 100,
appearance of an
open
the angle or staff bead.

of a segment
of
Fig.
joint.
It
is
103
in section of the form
than the semicircle.
a circle larger
fixed as a protection at the angle of
It is
walls, the
flattened
plastered
a key for the
affording
surface
represents
plaster.
Hollow and Astragal.

is
This,
as
shown on page 201,
a combination of hollow and round, with a
listel
or
between.
fillet
Enlargement and Diminution of Mouldings.

The example given is that of a combination of cornice,
and architrave
frieze,
quired to reduce
height from
its
GH
first.
its
AB
Draw IJ
It is repage 199).
projection from
to IJ, and
(Fig.
1,
GH
CD,
to
Taking the projection
of the required length parallel to
from GH.
Join HJ and
From all important
GI, producing them to meet in K.
points in the projection of the moulding, drop perpen-
and
at a convenient distance
diculars to
draw
GH,
From
the feet of the perpendiculars
lines converging to
K and
intersecting IJ.
IJ
GH, and
will
will then be divided proportionately to
represent the diminished projection of the moulding.
For the diminished height repeat the process at AB

(Fig. 1), drawing CD of the required height parallel to
and at a convenient distance from AB.
If the height and overhanging projection are to be
reduced in strict proportion, then the triangles
and
must have their perpendicular heights
GHK
ABN
divided
by IJ and
CD
in
the same ratio.
This
is
perhaps best accomplished by making the two triangles
and dividing the similar sides proportionately.

Mouldings may be enlarged by placing the line
similar,
200
representing the increased height obliquely across the
EF, the increased heights of each

by that portion of the
oblique line crossing the member.
The increased
overhanging projection is obtained in a similar manner
by placing the line representing that distance obliquely
across the perpendiculars over GH.
The enlargements
may also be found by triangles similar to the method
of diminishing.
In that case, the lines IJ and CD
would be replaced by the increased distances, and the
would
positions of the apices of the triangles
and
be reversed, and placed on the opposite sides of the
bases GH and AB,
The term " similar " has been mentioned with
reference to the triangles used in the enlargement and
moulding, as
at
member being
represented
In order that triangles
diminution of mouldings.
be
similar, it
their
angles
equal
each
to
each,
then
sides about their equal angles are proportional.
page 199,
CBA
Raking Mouldings.
page 199, the sections
the
the
Fig. 2,
a representation of two similar triangles,
is
and EBD.
of the bar
may
only required that they shall have
is
several
B,
method
of
These
and
(7
are
shown
at Fig.
3,
being the raking sections
The student will readily understand

obtaining them from the figure, the
member the same.

Mouldings. The illustraon pages 201 and 202 are given to show
thickness being in each
Intersections of Curved
tions furnished
how
the mitres of curved mouldings of panelled
are
obtained.
single
line
soffits
diagram of a separate
scheme has been shown in each
case, and, to
avoid
needless repetition, a portion only has been enlarged.
The enlarged portion
of each diagram has been repre-

sented by the dotted lines at the centre of each
The following
is
summary
of the results obtained
Obtained.
straight mouldings (any position),
Straight.
curved mouldings of equal radii
(internally or externally),
Two
rail.
Mitre
Mouldings Intersecting.
Two
Two
203
Straight.
curved mouldings of equal radii
(internal with external).
Curved.
Curved mouldings with unequal
radii
(internal, external, or combined),
Curved.
Curved mouldings with straight (internally or externally and acute or

obtuse),
-----
Curved.
In mouldings of curved outline and with but few

members, supplementary marginal lines must be adopted,
and through their intersections a fair curve representing the mitre line may be drawn.
These are ventilating
Circular Louvre Frames.
frames fixed in the walls of stables and other buildings
where air is required without light. The fixing of the
louvre boards in the manner shown on page 204 prevents the driving rain from passing to the interior,
whilst currents of fresh air are directed upwards towards the ceiling, and there diffused.
The method of obtaining the outline of the louvres
will readily be seen
when
it
is
understood that they
terminate upon a cylindrical surface, the diameter of
which
is
equal to the distance between the quirks of
By producing these lines,

and by drawing the line ACD parallel to the sloping
sides of the louvres, and intersecting the lines produced
the beads (see page 204).
205
and D, the major axis of the elliptical section of

The minor axis HOB is
the cylinder is obtained.
in
made equal
to the
diameter of the cylinder
the axes
bisecting each other at right angles, the outline of the
curve
of
may
any
In order to find the true shape
be drawn.
louvre, project its extremities from the section
of the frame to the major axis.
If,
from these points,
be drawn at right angles to the major axis to
lines
meet the curve, the outline of the surface of the louvre
will be obtained.
may
but both
side,
Pendentives.
that
to
of
"
pattern will be required for each
be obtained by the same process.
The term
spandrel,"
"
and
pendentive
it
will
" is
analogous
be necessary to
thoroughly understand the latter before a proper conception of the former

the
irregular
may be
triangular
obtained.
surface
spandrel
intercepted
is
between
the extrados of an arch and an imaginary rectangle
surrounding
Where two
it.
arches are placed in con-
tinuation, the whole of the triangular surface included
below an imaginary horizontal line joining the crowns

and the outline or extrados of the arch on either side
The term" spandrel" is applied
is termed the "spandrel."
only.
When the surface is curved
and intersected by vertical or horizontal planes, the
portion intercepted between such planes is known as
The figures given on page 206 will
a "pendentive."
serve, not only to illustrate the meaning of the term
" pendentive," but to show how the curves of the ribs
are obtained.
In this case, when the main rib AC or
DB is laid down, all other parallel ribs may be taken
from them.
to plane surfaces
To
plan,
find the
and
laid
Curve of the Ribs. Having drawn the

down the main rib ACDB, with section
2o6

of octagonal curb, trace the dotted
etc. (Fig.
1),
crossing the diagonal
and intersecting the main

cepted between the dotted
lines
AB
from
for the angle rib
lines
c,
e,
at right angles
from each
represented at
is
a,
The portions
rib.
represent the face-mould of that portion.
mould
207
inter-
rib
will
The face4a, and is
obtained by a fresh development of the upper portion

of the rib
upon the plan

2, 3, and
the points 1,
of the rib at /.
in
4,
the
The heights
sectional
of
elevation,
are also obtained from the development of the large

rib.
Circle on Circle.
Work
has a circular outline
work.
is
that, in plan
known
and
as " circle
elevation,
on
circle
"
In order to describe the methods employed to
obtain the lines, the circular headed door frame has
been selected.
Two examples
will be explained, viz.,
the head divided in two and also in three parts.
The
example given on page 208 is that of the head divided

in two.
Having drawn the plan and elevation, draw
the chord ab in plan, and the tangent xy parallel to
ab.
These lines represent the plans of the back and
front surfaces of the required plank, and their distance
apart, the thickness.
intersecting ab
Draw
and xy
the radiating dotted lines
in points 1, 2, 3, etc.
Project
the points upwards, to the front surface of the frame
and draw the vertical lines 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.

The heights of the upper and lower extremities of these
lines upon the front and back will represent the heights
of similar ordinates upon the face-mould.
Transfer the
lines xy and ab with their numbers to a convenient
position and set up ordinates, cutting them off in
in elevation,
length equal to those in elevation.
Trace a fair curve

through the points on the ordinates, and the face-mould
2o8
Circle
on Ccrcie.
210
is
obtained.
It
will
be noticed that the line 3x has
been taken perpendicular to the line ab
x tlierefore
represents the internal edge of the plank at the lower
with x, and the edge of the plank is

The other edge of the plank is drawn
tangent to the face-mould and parallel to the first edge,
the bevels at the ends being represented at C and D.
end.
Join
determined.
If the edge of the
plank above
b,y
bevel at that end will be found.
be developed, the
This
is
shown
at
U and
F.
At the other end a square is used. In the
example shown on page 209, the head of the frame is
divided into three, and the method of obtaining the
The student
face-mould is similar in each case.
should remember that the joints between the three are
butted, and are normal to the curve at that point.
The bevel
at
is
applied to the vertical surface of the
top portion, whilst the bevel at If belongs to the top
and bottom edge.
The bevel
at
is
applied to the
ends in a manner somewhat similar to a square.
CH/VPTER XIL
TIMBER: ITS GROWTH, TREATMENT, AND
PRESERVATION; VARIETIES AND THEIR
PECULIARITIES, USES,
Growth.
AND
DEFECTS.
Upon examination of a transverse section
of one of the soft-wood trees, such as the
firs
or pines,
a series of concentric and more or less regular circles

will
be found, composed of light and dark material.
With the exogens

layers are produced
forming what
is
outward growers, these rings or

by the ascending sap in the spring,
or
known
as spring-wood.
After being
exposed upon the leaf to the action of the sun, the sap
is
decomposed, and in
way
altered condition returns
its
of the trunk, depositing another layer,
autumn-wood,
differing
slightly
in
colour,
known
by
as
and thus
between the springand that of the next.

In tropical climates this motion of the sap takes
place in the rainy seasons, and the annual rings
The annual rings are
are not so strongly marked.
composed of a number of small cells, which in some
timbers can only be distinguished by the aid of a
creating
wood
a line of demarkation
of one year's growth
microscope, whilst in the coarser grained timbers, such

as that of the oak, they
may
be seen with the naked
TIMBER
213
Communication of the sap is carried on between

the annual rings by cells, contained in radial planes,
and known as medullary rays. These are found in all
timbers, but are more strongly marked in the oak,
beech, and plane trees, and are known by the joiner
as the felt, silver grain, or clash, and are illustrated by
The formation of
the radial lines in Fig. 3, page 212.
eye.
the growth
externally
causes
the heart of the
each year to become more dense.

notice this for himself;
offers
more
remote.
resistance
Upon
The student
tree
will
wood nearest the heart

the tools than that more
the
to
close examination of a log of timber,
annual rings, two

some cases differing in
colour, and usually separated by one distinct ring.
Two such logs are shown at Figs. 1 and 2, page 212.
These different classes of wood are known by the
names of duramen and alburnum. The former is the
there will
distinct
be found, besides the
classes
of wood, in
heart or perfect wood, whilst the latter
is
the sapwood.
found upon the outside of the

trunk, but upon the growth of new wood exteriorly,
This latter variety
is
the older portion of sapwood becomes indurated and
changes
With
that of
its state to
duramen
or heartwood.
the younger trees the sapwood forms by far
the greater part of the trunk, but as the tree reaches
maturity, the perfect
wood
or
duramen increases and
the sapwood becomes less in proportion.
Fig. 1,
page
212, represents a section of the trunk of a tree of immature growth, with the sapwood forming by far the
greater
portion
representation
of
of
the
the
section,
whilst Fig.
section of a trunk
of
is
mature
growth, the sapwood forming but a small portion of

the section.
214
Felling.
This
is
the operation of cutting
tree previous to its conversion into timber.
foregoing remarks
order to be
fit
at maturity,
or,
deficient in
may
if not,
be inferred that a
the
tree, in
should have arrived
builder,
it
the
will be found to contain a
alburnum or sapwood, w^hich is

The matui'e age
strength and durability.
quantity
large
it
for the
down
From
of
of a tree varies considerably, according to the class to
which
it
belongs, but ranges from
60
of foliage at the top.
150
to
tree that has passed maturity will lack a
At the appearance
of such signs,
the tree should be felled in order to save
Another important point

the seasons.
when
is
to consider is
is
at rest
less
wood.
temperate climates,
this, in
;
to be preferred, as at that period
of its juices,
and
is
not
so
For the same reason,
in drying.
its
with regard to
It is advisable that a tree should be felled
the sap
midsummer and midwinter
at
years.
growth
full
but the latter
is
the trunk contains

liable
to
fracture
in tropical climates,
the dry seasons are the best for felling purposes.
Seasoning. This is the process of extracting from

In the resinous
the timber its moisture and sap.
varieties it is
soon as
it
advisable to rouglily square the log as
is felled.
This not only facilitates the dry-
wood from splitting.

from the relative dimensions of the circumference and diameter, how it is that
whole timbers " shake " to such an extent in drying.
In addition to this, it is found that timbers shrink
ing process, but prevents
The student
the
will understand,
considerably more in the direction of the ring than
This is shown at Fig 3, page 224, and, although exaggerated, points out the direction in which
the greatest change takes place,
across.
TIMBER
No
seasoning process
cess of air-drying
natural elasticity,
by
is
215
equal to the natural pro-
the timber not only retains
it
but
the
process
its
desiccation
of
is
brought about without that amount of warping, twist-
and
ing,
common
splitting so
carried on in open sheds
to other
methods.
It
is
by stacking and stripping the
timber upon elevated platforms, so constructed that

they are true in plane, otherwise a permanent twist
may
The
be given to the material so stacked.
strips
used vary from one to three inches in thickness, are

placed
upon the
lines,
material.
to direct sunlight.
exposed positions,
no cross strain is put

Timber should not be subjected
so that
Where timber
sheds are erected in
advisable to cover the sides
is
it
with louvre board ino-
have
along the stack, and in
regular distances
at
strictly vertical
so
free access, the rain
that, whilst the air would

and direct sunlight would be
prevented from striking the
The time
timber.
re-
quired by the process varies with the class of timber,

its
and the condition when received.
sizes,
Fir
may
be instanced, as taking half the time occupied by oak.
Oak, 24
Oak, 7
in. sq.,
in.
occupy about two years.
will
or 8 in.
sq.,
will
occupy about
six
months.
Other scantling in like proportion.
The stacking
builder represents a great expense, and

as so
by the
looked upon
of large quantities of timber
much money
is
lying idle, and can therefore only
be carried out by firms heavily financed.
Water Seasoning
timber
in
"
ponds
"
consists of wholly
convenient
immersing the
places
near
large
timber yards, usually close to the banks of navigable

rivers.
This
process
is
carried
on
for
about
three
2i6
which time a large part of the sap is

washed out.
The material is then dried in stacks
weeks,
in
as above.
Hot-Air Process of Seasoning.
This
is
a process
only applicable to small timbers, as wood, being a poor
conductor of heat, a small portion only of

affected
by
It is carried
it.
its
depth
is
on in chambers heated by
steam (usually the spent steam from the engine) passing

through a series of 3 -in. or 4-in. pipes below the floor,
the timber being carefully stacked so as to allow of the
and evaporation of the moisture,

and at the same time to prevent warping and twisting.
Condensing tubes, through which cold water passes,
should be placed at intervals around the chamber, so
that the moisture, as it evaporates from the timber,
may condense upon the surface of the pipes and find
its way by channels to the exterior.
Smoking. This is known as M'Neile's " process,
and is reputed to produce good results. The operafree access of heated air
tion, like the
previous one,
in a brick chamber, but in
combustion
are
allowed
atmosphere of which
of
water
contained
In
all
carried out by stacking
this case the products of
enter
the
chamber, the
kept moist by the evaporation
is
in
timbers but above the
to
is
tank
situated
below
the
fire.
processes of desiccation care should be exer-
cised to apply the heat gently, as
the timber
is
Steaming.
by a rapid process
injured by splitting.
This
is
a process
by which the wood
subjected to the action of steam, and
be effectual with any sized timbers.

the timber
is
is
is
considered to
In this process
stacked in wooden tanks, but stripping
is
necessary only to allow of a free passage of the steam.
TIMBER
as
217
no warping or twisting takes
occupied
The time
places.
calculated at the rate of one hour for every
is
inch in thickness.
PEESERVATION.
In order
to prevent, as far as possible, the
timber, several methods have
decay of
been brought forward,
each tending to a greater or less extent to bring about

the desired result
Painting.
This
they are as follows.

is
a process of covering the surface
with sublimate of lead, or in work subjected to sulphur

fumes, zinc white.
work by means
These are thinly spread over the
of a brush,
the vehicle
used
being
linseed oil with a small addition of driers.
With
all
coating methods the material should be
thoroughly dry before the application of the preservative,
otherwise the moisture within the material would
be prevented from escaping, and dry rot would ensue.
Tarring.
and out of
When
the work
doors, covering
often resorted
is
of a rough character
the work with gas tar
is
to.
In either of the above processes two, three, and four

coats are often applied to
make
it
effectual.
Sanding. This is a process of covering the surface

with sand.
The work is first coated with stiff paint
and the sand sprinkled over it, afterwards dusting off
the superfluous sand and repeating, finally coating the
surface with a paint to produce the desired colour.
This has the effect of making the work appear like
stone.
The sand should be clean and

or earthy matter.
free
from
all
loamy
2i8
Charring the ends of posts previous to embedding

them in the ground has been found to have a beneficial
effect, especially in
soils inclined to be wet.
The
effect
of carbonization
render the material so
to
is
treated proof against decomposition, but, like
must be
coating processes, the interior
all
either deprived
of its sap, or have its condition so changed that
not likely to become decomposed.
have been
tried,
decomposable
following
amongst
elements,
Abel's,
it
is
Several methods
render immutable the
order to
in
other
them
Boucherie's,
Bethell's,
being
the
Burnett's,
Gardner's, Kyan's, Margary's, and Payne's.
The process of treatment recommended by Sir F.

Abel is a three-coat one, the first coat of which consists of
a dilute solution of silicate of soda, containing
one of a saturated solution of the same to four of
The second coat
water.
of fat
or pure
lime
consists of a
whilst
similar solution to the
first,
are
applied to
work by means
silicate
the
it
lasting
The
of
to
is
dry before the application
effect of this process is to increase
properties
of
the
wood, and
to
render
uninflammable.
Bethell's process
it
consists
of a brush, care being taken that the
of soda solution
of the lime.
third
diluted to the extent of
These
two of water.
the smooth surface of the
one of the saturated solution

solutions
the
creamy solution
renders
the
is
one of creosoting, and although
timbers
objectionable smell,
now
it is
highly
and of
and popu-
inflammable
the most effective
and is proof against the

The process consists of piling
the timber in wrought-iron tanks, creating a vacuum
within the same, and then subjecting the timber to a
lar
process
attacks of animal
in
use,
life.
TIMBER
219
solution of creosote at a temperature of 120, and at a
150
pressure of about
for creosoting should
per sq.
Specifications
in.
This ranges from 8
be injected.
to
lbs.
state the quantity per cubic foot
12
to
per
lbs.
cubic foot, according to the class of work for which
the material
William
Sir
lar
is
be used.
is to
Burnett's process
The
used.
of zinc
to
somewhat
is
but in this case
the above,
to
solution
or
of the
salt
(1
gallons of water)
simi-
metallic salt
lb.
of chloride
is
forced into
wood under a pressure of 150 lbs.

The advantage of the process is that
material appears to be more thoroughly im-
the pores of the
per sq.
the
in.
pregnated than in the former method.
The material
absence of smell.
is
There
is
an
rendered uninflam-
mable, whilst the poisonous nature of the salts renders

it
proof against the attack of insects.
(chloride of zinc)
a
is
extent at
slight
Experience
quantity
is
has
soluble in water,
least, is
proved,
to be
that
therefore, to
washed
a
out.
sufficient
retained for all practical purposes.
M. Boucherie's process
by
material,
liable
however,
The material
and
is
one of impregnating the
composed
12 gallons of water.
slight pressure, with a solution
of 1 lb. of sulphate of copper to
The newly-cut end

collar or
wood
is
of the timber is provided with a

washer of leather or felt, whilst a disc of
made
of a screw
fast to the
end of the timber by means
through the centre, and in such a way
that the felt washer intervenes, creating a small space
over the end of the timber.
connected
by means
of
This chamber
rubber
tube
to
containing the sulphate of copper solution.

is
placed at a height of about 15 or 20
is
then
tank
The tank
feet, so
tliat
220
" is created.
head of pressure
The
solution, enter-
ing the pores of the wood, forces the sap out and takes
process,
and
said the material
it is
The completion
use.
the
but a few hours to complete the
It takes
place.
its
application
of
is
ready for
at once
of the process
indicated by
is
prussiate of potash
the
to
other
end of the material

a complete passage of the salt
is marked by a brown stain.
Margary's is an English process, and appears to be
contemporary with that of the French (M. Boucherie's).
It differs from the latter, both as regards the intensity of the solution and the method of application.
;
Margary recommends
The materials
only
that
added
water should be
or
gallons of
pound of the salt.

a tank, and the timber is
each
to
are placed in
allowed to remain until thoroughly steeped, the time

required being about two days per inch of the thickness of the timber.
Kyan's process consists of steeping the timber in

of mercury (corrosive sublimate), in the
proportion of 1 lb. of the sublimate to 15 gallons of
bi-chloride
water.
the
for
best
under pressure similar

Payne's
than the above
stronger solution
commended
is
effects,
to the
and
is
re-
injection
former processes.
a double process, two
separately applied.
also
partial
chemicals
vacuum
is
being
created by
upon the admission

The latter is said
of a solution of sulphate of iron.
to find its way, even to the heart of heavy timber,
through the pores rendered empty by the extraction
the condensation
of the moisture.
of
steam, and
Sulphate of lime
is
then injected,
and a chemical action takes place between the two,

rendering
the
material
so
treated
not
only
proof
TIMBER
221
and the attack of
against dry rot
but also
insects,
uninflammable.
Gardner's process
that of washing out the sap
is
The process is said

from timber by chemical means.
to occupy from one to two weeks, and is carried on
in
open tanks.
not only to preserve the
said
It is
lasting properties of the timber, but to render
thereby
dense,
increasing
Material so treated
and
insects,
is
is
its
crushing
it
more
resistance.
capable of resisting the attack of
also rendered uninflammable.
The
These
Defects.
following are some of the defects to
be found in timber
Knots,
are the portions
branches
according to whether they have
or dead knots
live
the
of
enveloped by the trunks, and are classed as
of trees
retained or lost their nature
the latter are considered
most objectionable.
Sapwood.
It
This
deficient
is
may
in
is
outer portion
the
strength
and
liable
of
the tree.
decay.
to
It
be distinguished in most timber by being dis-
coloured, and again
by absorbing an abnormal amount
of moisture.
StaV'Shakes
are
small
shakes passing through the
timber in radial planes, and often beginning at the

outer surface; these are illustrated in Figs.
and
5,
1,
2,
4,
page 212.
Cup-shakes are illustrated in Fig. 4, page 212, and

may be described as shakes separating the annual
rings.
wood
In sawn timbers they sometimes sever the

in
two by passing along the entire length of
the material.
Heart-shakes are
heart
of
the
large clefts
timber.
These
passing
should
through the
be
carefully
222
observed in balk timbers
if
they are winding in plane
or twist through the length of the material, they are

liable
a great
spoil
to
portion
the
of
heart
of
the
timber.
Twisted fibre
a defect sometimes found in timber
is
growing on the borders of
forests,
and which have been

Timber with
subject to the action of violent winds.

defect
this
is
be
liable to
"
short " in
its
when
grain
converted into plank.
Druxiness
a defect peculiar to special kinds of
is
timber, such as oak and lignum vitae.
It is
seen in
white or yellowish streaks passing with the grain of
A druxy knot is one that has a portion

changed in colour and has become druxy
this
the material.
of
it
usually takes place in sectors.

Docttiness is seen
more particularly
and beech, the former being subject

than the
It is
latter.
the
in the plane tree
to it
name given
even more so
to the
small
elliptical-shaped spots ranging from about i in. to li

length.
in. in
In
its last
stages
it is
of a dry
powdery
nature.
is the term given to the appearance of disupon the surface of the material.
It is the
indication of decay, and is particularly noticeable
Foxiness
coloration
first
in birch.
Upsets,
This
the
is
continuity of the
fibre.
name given
It is
to a
rupture in the
caused by crushing, or
improper treatment in stacking or loading.

Rind-Galls.
These are caused by a local destruction of the liber or rind during the growth of the
timber, from which, either by the accumulation of
foreign matter or other cause, the wound has never
healed.
TIMBER
Waney
been
Edges.
These
upon which have

the rounded surface of the
are edges
small portions of
left
223
and sometimes covered with small portions of the
log
liber or inner bark.
Conversion of Timber.
The
mode
of converting
timber depends largely upon the variety, the purposes

for
which
it is
intended, and upon the market.
In
all
the conifers, and with a large quantity of hard- or leaf-
wood
timbers, the heart should
earliest
This
opportunity.
tendency to
be laid bare at the
will
largely
reduce
the
split.
The Kiga and Memel wainscot oak logs are cleft

when placed upon the market, whilst the more modern
Austrian wainscot logs are sawn longitudinally through
In order to retain the silver grain of oak,
the heart.
logs should be cut as

all
is
shown
at Fig. 1, page
boards are taken from radial planes.
224, so that
This method
considered expensive owing to the constant change
of position in sawing
most
and the waste of material, but
of the small triangular stuff
the construction of mouldings.
shown other methods
At
may
be utilised for
Fig. 2, page,
224
is
of converting oak timbers, so as
to retain as far as possible the silver grain.

Another
method of converting a log of hard-wood timber is
shown at Fig. 5, the heartwood being reserved for
quartering.
Fig. 4,
page 224, illustrates one of the Baltic methods
By sawing through the centre,

good quality deals are obtained
whilst two thin deals are obtained from the sides, each
having a quantity of sapwood at the external edges. In
of converting a log.
two
1 0
in.
by
3 in.
order to get the widest deal from a log, one piece
sometimes cut from the centre, but this
piece, it
is
must
224
IPw.S.
Mg. 3.
TIMBER
be remembered, contains
observation of Fig.
able to see
how
3,
the
From
heart.
close
page 224, the student will be
the form of pieces alter during the
when taken from various parts of

two deals be taken from a log, one from
plane, and another from the outer portion of
process of seasoning,
the
log.
a radial
If
the log, at right angles to a radial plane, then the latter,
upon seasoning,
will be found to
have shrunk in width
considerably more than the former, but, apart from

this
fact,
the latter
is
stronger
when occupying
the
position of joists or bearing timbers.
From
a close acquaintance with the
movements
of
timber during the process of seasoning, the student
upon examination of the end of a board,

determine what the subsequent behaviour of that
will be able,
to
piece of timber
may
be when placed in the work.
Forest
trees are classed by botanists

under two distinct heads, Monocotyledons and Dicoty-
Classification.
ledons, according to the particular organization of the
But it is to the growth of the stem, or the deseed.

velopment of the trunk, that the carpenter or joiner has
According as the tree develops
to turn his attention.
by the formation of the woody tissue upon the interior
upon the exterior of the trunk, so is it known either
by the name of Endogenous, or inward grower, or by
the term Exogenous, or outward grower.
It is from the dicotyledons and conifers that we
obtain our large and ever-increasing supply of timber.
This latter class of timber is again divided by the
Needle-leaf and
forester into two distinct classes
or
broad-leaf trees.
Needle-leaf trees are the cone bearers,
and their timbers are known as
firs
They
or pines.
are also classed under the head of soft

p
woods
whilst
226
amongst them may be placed the cedar, larch, cypress,

Broad-leaf or hard-wood trees differ
yew, and cowrie.
from the preceding class in being non-resinous.
Amongst them are the poplar, chestnut, oak, elm, ash,
beech, alder,
etc.
In commerce the terms pine and fir are so loosely

used that one might almost consider them synonymous
but for the following facts
The term "pine"
known
not applicable to the timber
is
as spruce.
Baltic
fir " is
commonly used with
a term
the
all
Baltic conifers in contradistinction to the hard or leaf-
woods of the same
district,
but
it is
more properly used
in connection with the spruce varieties.
The term
" fir "
is
never applied to the American
pitch pine {pinus rigida).
The term
" deal " is the
commercial term sometimes

" white,"
yellow," and
applied to small stuff of the

"
red " varieties other than pitch pine, from the fact
that these varieties
come
to our
markets in the form of
deals.
From the above, the student will be able to underwhy it is that northern pine {pinus sylvestris)
known by such other terms as Scotch fir, red, and
stand
is
yellow deal.
Standards.
120
A Petersburg standard
pieces, each
By
thick.
get the
12
ft.
long,
11
in.
is
equivalent to
wide, and 1^
in.
multiplying these quantities together, we
number
of units of length, breadth,
and thick-
ness contained in the above standard, and which will
be found to be 23,760; and from this number
we may
obtain an equivalent standard of other scantling.
pose
we
require 12
ft.
lengths, 11
in.
Sup-
wide and 2
in.
TIMBER
thick
then, by continued division of the constant
these latter quantities,

of deals
we
we might have
12
are able to obtain the
23760
1980
in. )
2 in.
180
90
Irish standard
by
number
to the standard, as follows
ft. )
11
An
227
is
deals.
similar to the
London standard
and contains 120 pieces, each 12 ft. long by 9 in. wide

and 3 in. thick equivalent to 270 cubic ft. A square
of timber is 100 ft. super; enough to cover a surface
10 ft. by 10 ft.
The quality marks on Baltic deals
are stencilled upon the end of the deal (usually in red),
whilst the Baltic logs are scribed.
American deals are
sometimes marked in red chalk, upon the broad surface
near the end, with one, two, or three

the
quality is " firsts,''
seconds," or
lines,
according as
thirds."

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SO
CHAPTER XIIL
MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY.
The
effect of force
upon matter
is
tend
to produce, or
an alteration of form, position, or volume.

These alterations of form or volume are called
strains, and the forces which produce them stresses.
to produce,
The following
table gives
some
of the stresses
met
with in carpentry, the strains they produce, and the
mode
of fracture, if
any
Mode
Stresses.
Strains.
Tension.
Elongation.
of Fracture.
Tearing away.
Compression.
Shortening.
Crushing.
Transverse.
Bending.
Breaking
Shearing.
Distortion.
Cutting, as with a pair
across.
of scissors.
For the present purpose
will
it
be convenient to
consider a structure as an erection, consisting of one or
more members
capable of
so
bound
resisting,
or secured together as
any great
without
to
be
amount
of
motion, any external or internal forces.
The
may
forces that a structure
support or resist are as follows
be called upon to
(1) Gravitation, due to
internal or external loads, such as the roof and
its
MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY
snow (2) Wind pressure.

The first,
acts downwards, and in a perpendicular
load, including
gravitation,
This
line.
tained,
is
237
is
met, and,
resisted
if
equilibrium
is
by the reaction of the
to
be main-
The
walls.
second, wind pressure, acts in an inclined direction, but
calculated as normal or at right angles to the surface

upon which it impinges or strikes.
" To
Newton's Third Law of Motion is as follows
every action there is always an equal and opposite
reaction, or action and reaction are always equal but
is
opposite in direction."
walls, or pillars
From
we
this,
see
why
it is
that
supporting a loaded beam, must offer
together a resistance equal to the
These are termed parallel
forces,
beam and
because
its
load.
they act
parallel to each other.
In order to discuss the action of a force,

to
know
we
require
at least the following
magnitude.
(1)
Its
(2)
Its line of action.
(3)
The sense
of the force or the direction in
which
it acts.
(4)
Its point of application.
All these particulars

that
We
as
is,
they
may
may
be represented graphically
be represented by points and
lines.
are accustomed to represent a quantity numerically,
4 inches,
6 tons, 1 0 days, etc.
understanding that a foot
is
but,
the unit,
a yard measure represents three.
by the mutual
we may
say that
Again, by changing
we may say that the same yard

measure represents thirty-six and so on, by a proper
understanding of the unit employed, we may, by a
the unit to an inch,
line of fixed length, represent quantity or magnitude.
238
Again, the student will readily

position occupied by
may always
see
that,
by the
a line, the direction of a force
be represented.
FORCES ACTING AT A POINT.

Parallelogram of Forces.
If
two
forces acting at
a point be represented, both in magnitude and direction,
by two straight
lines
drawn from
a point, and
if
parallelogram be constructed having these two lines for

adjacent sides, then that diagonal of the parallelo-
its
gram which passes through the point

the
forces
will
magnitude and
Example
represent
of application of
resultant,
both
in
forces of 5 lbs.
and 7
lbs.
their
direction.
(Fig. 103).
Two
respectively act at a point C, and at an angle equal

to
A.
Find their resultant.
Draw two lines BC and DC equal in length to 5

and 7 units respectively, including an angle equal to A,
and intersecting at point C. Complete the parallelogram
;
:
CBED.
Then the diagonal
EC
239
passing through the
point of application C
magnitude
The resultant force is
and direction, the resultant.
one that produces a result equal to a combination of
others, and the forces producing it are known as components.
The resultant in the example given will be
found to be 9 lbs. as measured by the number of units
represents, both in
contained in
N.B.
it.
The
equilibrant
resultant.
Triangle of Forces.
is
equal and opposite to the
If three
forces
point be represented in magnitude
acting at a
and direction by
the sides of a triangle taken in order, then the forces

will be in equilibrium.
Example
(Fig.
104). Three
forces
AB, C, and CA
are represented as acting at the point 0.
Find, by the
principle
they are in
of
the
triangle
of
forces,
if
equilibrium.
N.B.
the
In
method
this
case Bow's Notation has been used
may
be
briefly
described
as
follows
Assign a letter to each of the surrounding spaces as
240
Then
separated by the lines of force (Fig. 104).
in
the reciprocal figure 105, lines representing the forces

will have, at their extremities, letters corresponding to
those appearing in the spaces of the former figure.
the case before us the triangle closes
we may
In
there-
fore consider the forces are in equilibrium.
Polygon of Forces.
If any number of forces act
and if, starting from any point, a line be
drawn equal to and in the same direction as the
at a point,
representative of one of the forces, and from
its
last
extremity another line be drawn equal to and in the
same direction as the representative of the next force,

and so on until lines have been drawn representing
each force and if from the point so arrived at a
line be drawn to the starting point, then that line
shall represent, both in magnitude and direction, the
;
equilibrant
of
the
forces.
when
If,
all
the
forces
have been represented in the reciprocal figure, the

point commenced with should be found to coincide
with the last one, then the forces will of themselves
be in equilibrium.
Example
(Fig.
CD, DE, and
106).
EA
Let
represent,
the
in
lines
AB,
magnitude,
BC\
forces
acting in the direction of the arrow points through
Find, by a reciprocal figure, whether the
the point 0.
forces produce equilibrium
or not.
Assign letters to each space as separated by a line

of action.
line
AB,
AB
(Fig.
From any
point, as
(Fig. 107),
draw the
equal in magnitude, parallel in direction to

106), and terminating in point B.
BC equal in
to BC (Fig. 106).
draw
From
magnitude and parallel

direction
Eepeat until each force
in
has been represented, then, if the polygon be closed,
point
the forces represented in Fig.
If
draw a
not,
line
closing
106
241
are in equilibrium.
the polygon
this
line
represents the equilibrant, or force required to produce

equilibrium.
These
principles
applied
to
of
the
parallelogram
the solution of stresses
in
may
be
structures, so
and intensity of the stress in any

framed truss may be readily obtained.
that the nature
member
of a
As an example, take
AD
JC
and
the jib crane represented in
Here we have two members
Fig. 108.
point A.
known and
of the bracket
produced, supporting the load
As the
the magnitude of the one
readily complete
at the
directions of the three forces are
the figure.
Let
AB
(W), we may
represent
the
magnitude of the load IF; then by completing the

parallelogram in BC and CD, the tension of the tierod is measured by the line AD, and CA is the
amount
boom
to
parallelogram
of
of force exerted in the compression
produce equilibrium.
Applied to the couple
roof,
the
242
forces
ill
may
be used to determine the stresses set up
the rafters.
The loads upon roof

along
the
may
blade,
be
centrated at the joints, as

that
the
load
(Example, Fig.
is
although distributed
trusses,
passed
considered
it
to
is
the
The load
109).
being con-
as
by way
of the joints
members
here hung
various
is
A, and its magnitude is measured

by AD.
The load is evidently supported by the rafters,
and therefore certain stresses are set up within them,
from
the
apex
due to the load W; these act along the lines AB

and AC, and it is here proposed to find the
amount of such stresses, in order to be able to
correctly
estimate
of the resultant
of the
amount of material
The magnitude and
being known, and the
the
to resist those stresses.
AD
two components
requii'ed
direction
direction
(in this case the rafters)
known, complete the parallelogi'am
AFDE,
FA
being
then
The
AC.
EA
A, and
represents the internal stress set up in

the internal stress set up in
243
irregular or
unsymmetrical truss has here been selected as affording

a more interesting example than would be afforded by
a symmetrical one.
The student will see that as the
load TV approaches the wall at
so the inclined
rafter
AB
the
will
W,
the load
wall,
then
smaller
than
see
is
steeply
pitched
until
which it acts, touches

become vertical and will
will
of the weight
AC
and
that
in
load borne hj
now
AB
the whole
support
more
become
or the line through
due
as
measured by
AB,
to the fact
As
W.
This
it
AB
the
that the load
much
student
is
the
is,
is
will
nearer to
the point of support at B.
Before passing on to the consideration of the more
complicated structures,
takes
place
within
stresses passing
it
the
down
will be advisable to see

walls,
as
it
is
what
obvious
the
the rafters must be resisted.
been said that for every action there must

The walls in each case must
therefore be capable of offering an oblique resistance
It has
always be a reaction.
equal and opposite to the forces along the rafters.
244
In some classes of roofing the walls would require

to
be abnormally
tliiclv
to resist this oblique thrust
what other support

done by resolving
the oblique force along the rafter into its vertical and
horizontal components
this is shown at Fig. 109 as
being equal in magnitude and direction to GA and
FG respectively. It is assumed here, that having
the adjacent sides, the whole of the rectangle upon
FG and GA has been constructed.
These are illustrated by the
Parallel Forces.
vertical loads borne by a structure and the upward
resistance offered by the supporting walls, and, if
it is
therefore desirable to find out
will be equivalent to
it,
and
this is
equilibrium
must be
is
equal.
we
to be maintained, these
With symmetrical
opposing forces
structures uniformly
readily assume that the weight is equally

between
the two walls
half the load to
disposed
It is now proposed to show how unsymmetrical
each.
loads are disposed between two walls.
Fig. 110 represents a beam supported at A and B,
Find,
and loaded unsymnietrically with 4 tons.
graphically, what portion of the load (irrespective of
the weight of the beam) is borne by each of the walls.
From any point A (Fig. 1 1 1) set down a vertical line
AB, representing by scale 4 tons. Select any pole (9,
From the points of support,
and join OA and OB.
and through the load (Fig. 110), let fall perpendicular
From any point D in the vertical line through
lines.
A (Fig. 110) draw UF parallel to AO (Fig. Ill),
intersecting the vertical line through the load at F,
Through F draw FB parallel to BO (Fig. Ill), and
Join DB
intersecting the vertical line through B.
(Fig. 112); this is the closing line of what is known
loaded
as the funicular^ polygon
(Fig.
BDE.
245
If through the pole
Ill), a Ime be drawn parallel to the closing
and intersecting the

C, then CA and CB
represent graphically the portions of the load carried by
the walls at ^ and ^ respectively.
Line of Loads. If the external forces acting on the
beam of Fig. 110 produce equilibrium, or remain
supported, these forces must, when represented by
of
line
" line
the
funicular
of loads "
{AB)
polygon
in point
equivalent lines, form a closed polygon.
the student will from point
Ill) draw
the line AB equal to the downward load on the beam,
and from the point so arrived at draw BC equal and
parallel to the upward reaction at B, and from the
point C draw CA equal to the upward reaction at A,
If
he
will
find
that
he
has
arrived
(Fig.
at
the
point
commencement, and that he has completed a polygon

^From
the Latin
'a rope or chord,'
of
of
246
forces
of
all
is
all
the forces being parallel, the polygon
represented by a straight
represents
line
in
but
forces
the
acting vertically,
external forces
it is
contradistinction
forces, called the
to
name
given the
the
line.
As
this
on the structure
" line of loads,"
polygon of
the
internal
stress diagram."
Polar Diagram.' Attached to the line of loads

Ill) a series of lines are drawn from a pole 0
the line of loads; this is termed the ''polar diagram."
(Fig.
to
Eeciprocal
figures
are
those
figures,
the
lines
of
which bear a corresponding relation one to the other.

Figs. 104 and 105 are reciprocal, as also are Figs. 106
and 107. The funicular polygon and the polar diagram
are reciprocal figures.
ID
Another example of an unsymmetrically loaded beam

is
represented at Fig.
loads
are applied.
113.
In this case a series of
It is proposed,
by means of the
247
polar diagram and the funicular polygon, to find not
only
the
reactions
the
at
but
walls,
centre
the
of
gravity of the loads, or the line through which their

resultant acts.
First set
sum
down
ADEB
the line of loads
equal to the
and from any point 0 construct the

polar diagram OA, OB, OE, OB.
of the loads,
Construct
example
the
polygon
funicular
the external lines will,
Through
in point G.
line passes
G draw
as
the
in
last
produced, intersect
if
the vertical line, which
through the centre of gravity of the loads.
If through the point 0, in the polar diagram, a line be
drawn
parallel to
the closing
line
the
of
funicular
polygon and intersecting the line of loads in point F,

then
FA
A, whilst
represents that portion of the loads borne at
FB
represents the portion borne at B.
A and
The beam represented
Mathematically, the reactions at the walls
may
be found as follows
Fig.
its
30'^ O'
114 spans an opening

extremities
at
points
concentrated load of 12 tons at

B,
W d^
^0 0
30
of
and
ft.
B]
and B,
and
it
a point
Neglecting the weight of the beam
reactions at
B
in
at
rests
supports
10
ft.
from
itself, find
the
248
Eeaction at
_ Weight
GxCB
Sit
12x10
Span
Reaction at
30
Weight
at (7 X
Span
C/^
12x20 =8^
8Jbr^s.
5Jbr2s.
=12
tons.
tons.
6* Tb?^,
Jd
Ttg.
30
Total Reactions
/7
tons.
7i
m.
Taking the example shown at Fig. 115, the reactions

be found by taking each load individually and
may
summing
the result as follows
Reaction at
due to the load
Weight
at
(7
at
8x19
X (75
-AB
Reaction at
due to the load
Weight
~
Reaction at
due to the load

at
at
W tons.
^ X EB _ 6x8
~AB
tons.
at T)
i)xD5 _3xl2 =
"24
AB
_ Weight
at
-61
Total Reaction at
^ = 9|
tons.
tons.
Reaction at
due to the load
Weight
^tCxCA
at
249
8x5
AB
B
Reaction at
due
_ Weight
Reaction at
to the load at
^tDxDA
AB
due to the load at
WelAtsit
ExEA
3 x 12
_
-l^tons.
6x16
^ = 7i
Total Reaction at
tons.
Tons. Tons. Tons.
= 9| + 7| -
Total Reactions
By
= Total
Load.
a collection of the quantities in the following
form, the sanie end
be obtained
Reaction at
W.
may
at
CxCB^W. RtDxDB + W.
AB
Sit
ExBB
_ 8xl9 + 3xl2 + 6x8

~
24
152
+ 36 + 48
24
Reaction at
W.
236
~2l~^ ^
at
CxCA+W.
at
JxZ)^+W.
E x EA
AB
8x5 + 3x12 + 6x16
24
40
36
+ 96
172
:
24
24
Total Reactions
The former processes
7i tons.
17 tons
= Total
Load.
will be better understood
when
250
the student knows what
meant by
is
the
moment
of
a force about a point."
The moment
about a given point is a

measure of the tendency of the
of a force
force to rotate about that point,
and, as both force and distance
enter into
its
consideration,
it is
expressed in terms of the units
employed; thus
)^
of 5 ft. from the point 0.

The
measure of the tendency of the
Fig.
force
116, the
in Fig.
force of 4 tons acts at a distance
AB
rotate
to
about the point
is
therefore
4 tons by 5 ft. or 20 ft.-tons, and is equivalent

to 20 tons acting at the distance of 1 ft. from
the same point, or to 1 ton acting at a distance
of 20 ft.
The student should, by comparing the
above equivalents as illustrated at Fig. 117, see
Fig. J17
iron.
the
advantage
or
arm
At
Fig.
to
those
of
118
gained
the
is
lever,"
extending
it
is
represented
similar
in
by
Fig.
114,
single
lettering being the same.
the
the
distance,
sometimes
as
given
represented
by
set
called.
of forces
beam being here
the distances and

The support given by the
line,
251
by the little triangle or

fulcrum, the distance CB and load at C being 10
Taking moments about
ft. and 12 tons respectively.
wall
represented
here
is
n ToT^s
m.
fig.
QO'-
"
/O'-O
30-0"
the point B,
if
we extend
between the
shall be able
at
we have a force of 120 ft.-tons. Now,

the arm of the lever to the distance
supports of Fig. 114, viz., 30 ft., we
to
find
what upward
force
to equilibrate the load or force at
A xAB = Force
Force
Force at
Sit
0 x CB
Force or load at
C x CB
or load
is
required
as follows
AB
12 X 10
30
=4
tons.
Theory of Beams. By a sufficient acquaintance

with the foregoing, we are able to investigate the
relative strengths of cantilevers and beams under
varying methods of load and support.
For
this
we
shall require
to
extend the
of the ''moment of a force," and, as it is

measure of the tendency to bend the beam
definition
also
purpose
252
or
cantilever,
consider
as
it
we
shall
the
find
more convenient
it
bending moment
of
load,
to
or
bendmg moment." Taking the case

we see that the bending
simply as the
of the cantilever, (Fig. 119),
Fig. IZO.
moment
length
multiplied by the
equal to the weight
is
(expressed as
WL).
Graphically, this
be represented at any position along

scaling ab to represent this quantity
we have a triangle dbc

moment diagram in which
cantilever
Now
is
is
length,
any
vertical
moment)
by
bending
ordinate
of the cantilever
The student should here observe that
at that section.
the B.M.
its
then by joining
representing a
cb
represents the B.M. (bending
may
a varying quantity,
at a
maximum
and
in the case of the
at ab.
the strengths of two beams are in the inverse
ratio of their
maximum B.M.
and taking the canti-
253
lever as the standard, the equation will be represented

as follows
Strength of beam under consideration

Strength of standard cantilever
WL
Max. B.M. of beam under consideration*
Before
proceeding
obtaining
it
bending moments of
the
be advisable to consider another force acting
will
upon beams,
up
zontally.
of
series
be
beam
of thin separate laminae
hori-
94 represents
Fig.
load
slight
may
This
called the shearing force.
horizontal.
or
vertical
built
method of
beams generally,
the
describe
to
be sufficient to cause
will
the horizontal laminations to slide one over the other.
In the solid beam the cohesion of the material

resists
There
the cohesive strength of the material.

vertical shear to contend with, as
The semi-beam
series
or cantilever
is
also a
is
pressure
laminations
each
other.
of loading;
it
is
With
upon the
may
This
in
here split
up
into a
top,
made
to
in
By
any position,
over
vertically
slide
tendency varies with the manner
constant throughout and equal to the load

cast
the
the case of the cantilever (Fig. 119)
and wrought iron beams or
the sectional area

is
be
120.
at Fig.
kept together for the
laminations,
of vertical
shown
sake of illustration by a strong elastic core.

small
itself
the tendency to a great extent, varying with
is
girders,
W.
where
small, the consideration of shearing
very important; but with rectangular timbers, where
the working section
is
so
much
greater than the effective
sectional area, the consideration of shearing
important, but should

attention.
still
demand the
is
not so
student's careful
254
Fig.
along
is
121 represents a
its
cantilever loaded symmetrically
length, the bending
moment diagram
of
which
constructed by superimposing a series of triangles
one on the other, and in such a way that their apices
^
'dee
are each
upon
vertical lines, passing through the loads
they respectively form the diagram
common
for.
Their bases
and are scaled

each to a length equal to the weight multiplied by its
distance from the wall end, the unit employed being in
are in a vertical line
terms of the above
to
all,
factors.
(the full length): the next will be equal to
W Z
W x-A
and so
W x -X.
The base
of the first triangle will be equal to
6
1
on,
until
the
last
is
equal only to
255
The B.M. diaoram for a distributed load will have a

parabolic curve.
The loads in the diagram of Fig. 121
being concentrated at certain points, the parabolic curve
B.M. diagram is made up of a series of straight

which gradually merge into the true curve as the
of the
lines
The shearing
loads are placed closer to each other.
A is also composed of a series of steps

and would merge into the triangle shown
by the dotted line were the load spread uniformly over
its length.
The bending moment would in that case be
equal to the weight acting through its centre of gravity,
stress
diagram at
in this case,
or
W x-y2 or half that of the
standard cantilever (Fig.
119), and, as their strengths are in the inverse ratio of

Max. B.M., we may consider the former to be
their
In Fig. 122 we have
twice as strong as the latter.
i
V
WL
Fig.
/i>i>.
a rectangular beam, supported at
loaded with a weight {W).
It
is
its
extremities and
here obvious that
256
half the weight goes to one
other
the B.M.
multiplied
by
is
abutment and half
the length,
halt
the shearing stress
is
to the
therefore equal to half the load
equal to
whilst
123
shows a rectangular beam loaded unThe Max. B.M. is equal to the reaction
at the wall multiplied by its distance from the centre
Fig.
symmetrically.
of gravity of the load, or
Wx CB xAC.
seen here that the funicular polygon
may
It
may
be
also be the
must be made
B.M. diagram, but the vertical line
stresses are
shearing
The
B.M.
equal to the Max.
found graphically by means of a polar diagram and
the funicular polygon, the dotted line being drawn
parallel to the closing line of the polygon.
Fig.
its
124
length.
257
beam loaded uniformly along
represents a
The B.M. diagram and
also
of the
that
shearing forces are drawn as in the previous figure.
VV
11111
^
4
,
It will
~3
~5
be seen from the figure that the B.M. diagram
approximates a parabolic curve
the closer the lines of
more truthful will the parabolic curve be

represented.
The Max. B.M. is found as in the figure
loading, the
of 122, with this exception
the
total load
is
divided
from
in two, each half being concentrated at distances
the supports equal to a quarter of the span
WL
:Max. B.M.=
The example shown

fixed
into the
walls
then
in Fig.
at
125
both ends.
is
that of a
This
beam
may seem
anomalous from the fact already related that the ends

of beams should not be built into walls
but when a
;
beam
passes in continuation over a series of supports,
those covering the central spans are considered to have
258
and in a manner even more

than actually building them into walls.
their ends fixed,
efficient
The B.M. diagram is here a straight-lined figure,

beam has a tendency to assume the position
and, as the
indicated by the dotted lines, there

trary flexure
may
also
is
a point of con-
a point at which the B.M.
assume that the bending moments
is
nil
we
at the centre
ii
1
-'
t\
8
J-
/i
From
and ends are equal.
these statements
reason that the point of contrary flexure

of
is
we may
at distance
from each end, and hence the Max. B.M. must be
4~~"8
It has been said that the vertical ordinates through
the
diagrams are measures of the intensity of the
stresses at those points,
or length and weight
and any unit of length, weight,

be employed, and it must
may
259
not be forgotten that the scale used to plot the B.M.
diagram
in.
one of length and weight combined
is
may
made
be
hundredweights,
or
inch-tons,
foot-hundredweights,
thus
represent inch-pounds, inch-
to
or
even
or
foot-tons.
foot-pounds,
will
It
be seen
from the figures that the same scale has not been used
to plot the B.M. diagram as has been used to plot
in fact, it is often conthe shearing stress diagram
venient to plot them by a different scale, care, of
;
course, being taken in reading to use the
that
as
We
same
scale
adopted for plotting.
have seen in Fig. 109
how
it
is
possible
to
obtain the stresses set up within the roof couple.

is
now proposed
to
It
extend the principle to the example
given in Fig. 12 6, namely, that of the kingpost roof

truss.
The
borne by the roof
total load
trated at the joints, and
if
divided by two, the weights

in the frame
diagram
(Fig.
is
concen-
the weight at each bay
may
is
be disposed as shown
126)
one-eighth
of
the
by the wall at either end, and

may not be considered as acting upon the truss the
total load will be carried
other six parts are disposed at the three other joints,
two
to each.
In
Bow's
scribed
order
to
Notation
as
find
will
follows
the stress diagram
be
used,
Assign
and
letter
(Fig.
may
to
be
127),
de-
each space
around the figure as separated by an external force,

also to each space in the figure surrounded by* members.
Now, in the reciprocal figure (Fig. 127), lines having
letters at either end represent corresponding lines in
the frame figure having the same letters at either side.
The external
forces are here parallel, therefore the
polygon representing them will be a closed one, and
26o
will be
(Fig.
known
parts,
reactions at the walls.
To Construct the Stress Diagram.

structed the
several parts
line of loads/'
AD, DB,
frame diagram
We
(ADEFGBCA)
Here C divides the loads ^ to ^ into

and BC and OA represent the equal
127).
two equal
as the " line of loads "
etc.,
Having
and divided
commence
it
at point
con-
into
its
in the
(Fig. 126).
have here four forces in equilibrium, namely,
CA, AD, DH, and HC the magnitudes and directions

of the first two are known, also the directions of the
The magnitude of the latter may be found
last two.
if from D (Fig. 127) we draw a line parallel to
(Fig. 126), and if from (7 (Fig. 127) we draw a line CH
parallel to its reciprocal CH
126), and intersecting
\
DH
the line from
in|^.
These lines
DH and HC (Fig.

127)
261
represent not only the magnitude, but the
will
forces in the corresponding
direction of the
By
of the frame diagram.
taking the
members
known
forces
GA
and AD, and examining the corresponding lines in

Fig. 127, the student will see that CA is an upward reaction ecjûal to four units, and passing from ^ to D we
have a downward force equal to one
In order to
unit.
Dif
complete the circuit around the point we have
and HC, terminating
DH passes
the wall
downwards
and
passes in
at
is
(7,
the point of starting
towards the point of support
therefore in compression
a direction
but
away from that
HC
whilst
point,
and
is
For every joint in the frame

diagram (Fig. 126) a corresponding polygon will be
found in the stress diagram, which will furnish lines
corresponding in magnitude and direction to those
therefore in tension.
contained in the frame.
Transverse Strength of Rectangular Beams.
we
If
piece of deal 1 in. square, and

and place it between two supports,
we shall find that by bearing upon it, it deflects or is
bent to an appreciable extent but upon removing the
pressure, the piece regains its former position.
By
take
about 4
ft.
small
long,
gradually increasing the pressure
we
be able to
shall
reach such a point that, after removing the load, the

piece fails
termed the
to
recover
elastic
crease of the load
its
former
position.
By an
limit of the material.
or pressure
we
shall
This
is
in-
be able to
arrive at such a point as to produce fracture of the
material
strength,
break
is
Now
such
point
is
known
as
its
ultimate
and the load which caused the specimen
known
to
as its breaking weight.
take a piece
of the
same
class
of material
262
in.
wide and
in.
thick (a floor board will do), and
of the same length as in the last example.

We shall,
by placing it upon its flat surface and noting the
weights which produce fracture, find it to be about
seven times as strong as the last example, but

turn a similar piece of 7
in.
we shall find it
than when placed upon
to
its
edge,
times
its
by
we
in.
we
material upon
be seven times stronger

so
flat,
seven as strong as the
the foregoing
if
first
that
it
is
specimen.
seven
From
see that the transverse strength of
rectangular timbers varies directly as the breadth and

as the square of the depth
it
varies also directly as
the strength of the particular material employed, and

inversely as the length of span or distance between
the supports.
This
is
represented by the following formula
When
W = Breaking
weight of a beam, girder, or
bressummer under a central load,

Z = Length of span in feet,
= Breadth in inches,
= Depth in inches,
c = Constant, found by
&
experiment upon
and which may be expressed
or tons, at pleasure, remembering
similar material,
in
lbs., cwts.,
always that the expression
W will
be in like
terms to the constant.

Example. Find the breaking weight of a beam of
red pine, 8 in. deep and 5 in. wide, spanning an opening
The constant for red pine may be taken
16 ft. wide.
as 4 cwts.
By
263
applying the above formula,

Tir_ bxd'^ X
z
The student
is
5x8x8x4 = 80 cwt.
re
recommended
make
to
a sketch of
each example previous to working.

Cases
may
the quantities
is
unknown
by a change
will
occur to the student in which any one of
upon the right-hand
side of the equation
may be removed to the left

The formulae for these purposes
this quantity
of sign.
then appear as follows
bxd
'^
X c
JVxL
G
The strongest beam
is
obtained
when
the breadth
is
The following example will

serve to illustrate the method of obtaining the correct
breadth and depth of a beam of limited sectional area,
say 150 sq. ins.
Let x = tlie unit of breadth and depth, then 5xx7x
= 150 sq. ins.
to the
depth as 5
is to 7.
150
3^'
and
Then
and
=5
depth = 7
breadth
x 2-07
in.
X 2-07 in.
=
=
10-35
in.,
14 49
in.
264
sometimes occurs in practice that the most

economical dimensions are required for a beam of a
particular class of material to cover a known span
and to successfully resist a certain load as follows
It
= 13
therefore constant = 4 cwt.
Concentrated load = 16 cwt.
Factor of safety = 5.
Length of span
Material (red pine),
This latter item

ordinary formula
order
in
is
necessary from the fact that the
supplies
the breaking weight,
beam under
the
that
of
and,
should
consideration
successfully resist the concentrated load

it
ft.
16
cwt.,
should be considerably stronger, in this case 5 times
We
stronger.
must therefore
calculate
loaded to the extent of 5 x 16 cwt.
By
= 80
for
beam
cwt.
usual formula,
fF=j-,
or
JVx L = cxbxd'^
but
breadth
fF
and
= ^d,
L = c X ^d
d'^,
7T5
inches (d being expressed in inches),
|-X(i
=|
X 7-15
= 5-11
inches.
265
The transverse strength of rectangular tmibers is

greatly mcreased by the addition of wrought-iron
flitch plates, as shown in Chapter iv, firmly secured
by means of bolts.
Flitch plates are sometimes
secured to the sides of timbers and the ultimate
strength of either combination may be found by the
following formula
W=
^
= combined
thickness of wrought-iron
flitch
plates
(taken as about ^^t\\ that of the total thickness of
beam
or
girder)
all
algebraically are of the
formula.
other
quantities
same value
represented
as in the previous
CHAPTER
XIV.
STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING.

This
is
a branch of joinery requiring a knowledge of
and unless the apprentice shows

it is seldom that he is brought
in contact with the work.
It is desirable, at an early
stage of the subject, to explain some of the terms
practical geometry,
ability in this direction
employed.
Stairs.
An
assemblage of steps for the easy and
convenient passage from one

Staircase.
is
That
intended to contain the
Tread.
That
floor to another.
compartment which contains or

stairs.
portion of the step upon which the
stairs, and
which should not be less in width than will permit the
foot resting firmly upon the same.
The least width
foot
for
this
the
in
rests
ascending or descending the
purpose has been laid down as 9
greatest
width
approaches
nearly
in.,
double
whilst
that
dimension.
Going.
The
going of a tread
is
the width of the
same, as measured horizontally between the nosing of
one tread and that of the next adjacent to

it
will be seen,
tread.
is
it.
This,
smaller than the full width of the
portion of the
wood used
in the tread passes
STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING
267
and is serviceable only for the purpose of making good the joint between tread and riser,
and may not be considered as available for the purpose
beneath the
riser,
of resting the foot.
N.B.
is
made
It is to the
in
going of the tread that reference
determining the proportionate width of
tread and riser (see page
The
The "going"
273).
covered by that
flight is the horizontal distance
of a
flight.
between the top of one

tread and the top of the next one to it.
The vertical piece of timber passing between
Riser.
the treads to which the latter are secured, and which
Rise.
vertical distance
gives solidity to the step.

Flier.
A
A
throughout
its
Flight.
the
step,
tread
of
which
parallel
is
length (page 278).
continuous series of
fliers.
Winders. Those steps, the treads of which taper in

plan and permit the person passing over them to turn
either to the right or
left,
according as the winders
turn in either of these directions (see
278).
That winder which has
Kite.
or near,
to,
winder in the
Fig.
is
3,
The
fact that, whilst
quadrilateral
centre line passing

is
kite-
from an ordinary
both taper in plan, the
and the
latter triangular
The rounded front edge of a
Bottle-nose.
section,
kite differs
page
(see
page 278).
Nosing.
addition
1,
the angle of the staircase, and
shaped in plan.
former
its
Fig.
of
The
a small scotia
page 269).
Bull-nose Step.
tread.
ordinary rounded nosing with the
beneath
step with a
plan, as illustrated at Fig. 3, page
it
(see
enlarged
rounded end in
278.
268
Curtail
scroll
the
Step.
The
step
of the hand-rail, from
first
immediately below
which
step of the flight, and one
it
takes
its
which has
the
form;
its
end
shaped in the form of a volute.
Line of Nosing.
An imaginary
line passing
down
the nosings of a flight of steps.
Newel.
The main post
of a series of balustrading
the vertical post from which the hand-rail starts in
dog-legged or open-newelled
Balusters.
The
stairs.
small vertical pillars terminating
with the hand-rail at the top, and which form a guard

at the
open end of the
stairs
they should be spaced
no greater distance from each other than
at
clear.
Hand-rail.
The
in.
capping piece of the balustrading
the rail upon which the hand rests in ascending or
descending the stairs
usually rounded upon
its
upper
surface and fixed at such a height as to be conveniently
grasped by the hand, usually 2
(measured
line of nosing
ft.
vertically),
in.
and
above the
to
which
is
added at the landings half the rise.

An inclined board with its plane vertical,
String.
and to which the ends of the steps are made fast.
Wall-string. That string which is adjacent to the
wall.
Well-string.
string
which
The
outer or
exposed
string; that
carries the ends of the steps opposite to
those near the wall.
Close-string.
has
its
That
string
which from a
side view-
long edges parallel to each other (page 269).
The lowest portion

Cut-string.
cut to the line
termed an apron.
That string which has its upper edge
of the treads and risers.
is
269
270
A form of rough carriage used with

Notch-board.
open stairs in buildings of the warehouse class, and
having its upper edge notched to receive the treads,
hence its name (Fig. 4, page 271).
Mitred-string. A form of cut-string not furnished
with brackets, and which needs to have the vertical
edges of the stepping mitred with the risers.
This
term is mostly used in conjunction with that of
cutstring," and then known as cut and mitred string
(page 269).
A form
Wreathed-strings. The
Bracketed-string.
of cut-string provided
with brackets of an ornamental character (page 269).

strings of a
geometrical
which pass uninterruptedly throughout the whole

height of the stairs, and which are therefore of necessity
of a twisted or wreathed character.
Continued wreath or wreathed hand-rail is one
stair
which, like the wreathed-string, passes uninterruptedly
throughout the
its
stairs,
and
curved, bent, or twisted in
is
form.
A ramp
hand-rail
vertical
A
rail,
is
a concave curve of the crown
whilst
the
latter
continues
in
the
of the
same
plane.
knee is a convex curve of the crown of the handsomewhat similar to the above, but opposite in
direction.
Swan-neck.
A combination
of
ramp and knee
(see
page 280).
Rough carriages
are pieces of rough quarterings
placed beneath stairs to give them additional support
they are sometimes called rough strings, as they are

often placed in corresponding positions to the strings.
Spring-trees.
This
is
another
name
for
rough
272
carriages, but is
more properly applied
to
the rough
carriages below winders.
Rough brackets
carriages
of
stairs
increase
to
treads and prevent creaking.
271, are illustrations
the
support
to the
to
the
1, 2, and 3, page
of the various methods of rough
bracketing.
Returned Nosings.
strings (page
wood fastened
are blocks of
In
Figs.
the representations of cut-
269), the nosings are
made
to
being returned upon the ends of the treads.
appear as
This
is
accomplished by planting on a piece of the same profile
and with a grooved and tongued joint, forming when

complete an effective finish, and covering the unsightly
appearance of the end grain of the tread.
Landings are resting places, and are either half
space or quarter space, according as they extend the
whole width of the staircase or only the width of the
stair; these are illustrated by Figs. 2 and 3, page 278.
Stairs have been described as
Stair Planning.
being an assemblage of steps for the easy and convenient passage from one floor to another, and to secure
this
end
it
will be necessary to consider the following
In order that
points.
stairs
may
not be the cause of
unnecessarily fatiguing the person passing over them,
they should be provided with sufficient landing-places,
and
the
steps
should
be
properly
proportioned.
Separate flights should not contain more than ten or
twelve steps
vided,
and
it
at these places landings should be prois
advisable to cause the adjacent flights
to pass in different directions.
The stairway should
be broad enough to allow at least two persons passing
each other with ease, and for this purpose steps should
have a length of at
least three feet.
273
Proportion of Treads and Risers. The author

does
not
deem
it
advisable
possession of a tabulated
list
to place at his disposal
put
to
the
student
in
of proportionate sizes, but
means whereby he may
the
obtain the sizes for himself, and to show the method
by which they are obtained.
An
down
easy pace along a horizontal plane has been set

as
direction,
23
in.,
it is
but in passing upward in a vertical
not considered advisable to go beyond
half this distance, namely,

a person passes not only
to
say,
1 1
In ascending
in.
stairs
upward but forward, that
is
he covers a small distance in each direction,
vertically
and horizontally
it
therefore follows that,
the dimensions of steps, twice the rise
in calculating
must equal 23 in. From the above

remarks the following formulae may be deduced, the
number 23 being taken as a "constant."
plus the tread
Going of tread = Constant - Twice the
= 23-2r,
where
rise
(1)
= rise
-r,.
Constant - Tread
= ^^,
(2)
where ^ = the going of the tread.

To apply the formulae given above, the student may
take the following examples
(i.) Having taken the height from floor to floor by
means of a rod (storey rod), and having found that it
contains equal sub-divisions of 5
and adopting
1;he
this as a
in.
convenient
correct tread in this case

s
without a remainder,
rise
what should be
274
By formula
we have
(1)
Going of tread = Constant - 2r = 23 - 10
=
(ii.)
What
13 inches.
would be recommended
rise
the tread of which was 12
Using formula
^.
ixise
in.
for a step,
(2),
-if
=
= Constant
T.
= 51
23-12
2
'Z
in.
Numerous other examples may be taken

that the tread
must be
at least
Before commencing the planning of
(1)
mind
wide enough to afford
sufficient support for the foot, viz. not less
found necessary
the
at
student's pleasure, but he should always bear in
than 9
in.
stairs, it will
be
to obtain the following facts
The dimensions
of the staircase
or
compart-
ment which is to contain the stairs.

(2) The heights from floor to floor successively.
(3) The position and dimensions of approaches; size
and position of window openings.
The first item will largely govern us in the particular class of stairs to adopt.
The various kinds are
illustrated on page 278.
Winders should, as far as
possible, be avoided, and should not under any circumThe width of the
stance begin at the top of a flight.
tread of a winder is measured at a distance of 1 5 in.
from the hand-rail this being the position of the path
over winders, the tread should at this line conform
;
as far as possible to the other treads.
The general
surroundings of staircases are usually of such a diverse

character that no definite rules can be laid
the
guidance
of
the
craftsman in
down
determining
for
the

position for the various
in
order
avoid
to
lighting
In
the
stairs
no
others
it
devise
the best possible plan,
require
requirements
all
necessary
with the means
commoner
experienced
be
will
difficulty
will
winders, and landings,
fliers,
interference
approach.
or
his skill
for
275
and
of
of
classes
;
with
but
and ingenuity
so
the
all
fulfil
convenient
and
to
easy
stair.
The construction
of the various forms of steps will
be seen from
readily
pp. 269, 271,
the
furnished on
illustrations
and 276; the tread and
riser
having been
made, and the particular method of breaking the joint

having been decided, the two are carefully glued and
screwed together, and small triangular blocks about

or
2|-
long are glued to the joint at intervals of
in.
about 12 or 15
The
in.
steps thus constructed are
inserted individually into the housings provided in the

string
and there glued, wedged, screwed, and blocked
as
illustrated.
The construction of the

to be more fully
requires
usually
scotia
constructed
curtail
three
in
parts
The tread
board, and riser.
step
is
ordinary one, with the exception that
one that
is
This
described.
namely,
step
is
tread,
similar to the
it
takes
up the
form of scroll of the hand-rail at its extremity.

The
scotia board replaces the small scotia shown in the
other examples, and in this form enables the step
to be constructed expeditiously, and with much greater
strength;
it
is
illustrated at Figs. 3
and
5,
page 276.
It is in the construction of the riser that the greatest
care
is
or
which the greatest amount

up of two
of material, firmly glued and
required, and in
of labour
is
involved.
more thicknesses
It is usually built
276
Coristnucfcon
of Cur^tact Step,
FigJ.
SCO tea
fhoQtd
^,_,.LVTT^
'
J'//
w^<^^^^ yve<xges
^^^^
Plg.3.
Scotco.
'
Trrrtrtr
ii'iii
9>lQr^
of Scotco fioord
277
screwed together, and finally covered with a veneer

as
shown
at Fig. 1,
sufficient
page 276.
portion at the end of the front riser
reduced to the thickness of a veneer, or about yV in.

thick
it is then steamed or saturated with hot water,
is
becomes easily pliable, the extreme end is

by means of folding wedges to the
innermost angle of the volute, carefully glued, brought
round to its correct position, and finally tightened by
so that
then
it
held
a second pair of folding wedges.
then
screwed
together
and
The thick ends
cleaned
bracket for the reception of the string

to
the
solid
off.
is
are
short
dovetailed
portion of the riser at right angles
to
and the former are then halved, glued and screwed

convenient positions, the rounded angle
being made good by means of a gusset piece.
These are
Different Forms of Stairs in Plan.
Fig. 1 represents a
278.
illustrated upon page
it,
together at
variety
common
to small
cottage property, consisting
of a straight flight with winders at the bottom.
hand-rail and string are here
by means
Fig.
of
stump
made
fast to the
The
newels
or stub tenons (drawbore pinned).
2 represents a variety
known
as
dog-legged,"
the return flight taking an abrupt turn to a position
and close to the side of the first.

A larger example of the dog-legged variety is
illustrated on page 280, and is here shown in plan
and section with small cupboard behind the spandril
framing, entered by way of the small door at the
side.
The necessary amount of headroom between
parallel flights is here figured, and may be taken as
The storey rod
the smallest dimensions permissible.
also shown on this illustration, the chequered
is
parallel
278
StQtrs.
Straight Stair
=0-
Geo/r}atrieat
Stairs.

appearance
the
indicating
279
number and heights
of
the risers.
Fig.
3,
page 278, illustrates an open-newel
stair,
a variety suitable for wide and open staircases, and
capable of being thoroughly well lighted

ant feature of a convenient
An
stair.
an
import-
illustration of
the application of both the quarter-space landing and
winders
is
here afforded, although, where possible, the
latter should be avoided.
and may be
described as a stair in which the continued wreath
is used
other examples of the same variety are turret
or spiral stairs (open or close newel), and stairs having
an elliptical plan.
The steps of the latter, as also
some of the former varieties, are required to be
geometrical stair
is
shown
at Fig. 4,
made
"
balanced " or
particular
dancing
winders,
of
class
"
"
name given
which the
in
nosing do not pass through, or radiate
to,
to a
lines
of
the same
point in plan.
Hand-railing, or that branch of
it
dealing with
continuous wreaths, would not prove such a
difficult
the
student
subject
as
it
would,
in
the
at
sight
first
earlier
ofttimes spent in
which,
after
pressed
its
Much
each
example
time and labour
thinking out abstruse problems

solved,
are
not
upon the student's memory
is
therefore
convenient
recommended
scale,
and
so
im-
sufficiently
to
aid
subsequent application to practical work.
student
to
being
if
model
stages,
of the subject taken in hand.

is
appears,
to construct
obtain
him in
The
models
grasp
of
the subject by means which, in the end, will prove
by far the most economical, both

and material.
as
regards
time
28o
281
The author proposes to deal with the subject

purely upon recognized geometrical methods, so that
the student who has done equivalent geometrical work
or has successfully completed the Elementary
to,
Course of Practical Plane and Solid Geometry, as set
down
have but
will
and Art Departments Syllabus,
in the Science
little difficulty
The hand-rail
of the steps,
and
as far as is convenient at a constant
from
vertical distance
therefore,
throughout.
it
ends
the
of
in mastering the subject.
follows a line vertically over the ends
the
of
development,
steps
will
reveal,
as far as the height is concerned, the position of the
For the present, in order to more easily

is asked to disregard
the position of steps, also the fact that the handrail
has substance, and to imagine the hand-rail
as represented only by a line
the centre line of
hand-rail.
grasp the subject, the student
When
rail
centre line of rail " he will, with very
the
struct
little
the student finds himself able to con-
be able to extend his knowledge and
difficulty,
The next step
construct the ''face-mould."
will then
be to apply the face-mould to the plank, and finally

to construct the rail.
One
railer
most important principles the hand-
of the
has
to
remember
craftsman
a
and
to
which
its
in
the well-hole.
over such
as an
rectangular
right
attached
that
oblique
sections
as used
of
by the
a modification of the geometrical cylinder,
is
and may be described

of
is
The cylinder
cylinders are ellipses.
two
plan
The
imaginary solid composed
prism
opposite
is
rail or
of
with
hemi-cylinders
and vertical faces

the same outline as
continued wreath, passing
form in plan, will of necessity be in
282
some places straight, whilst in others it will pass

a twisted manner over the segmental ends, and
these positions will take up the elliptic form.
Two systems have been
adopted
for
finding
in
at
the
and now almost extinct

method was by a system of ordinates, and known
The other and more
as the " method by ordinates."
modern method is known by the name of tangent
The
curve.
elliptic
older
system," in which, in order to obtain the curve, the
tangents to
are
it
found and subsequently the
first
elliptic curve.
Upon examination
the curved portions
to
be
either
of
circle
of
I
greater than the quadrant
than the quadrant.
various
rails
2nd,
;
an
forms:
arc
1st,
of
The tangents
2nd, an
(acute angle)
(obtuse
pages
trating
The
the
circle
3rd, an arc of a circle less

to
the
foregoing
will include the following angles, respectively
right angle
plan,
in
be found almost invariably
the following
quadrant
or
the
of
will
angle less than a right
1st, a
angle
3rd, an angle greater than a right angle
Two
angle).
such
284 and 287 and
cases
shown
are
on
serve the purpose of illus-
two out of the three cases
differing in plan.
true tangents stand vertically over their plans,
varying in length with their inclinations, and giving

rise to the following classification
1st
Hand-rails,
Class
one
tangent
of
which
is
horizontal and the other inclined.
2nd Class
Hand-rails, both tangents of which are
equally inclined.
3rd Class
Hand-rails, the tangents of which are
unequally inclined.
The above
classification is
necessary only for the
283
purpose of thoroughly understanding the causes which
one or two
give rise to the necessity of employing
and bring about various changes in the figure.

11.
it was explained that the planes
upon which the plans and elevations are projected
stand at right angles to each other, and are termed the
These planes, for the convenience
co-ordinate planes.
the plane of the
of drawing, are opened out into one
paper but as soon as the drawing is completed they
are supposed to come up again into their proper
For conpositions at right angles to each other.
ventional purposes the line of intersection between
them is known as the ground line or XY. It is by
bevels,
Chapter
In
the use of these co-ordinate planes that the centre line

of
rail
and other requirements of hand-railing are
found.
To
is
find the "centre line of rail."
Fig.
page 284,
a diagramatic representation of the problem
at Fig. 2,
and
will assist the student to
method.
latter geometrical
AC
and
shown
understand the
CD
(Fig. 2,
page
284) are the plans of the tangents of the rail passing

over ABD.
AB is the shank or straight part of the
rail, and BD the curved portion, which, in this case,
passes through an angle of 90, or the fourth part of
the
circle.
also
that
The
of
lieights of points
the
tangents cross).
A,
intermediate
B and D
point
The tangent being
C
in
are
known,
(where the
the
vertical
plane, cd' represents not only its true length, but a
portion of the vertical trace of the plane containing
and the tangent
CB
into the vertical plane,
sented
point
it,
being turned back or developed

its
true length will be repre-
by ch-^.
By producing
A^ and joining it with
d'c
A,
to
the
the
XY
in
horizontal
284
Method offrndcng
^/ê
Centre Lcne

and
traces
vertical
tangents
are
tangents
is
found.
of
plane
the
The plane
hinged
conveniently
containing
containing
to
plane about the vertical trace, and thus

as
plane of the paper. With
With c
radius, describe an arc.
285
the
vertical
AÂ
as
and with cA^
as radius, describe an arc cutting the first in A^.
A^ with A2 and
the
falls into
centre and with

as centre
the
these
Join
with A2, then the angle d'cA^ repre-
and
sents the real angle between the tangents,
being the tangent points to the elliptic curve.
For the purpose of completing the semi-ellipse, the

centre line of rail " is extended to form
the semi-circle terminating at either end upon the
plan of that steepest line in the plane which will
plan of the
pass through the central axis of the cylinder.

line
marked >S1203, and being the plan
is
steepest
drawn
line
the
in
plane,
it
will
This
of
the
of necessity be
at right angles to the horizontal trace of that
plane.
That steepest
the
axis
of
which passes through

represent the major
and the minor axis will be repre-
line in the plane
the
axis of the ellipse,
cylinder
will
by that horizontal line, lying in the plane,

which passes through the axis of the cylinder and
sented
has
its
plan Oc parallel to the horizontal trace.
Upon
the development of the inclined plane of the
draw the major axis at right angles

development of the horizontal trace {AÂ^ 1)
and through the point 1.
Through c draw c 0
representing the position of the minor axis, and therefore at right angles to the major axis.
This line
rail
(centre line)
to the
wdll be
divisions
of
the
may
same length
as its plan CO,
and
be marked off direct from the plan.
its
286
By producing
the lower tangent (cBÂ^) to S, and
the major axis to S,
when
which,
end
the
at
half
the
of
the half
of
parallel to
0,0
diagonal,
and join
1,2,0 at any angle
point
the half diagonal SO,
major axis of the
will give us the
aS^
we have
divided proportionately to
its
diagonal.
its
plan SO,
ellipse.
From
set
the
off
S,
line
end 0 with the like

Draw 2,2 and 1,1
then 2,0 on the half diagonal will
represent the semi-major axis.
The student, having the major and minor
now
axis, will
be able to complete the elliptic curve, but must
be careful to secure that the tangent points
The
are correct.
real length of the
and
d'
&2
shank or straight
is represented by the line &2^2The bevels required to be applied to the ends of the
rails are represented by the angles contained between
the inclined plane of the centre line of rail and the
portion
tangent planes.
It will
sometimes be found that the
bevels are alike for both ends
on page
290
is
the case represented
an example, only one bevel being
required.
The angle between the two

bevel.
measured by a plane mutually perpendicular
to the first two, and such planes standing at right
angles to two others must have their horizontal
To obtain the
planes
is
traces at right angles to the plan of the line of inter-
In this case (page 284) the plan of the line
section.
of
intersection
angles
to
it.
is
We
in
the
XY, and
therefore
select
c,
this
horizontal trace of the third plane, and set
at
is
line
up cb\
as
right
the
at right
angles to the line of intersection (the vertical trace of

the
plane).
same plane
Now, by bringing down

as cA,
cb/
into
the
and completing the right-angled
288
triangle
we have the bevel
angle
or
between
the
purpose,
an-
planes.
To
find the Face-Mould.
For
this
other example has been selected, page 287, a
rail of
the second class, in which the plan of the rail extends
beyond the quadrant of the circle the tangents, therefore, contain an angle less than 90.
The only points of importance in the diagram on
page 287 that differ from that on page 290 is the
fact that the tangents are unequally inclined, and the
horizontal line lying in the plane and passing through
the axis 0 does not pass through the point where the
tangents cross. To the student who is able to successfully master the previous diagram this will not be a
great difficulty, as E will have its elevation e in its
;
tangent immediately above
OE
is
it.
the plan contained in the minor axis, and,
being a horizontal
line,
represents
true
its
length.
"When the major axis is drawn, eo is drawn at right

angle to it, and the points representing the minor axis
taken directly from the plan.
The major axis is
divided similarly to the last example, six focal points
being necessary
instead
When
two.
of
ellipses are found, the butt
ends of the
at right angle to the centre tangent lines,
the
tangent points
d'h.
It
is
most
the
three
drawn
rail are
and through
essential,
when
taking up the face-mould, to take up the tangents to

the
''centre
minor
line
of
rail,"
also
the
position
axis, as the rail at this point will
of
the
be parallel to
the face of the plank.
Two methods
are practised for the cutting of the
from the plank, and are described as follows

This is the most economi''Square Cut" Method.
rail

method
cal
saw passes
right
at
Bevel Cut
method
the
from the plank
of cutting the rail
angles
surface of the plank, hence

"
Method.
of cutting
or square
to,
its
289
name
This
the
is
the rail
(Fig. 3,
with,
the
the
page 290).
name given
obliquely
to
from the
plank (see Fig. 4, page 290).

When the cut passes
at a very acute angle with the face of the plank, a
great waste of material
the result, and although
is
considered to be the most

is
given to the
it is
method, preference
square cut."
page 290,
Fig. 2,
direct
is
given to illustrate the method of
obtaining the face-mould and bevel in a case where

the plan of tangents
is
The
quired).
an acute angle and the
at
tangents equally inclined
(one bevel only being
lettering has, as
far as
possible,
re-
been
kept alike in the two examples, so that this example
may
be the more readily followed.

To decide the thickness of plank required for a
rail
Take the section of a rail and turn it through an
angle represented by the steepest pitched bevel
draw
parallel lines tangential to the curve at the top and
:
bottom
between these parallels

represent the thickness of plank required.
the
distance
will
The face-mould
Application of the Face-Mould.
having been obtained, and the thickness of the plank
decided,
mark
place
butt
tangents
of
face-mould upon the plank, and
the butt ends of the mould, also
the ends are
the
the
the
now ready
joints
;
this is
square
to
should
to be cut.
its
centre lines;
At
this
be truly squared with
point
the
accomplished by placing the stock

the
ends of the material, and so
adjusting the ends until the blade of the square coincides with the tangent lines.
The
ends, which
must
291
must now
planes and
also be squared with the face of the plank,
be
considered
finished
regards their
as
should not be subsequently altered, as the least alteration here
is
likely to lead to greatly increased errors in
the pitch of the
The face-mould more
rail.
belonging to the centre of the

be
strictly
the tangents should
rail,
These
squared over to the centres of the ends.
having been obtained, the bevels are applied
points
and the new positions
The
obtained.
are
moved along
for the top
the
until
and bottom tangents
now
face-mould
tangents
be
requires to
mould
of the
cor-
respond with the new positions of the tangents on the
plank
Diameter
width AB,
fall
may
the outline of the rail
upon the plank.

To Construct
(Fig.
divide
Outline
the
1,
it
page
292).
then be pencilled
of
decided the
into eight equal parts.
a perpendicular equal to one-eighth of
BD^ and from C

in U.
With C
it
Draw
the
AB,
second
quadrant.
F, 0
upon
Join
1,
centre
0,
of
BD
and
CU
and describe
Through D, draw a
IF in point 2,
From F erect
point 0
is
the
the
describe the
produce to
fourth
intersect
quadrant.
and equal
third
perpendicular
D2
From
to
it
quadrant.
311 in
Draw
in length.
to
the
of
the centre of the spiral.
quadrant.
third
parallel
centre
in
4e/
4,
the
Join
2,
centre
perpendicular
With 4
as
the
3,
up
set
perpendicular to i)2, and with 3 as centre and

radius,
cutting
in point 1, the centre of the first
and produce, intersecting

the
it,
as radius, describe
li^ perpendicular to
quadrant BF.
intersecting
At A let
AB. Join
a perpendicular to
as centre
AB
an arc cutting
quadrant.
let fall
any
to
Scroll
Having
3D
a
as
0 and
of the
to
4/f
centre and
293
The
radius, complete the fourth quadrant.
iff
The
remaining centres may be found as follows
diagonals 1, 3 and 2, 4 cut the perpendiculars 4/ and
5K in points 5, 6, 7, etc., but beyond this it is seldom
necessary to go.
The inner margin of the rail is
struck from the same centre as the outer, and at
:
a distance from the latter equal to the width of the

rail.
find the Face-Mould for the Shank (Fig.

page 292).
This rail comes under the first class,
To
2,
The tangents
having one of the tangents horizontal.

to
the centre line of rail are represented in plan at
by the
Fig. 1
ment
lines
to the point
LM
and
being of the same lengths as the corre-
sponding lines of Fig.

"
The shank extends
Fig. 3 represents a develop-
of the lines in order to obtain their true lengths,
MNP
the
and NF.
in plan.
stairs,
similar
1.
in
ENR^^ represent the pitch
shape to
the
outline
of
of
the
In order to obtain the true length of
pitch-board.''
the inclined tangent NP^B^^ set up over the plan the

respective heights of these points as obtained by the
"
pitch-board
"
the hypotenuse
triangle will give
it
its
of
right-angled
the
The
true length.
real angle
between the tangents can here be obtained by inspection,

and, as in all cases of the first class, will be found to
be a right angle.
MN
and
P^^,
being set up in their
correct positions, will represent the
semi-minor and
semi-major axes of the ellipse which
The increased width
may now
be
end is
due to the inclination of the plank, and may be found
by setting the true width of the rail along the
horizontal line NP (Fig. 3), and from the extremities
drawn.
set
of rail at the butt
up the perpendiculars intersecting the inclined
line
294
NP.2
the portion intercepted between the tops of the
perpendiculars represents the increased width.
Easing the
It is usual in cases similar
to
the last to allow the shank portion of the scroll
to
Rail.
more gradual change as it joins the scroll

this is accomplished by cutting the scroll out of
material ^ in. thicker than the rail, so that the moulded
take a
scroll
can be formed to
rise to the extent of
approaches the shank
piece.
relative position of the
end of the
to the hand-rail above.
An
is
shown
material
of rail.
at Fig.
may
5,
Fig.
^ in. as it
4 represents the
tread, with respect
enlarged section of the
in order to illustrate
rail
how much
be saved by working close to the section
It is not advisable
that the student should
attempt this in the earlier stages of the work as it is

likely to lead to mistakes, but to work his twisted rail
first
it if
to
the
rectangular
necessary.
section,
and then
to
mould
APPENDIX
A.
SYLLABUS.
(From the Programme of the City and Guilds of
London
Institute.)
The Preliminary Examination

founded on the following subjects
1.
British
will
include
questions
and metric systems of units of length,
area,
and volume.
2.
Division of straight line into parts, and elementary
problems in practical plane geometry.
Construction and
use of scales.
3.
Construction of polygons as used in setting out a
templet or mould for lantern lights and roofs of turrets,
etc.
Area of plane figures. Construction of oblong equal

in area to any irregular figure bounded by straight lines,
and of not more than eight sides. Calculation of area of
floors, walls, gables, and roof surfaces.
4.
5.
Properties of circle as applied to the setting out of
circular
arches and
simple mouldings.
Measurement of
relation of circumference of circle to diameter, arcs, chords,

etc.
6.
The
practical setting out of simple pieces of joinery,
such as door-frames, king-posts, and of simple plane figures,

including circular, elliptic and other curves, showing tangent
and normals of arches and centering.
296
7.
Measurement of bulk of simple
solid figures, such as
cube, prism, pyramid, cylinder, cone and sphere, and parts of
the same.
8.
Construction of plan elevation and section of simple
Representation
solids.
jection of solid figures,

as housing, mortise
9.
in
and
oblique and
isometrical
pro-
also of the simple joints, such
and tenon, halving,
etc.
Graphic methods of representing and measuring the
Simple experiments on bending

and testing strength of beams. Principle of parallelogram
and triangle of forces, and simple problems thereof.
stress in a simple truss.
Simple mechanical contrivances, such as
10.
Problems
wedge, and screw.

11. Practical
determination
lever, pulley,
illustrating their uses.
of
of
densities
different
woods.
12.
The
principal tools used in carpentry
and joinery,
their names, shapes, uses, etc.

13.
The more common woods used
in
carpentry and
joinery.
ORDINARY GRADE.
In addition to the foregoing, candidates in the Ordinary
Grade are expected
to
know
the following subjects
Nature and properties of the various kinds of wood

used in carpentry and joinery, with the ports or places
from which they are obtained. Methods of seasoning and
1.
preservation
of timber.
Strength of timber.
Mode
of
planning and converting materials, so as to avoid waste
and shrinkage, and obtain the maximum strength or
stiff-
ness.
2.
Tools, their names, shapes, uses, etc.
Labour-saving
machinery.
3.
Mechanical
joinery.
drawing as
Drawings,
full-size,
carpentry
and
showing shoulder-lines,
etc.,
applied
to
APPENDIX A
297
cut; and the various joints in
on the material before
it is
carpentry and joinery.
Setting out rods.
Working drawings
of panelled and framed and braced doors, door frames and
hung
casings, double
and hanging shutters,
sashes, sliding
French casements, folding shutters, and boxings, rebates or

linings for swing doors, etc.
4.
A general
muntins,
knowledge of the proportions of

in doors
etc.,
stiles, rails,
and windows, heights of
rails
in
doors to suit knobs or latches, the usual sizes of doors,
windows,
and of the kind of material and strength to
etc.,
be used.
5.
Mouldings, their forms and names.
mouldings
and
circular
Enlarging and diminishing mouldings.
Lines
at different angles, also of straight
mouldings.
for
Intersection of
determining the sections of moulded bars and hip-rafters
Method
and lanterns.
in skylights
of determining the true
section of raking mouldings over square or oblique plans,

also
6.
when
Bevels.
purlins,
work
the given moulding
is
Finding bevels for
splayed linings,
generally.
on the rake.
hip-rafters, jack-rafters,
raking mouldings,
and oblique
Also a knowledge of the method employed
to place bevel lines direct
upon the work, without making
a drawing of the same.

7.
Newel and geometrical
and tread.
and other
Method
and
obstacles,
of finding
diminished
stairs.
General planning of
fliers.
obtain
to
Proportion of riser
stairs to clear
windows,
proper head room.
the proper position of winders
and
General construction, and methods of
support.
8.
Mechanical
principles.
framing roof trusses,
The
principles required
timber partitions,
bracing large doors, gates,
etc.
in
trussed girders,
Drawings
to scale of the
same, showing the comparative strain in different parts, by
means of graphic
statics.
298
beams and girders by
Methods of strengthening
9.
How wood
"fiitching" and "trussing," etc.
roof trusses
upon by cambering the tie-beam, and the motive
are acted
Different methods of shoring.
for cambering.
Flying and
raking shores.
10.
Joints.
Mortise and tenon, the proportion tenons
The
should bear to the thickness and width of material.

proportion of the parts of the tusk tenon,
the position
of mortises with regard to the neutral axis.
Joints for
oblique timbers, position of the shoulder with regard to

the
direction of the
roofs,
floors,
position,
11.
them.
and kind of
Trimming round voids in

methods of scarfing. Proper
and bolts used to secure joints.
strain.
Difl'erent
etc.
sti'aps
Hinges, various kinds
and modes of applying
of,
Centre-pin joint, back-flap, rule-joints,
drawings, showing the path of
Working
the work
etc.
difl'erent parts of
so as to obtain clearance, etc.

12.
water
general knowledge of the use of Aveather boards,
bars, throating,
etc.,
for external
work.
Particular
attention should be paid to the form of joints and
manner
of hanging French casements and skylights.

13.
Plumbing and
ings, tilting pieces,
for
plumber and
zinc
also
slating.
Preparing and fixing
forming drips,
rolls,
flash-
cistern heads, etc.

for lead
and
preparing and fixing angle beads, grounds,
etc.,
slater,
construction of
flats
for plasterer.
HONOURS GRADE.
For the Honours Examination candidates must have
passed in a previous year in the Ordinary Grade.
The Examination
will be
(1) Written Examination,
of the preceding subjects,

will
be required of
Written and Practical.
Advanced
and
questions on some
in addition
a knowledge

APPENDIX A
1.
The various methods

segmental,
299
constructing
of
parabolic
elliptical,
centres
and other
showing the direction of the joint
for
arches,
lines of the arch.
Fixing and striking large centres.

2.
Different forms of scaffolding,
3.
Circular work.
and
staging,
gantries,
and their construction.
steaming,
grooving,
quired for
soffits
also for ribs
upon
4.
Method employed
bend boards,
by kerfing,
Moulds and bevels reto
or mouldings round circular work,
ribs,
circle,
fliers,
and
straight
circular walls
domes, and niches,
in groins,
The
proper
height
of
hand-rails
Method
The theory and use
winders, and round landings.
of describing hand-rail scrolls.
of tangent planes and tangent lines, as
employed in
Method
system of hand-railing.
tangent
the
circle
etc.
Hand-railing.
over
etc.
in
of
determining the position of the face-mould plane,

to pass
rails
5.
through three points
the central line of
the moulds, bevels, length of balusters,
Construction
of
fitments for
tables,
room,
churches,
for
fittings
domestic work, pews and
(2)
in
stalls,
butler's
shop fronts and
pantry,
etc.
shops
and
cases,
housekeeper's
etc.
Drawing.
Drawing to
scale
from data furnished by
the Examiner.
(3)
Practical
Work.
Each
candidate will be required,
during the year preceding the Examination, to design and

execute in suitable material an original piece of work, and
to forward the
same
to
London
(carriage paid) on or before
April 23rd, together with a certificate signed by his employer, or
by the
class teacher
and
member
of the School
Committee, stating that the work has been wholly executed
by the candidate himself without
assistance.
The specimen
300
of
work must be accompanied with
a working drawing,
with particulars of quantity and nature of materials used,
and must be of such dimensions that

not larger than two cubic feet.
Note.
large to
up"
Specimens
show the
will
fit
into a
box
are preferred which are sufficiently
practical
work and
are loosely "
wedged
so that they can be taken to pieces for examination.
Candidates are advised

it
it
must be made
if
they select so large a subject that
a small scale, to
to
make
in
addition
portions to an enlarged scale, showing the construction.
The candidates are advised

they wish to sell
any work he
the
to
Certificate.
full
Technological
Grade, the candidate
be required
to
who
Certificate
Certificate
and
in
the
Ordinary
not otherwise qualified will
is
have passed the Science and Art
Department's Examination in
in
Provisional
granted on the results of the above Examination.
For the
least;
models if
considers of especial merit.
Full Technological
will be
also
to their
Examiner is authorized to recomTForshipfid Company of Carpenters
as the
theiiiy
mend for purchase
a price
to affix
the
Elementary Stage at
for the full Certificate in the
the Advanced Stage at
least,
in
Honours Grade,
two of the following
Science subjects
I.
III.
Practical, Plane,
and SoHd Geometry.
Building Construction.
VI. Theoretical Mechanics.

VII. Applied Mechanics.
Certificates
showing that the candidate has passed the
Elementary Examination of the Science and Art Depart-
ment in Geometrical Drawing, as well

Model Drawing, will be accepted in lieu
Science subjects for the
full
as in
Freehand or
of one of the above
Technological Certificate in
either grade of the Examination.
APPENDIX
B.
QUESTIONS
SET BY THE EXAMINATIONS DEPARTMENT OF THE
CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE, 1897.
54.

(Preliminary Examination.)
Monday,
May
3rd, 7 to 10.
INSTRUCTIONS.
No
Certificates will be given to candidates
on the results of this
Preliminary Examination, but their successes will be notified.
Candidates
may
take the Ordinary Grade without having passed
or both Examinations may be taken

same year.
The number of the question must be placed before the answer
in the worked paper.
Not more than ten questions to be answered.
the Preliminary Examination
in the
Three hours allowed for

1.
What
is
this
Examination.
the difference between the decimal and duo-
decimal systems of measurement
Which
is
use amongst carpenters and joiners in England
7149 from the decimal

2.
to the
duodecimal
Describe the best method you
know
a scale of feet and inches, and illustrate

of
J inches to a foot.
1
3.
It is
scale.
in ordinary
?
Convert
(30 marks)
of constructing
by making a
scale
(32)
proposed to construct a hexagonal lantern-light
302
of 5 feet diameter.
Draw an
outline plan of
same on
scale of 1| inches to a foot.

4.
The
hall over
previous question
1
What
2 feet.
5.
full
One
is
is
which
(32)
is
the skylight referred to in
also hexagonal,
and has a diameter of
the area of the floor
(34)
side of this hall has a semicircular bay
window the
Find the area of the floor of the bay. (34)

Show, by sketches, the manner in which the several
width of side.
6.
conic sections are obtained from
approximately setting out an

7.
baulk of timber
is
Give rules
a cone.
ellipse.
for
(34)
20 feet long, 15 inches by 15
inches at one end and 12 inches by 12 inches at the other.
What would be its price at 2s. per foot

8. Make an isometrical drawing of
in diameter
9.
Draw
cube
and 1| inches deep, standing on
its base.
rail
of a 2 inch door,
the parts separated.
Two
(36)
and 63
forces of 16
right angles to each other

11.
(36)
in isometrical projection, quarter full size, the
mortise and tenon to the bottom
10.
(32)
a cylinder 3 inches
lbs.
act
upon a point
find their resultant.
at
(34)
king-post roof truss, 20 feet span and 10 feet in
height, has a purlin on each side resting on the middle of
principal rafters, under which are the struts.
each purlin
is
5 cwt.
part of the truss.
A man
The load
of
Find, graphically, the strain on each

(40)
upon a board suspended from a single

movable pulley pulls downwards at one end of a rope,
which passes under the movable pulley and over a pulley
fixed to a beam overhead, the other end of the rope being
What is the smallest proportion
fixed to the same beam.
of his whole weight with which the man must pull in order
12.
sitting
to raise himself
13.
(30)
If three cubes of
wood, the
first
of
fir
3 inches on
the side, the second of oak 4 inches on the side, and the

APPENDIX B
third of
mahogany
5 inches
on the
how would you determine
you,
woods
the different
14.
303
side, are placed before
the relative densities of

(32)
Give a short description of
six ordinary tools used
by the carpenter and joiner.

(36)
15. What wood do you consider most suitable for (a)
tie-beams,
(e)
floor joists,
(b)
(c)
floor
boards, (d) panelling,
shop fronts, (/) hand-rails.
and a bad
(30)
how you would
16. Explain
distinguish between a good*
deal.
54.
(32)
Saturday/, April 2Uh, 2.30 to 6.30.
INSTRUCTIONS.
The candidate must confine himself to one grade only, the
Ordinary or Honours, and must state at the top of his paper of
answers which grade he has selected. He must not answer questions
in
more than one grade.
he has already passed in this subject, in the first class of the

Ordinary Grade, he must select his questions from those of the
If
Honours Grade.
The number of the question must be placed before the answer

worked paper.
in the
sheet of drawing paper
is
supplied to each candidate.
Drawing instruments to be used in this Examination.

Not more than nine questions to be answered in either grade.
Foiir hours alloived for this j^cLper.
The maximum number
of
marks obtainable
is
affixed to each
question.
Full Technological Certificate.
Qualifying
See
Subjects.
For Ordinary Grade, two in the Elementary Stage

page 300.
for Honours, two in the Advanced Stage, from the following
:
I.
III.
Practical, Plane,
and Solid Geometry.
Building Construction.
VI. Theoretical Mechanics.

VII. Applied Mechanics.
304
Elementary Stage of Geometrical Drawing as well

Freehand or Model Drawing, will serve in lieu of one Science
Certificate in
as in
subject for either grade.
Passing the Preliminary Examination will count as one subject.
ORDINARY GRADE.
Every candidate
required
is
to
attempt question No.
3,
aiid
at
LEAST foiir other questions.

1.
Give sketches to
illustrate
how
the cutting of timber
and state how you would prefer timber to be

cut from the log, and why.
(32 marks)
2. Describe the various processes through which deal
affects its use,
should be passed before
it
can be considered thoroughly
seasoned.
3.
(34)
State for what purposes the following tools are used
Firmer
chisel,
back saw, jack plane, router, side
fillister,
chariot plane.
4.
(36)
Give plan and
section, 1| in. to afoot, of a lead gutter
behind stone parapet, showing feet of
rafters,
outlet of
gutters, etc., complete.

5.
It is
and ^
in one span
would use
6.
(32)
required to cover a building 40

pitch.
ft.
wide with roof
Give elevation of the truss you
to scale 4 feet to an inch.
in isometrical projection,
showing the ironwork you would
use.
7.
(36)
Draw
place on
section to scale, IJ in. to a foot, through a
first floor,
Draw
an angle
(34)
20
ft.
tie
and dragon
piece,
Give sketches of a centre

span,
and elevation of
and show how you would
to a scale, 1| in. to a foot, plan
obtain the bevels of hip-rafter.

9.
fire-
showing the construction and trimming
of the floor.
8.
(34)
Give enlarged details of joints to the foregoing roof
(32)
for semicircular stone arch
and describe the position and use of wedges. (35)
APPENDIX B
10.
What must
305
be the scantling of a
fir
beam
to carry
safely a distributed load of five tons over a span of 10 ftJ (36)

11. Draw plan and elevation to h in. scale of 2J in.
framed, ledged, and braced door, in two heights, with fan-
light over
and
opening 4
in
Draw
12.
2^
in.
solid
ft.
by
fir
wrought, rebated and beaded frame

(34)
ft.
plan and elevation to |
ft.
of a pair of
folding doors, each leaf five-panel bolection
with raised (or fielded) panels.

7
in. scale
moulded
Size of opening 6
by
ft.
6 in.
(34)
Show
the
and
with
details
of
grounds and backings, necessary to the above door
in
13.
a 14
linings
finishings,
in. wall.
Draw
14.
(34)
plan and section to scale, IJ
in.
to a foot, of a
three light casement with solid frame and muUions.

of opening 5
ft.
by 3
6 in.
ft.
Size
Give section through
full size.
Draw
15.
to a scale, | in. to a foot, a
open well-hole 3
Height from
ft.
newel
wide, in a hall
in.
floor to floor 12
ft.
Show
with
staircase,
10
ft.
wide.
enlarged details of
treads and risers.
(36)
Give sketches ^
16.
sill
(36)
size
full
of the following joints:
Secret dovetail, double tenon and mortise, fox wedging,

rule joint,
meeting
rail
of double- hung sash, rebate
tongue.
and
(36)
HONOURS GRADE.
Candidates for Honours must have previously passed in the Ordinary
Grade and must have already forwarded to the Institute the required
f
specimen of their practical work.

Every candidate is required
to
attempt question No.
4,
and at
LEAST three other questions.

1.
Give a short description of the various European soft

and state the purpose for which each is best
woods,
adapted.
(32)
3o6
2.
Give some account of dry
which
it is
to be expected.
rot,
What
and the situations
in
would lead you
to
signs
believe that dry rot exists in the timbers of a building
What
3.
is
to be
done when dry rot
discovered
is
(35)
Describe the three best preservative processes (other
than seasoning) with which you are acquainted, and state

their value in increasing the durability of timber.
4.
expense of running one of the following machines

joiner
5.
(30)
Describe the construction, uses, cost of purchase, and
(b)
Draw
planing machine
(a)
General
spindle machine.
(40)
to scale, 1 in. to a foot, the foot of a
hammer-
(c)
beam truss, 40 ft. span and | pitch dot outline of tenons

and show the bolts and straps. The hammer beam, with
all work below it, and the ends of timber framed above,
;
to be shown.
6.
Draw
(36)
to scale,
lating turret, 6
ft.
1 in.
to a foot, section through a venti-
internal diameter, on the roof mentioned
show how you would frame it to the roof. (36)

7. Give elevation to scale, ^ in. to a foot, of a quarter
partition, 18 ft. wide and 24 ft. high, running through two
On
storeys and self-supporting over the ground floor.
the first floor is a central doorway 6 ft. 6 in. wide by
7 ft. 6 in. high
on the second floor is a doorway 3 ft.
wide and 6 ft. 6 in. high, 3 ft. 6 in. from one side wall
and another 4 ft. wide and 6 ft. 6 in. high, 2 ft. from the
other wall.
Give details of joints show all ironwork and
above, and
figure scantlings.
(30)
Draw
elevation and section to scale, J in. to a foot,

showing construction of a gantry over pavement 10 ft. wide
8.
and with staging 12

9.
shop
ment.
13
ft.
ft.
from ground.
Draw
plan and section to
front,
showing arrangement
Frontage,
18
ft.;
(34)
scale, | in. to a foot, of
for giving light to base-
height from floor to ceiling,

(35)
APPENDIX B
Two
10.
houses of 18
frontage each in a terrace have
ft.
been pulled down, and shoring
required for supporting
is
the adjoining houses on each side.

a foot, the shoring
and
307
you would
Sketch to
construct,
and
scale,
givê
details of the joints.
(32)
Give a description of not more than
11.
in. to
scantlings
hard woods
six
with which you are acquainted, stating their nature, uses,

cost,
and the
with
first
relative
quality yellow Baltic deal.
Describe fully
12.
of working as compared
difficulty
how you would
(36)
out a moulded
set
hand-rail to a geometrical staircase which has ten winders,
the well-hole being 2
ft.
in the clear
and the
risers
6 in. high.
The
13.
Work
(38)
above mentioned has a veneered
staircase
string.
out to a large scale the development of the veneer
round the well-hole, and show by dotted
lines the
struction.
14.
each
con(36)
niche segmental on plan, and 5
ft.
wide across
the front, has a domical head, semicircular on elevation.
Show by
sketches to scale,
in. to
a foot,
how you would
construct the domical head, and give rules for finding curves
of ribs and bevels of ends.
15.
Give a plan to
in.
to a foot, of a butler's
by 8 ft. and 10 ft. 6 in. high, showing the

necessary, and give details to scale of, 1^ in. to
pantry, 10
fittings
scale,
(32)
ft.
a foot, of one of the fittings.

16.
Draw
elliptical
to scale, of | in.
on plan, 7
ft.
internal dimensions.
long, 4
(34)
to a foot, a lantern light,
ft.
wide, and 3
ft.
Show how you would
bevels of bars at top and bottom.
6 in. high,
get cuts or
(34)
3o8
1898.
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION.
May
Monday^
Is the
1.
method
of measuring in the carpenters' trade
decimal or duodecimal
system to the other
9th, 7 to 10.
How
would you convert from one

(36 marks)
2.
Construct a plain scale to read 2 inches to
3.
Describe the method of inscribing in a circle any
On
regular polygon.
1 foot.
(30)
a given line 2 inches long construct
a pentagon.
(30)
Make an
4.
irregular heptagon, and reduce the
same
to an
oblong of equal area.

5.
The chord
segment
is
(34)
of a circle
feet.
is
12 feet; the rise in the
Find the radius of the
6.
(35)
Set out a circular-headed door frame, inside measure-
ment 4
feet,
the
Transome with
door 2 inches thick.
fanlight over.
7.
What
is
(38)
the cubical contents of half a regular hexa-
gonal pyramid of 2 feet edge and 5 feet high

8.
Draw
(37)
'?
the plan and elevation of a hexagonal prism of
l|-inch edge at ends and 3-inch axis,
when
the axis
horizontal but inclined to the plane of elevation at
Make
the
section of this prism,
when
cut
by a
Make
ing joints,
tenon
and
figure
" grooved
(38)
oblique drawings of the follow-
isometric or
joint,''
dimensions:
"Haunched,"
and tongued," and " common dove-
their
tail."
10.
How
(32)
The handle of a mortising machine

much more pressure would you be
applying the same force,

longer
is
40"".
plane,
parallel to the plane of elevation.

9.
by
circle
figures.
if
is
2 feet long.
able
the handle were
to exert,
made
foot
(38)
APPENDIX B
11.
309
Describe the difference between the teeth of a
{a)
ripping saw and those of a dovetail saw, and give the

reasons for their respective shapes,
you use
(h)
to bore a |-inch hole into the
of timber
What
bit
would
end grain of a piece

(38)
Describe the characteristics and uses of the principal
12.
conifer timbers.
(40)
ORDINARY GRADE.
Not more than nine questions
are required to be answered.
Write a brief description of oak, teak, and yellow deal,

and state the purposes for which they are used. Give the
1.
principal
2.
market firms and ports of shipment.
Why
is
(32 marks)
the iron of a shoulder plane reversed, as
compared with a jack plane
Why
should the pitch of
a moulding-plane iron be greater for hard
wood
soft
3.
Make
(35)
section,
ft.
2 in. high
scale
in.
should be fully dimensioned.
and 3
to
ft.
2 in.
the foot.
Make
wide; and a
All the
Make
(36)
isometric drawings of the joint at the lock-rail
of the door in the preceding question,

at the
parts
to scale | full size a
detailed section through the panel and moulding.

4.
for
the elevation of rather more than half of a six-
panelled door, 7
vertical
wood than
bottom
rail of
and
also of the joint
the door, with double tenons.
(32)
Make sections of the following mouldings Cyma

recta (Roman and Greek), Astragal torus (Roman and
Greek), Cavetto (Roman and Greek), Ovolo (Roman and
5.
Greek).
These drawings must be large enough to show
the geometrical construction, and the working lines should
be
left in.
6.
Make
(38)
a half elevation to a scale of \ in. to the foot
of a truss partition, 20
ft.
wide, 15
ft.
high, with a door-

way near each
joints,
Illustrate by freehand sketches the

end.
and the means you would employ in making and
securing
7.
(40)
it.
Draw
a plan, to a scale of |
staircase, 3
ft.
a hall 9
wide.
stair,
ft.
6 in.
in. to
wide; height,
a foot, of a newel
floor to floor, 12 ft.; in
Explain the method of setting out this
and how you would determine the proper proportion
of treads to risers.
8.
Make
line
(40)
diagrams and write the names of the parts
and show by line

diagrams the form of principal you would use for a 25 ft.,
Show the parts in com35 ft., and a 50 ft. span roof.
pression by single lines, and those in tension by double
of a collar-beam roof of 16
ft.
span,
lines.
(36)
9.
\SECTION
Elevation
APPENDIX B
The foregoing sketch
is the plan and elevation of a moulding

Determine the method of working the two
on the rake.
end pieces to intersect with

for mitreing
10.
it,
and of obtaining the angles

(38)
it.
What do you
understand by strengthening beams
and girders by means of
flitching
and trussing
Give
sketches to illustrate.
11.
and
Show by
which are adapted for the different
state
12.
(32)
sketch the different methods of scarfing,
Describe the following: Back
flap,
strains.
(30)
rule joint,
and
give illustrations of their use.

13.
Make
flat roof,
(30)
drawing of a small skylight, to be fixed
and give
details to
room, 20
ft.
show how the weather
out.
14.
is
in a
kept
(32)
by 15
ft.,
has a bay window, fireplace,
Describe the method of fixing the
and two doorways.
grounds to receive the skirtings, architraves,
etc.
(34)
HONOURS GRADE.
N.B, Candidates for
Honours Grade must have previously

a specimen of their practical work.
Candidates are expected to answer not less than five questions, hut
they may answer more.
forwarded
1.
A centre is
having 25
the
to the Institute
ft.
required for an elliptical arch of stonework,
span and 10
ft.
to the foot, such centering,
rise.
Draw,
to a scale of \ in.
and mark thereon scantlings of
the timber.
2.
Describe and show in detail the
(34)
mode
of taking out
the front wall of a ground storey to insert a shop front,
with needful shoring.
(38)
Give the best methods of seasoning timber, and the

relative time required for the following
Yellow deal.
3.
312
mahogany for
meant by second seasoning, and how
pitch pine, oak, black walnut, wainscot, and
What
joinery.
would you
process
4.
is
treat high class joinery in going through the
(32)
niche
is
in shape a quarter of a sphere,
and
it is
to
be boarded so that the joints of the boards are horizontal
when
the boards are bent round.
method
5.
Show
the geometrical
of setting out the boards.
Draw
(36)
half the horizontal section through an internal
doorway, the wall being 18

architraves, frame,
jamb
lining,
in.
Show
thick.
and door 2^
grounds,
in. thick,
with
moulding on the solid and raised panels scale, 2 in. to

1 foot.
Write a brief description of making, fixing, and
;
hanging such
6.
fittings in high-class
window has
6-ft.
opening.
work.
(38)
It is to
be
fitted
with
boxing shutters. The soffit is framed.

Write a brief description of the method of fixing the
splayed folding
various parts.
7.
Make
(32)
sketches of mouldings sufficiently clear to
trate the character of the following: Greek,
illus-
Eoman, Norman
and Decorated periods. Give sections of mouldings commonly used in various forms of joinery.
(40)
8. Show how you would set out a rod for a window-frame
fitted with a pair of French casements.
(30)
INDEX.
A
Beaded
joints, 61.
Abel's process of preservation, 218.
Beads, various forms
Abutments,
Beams, transverse strength
152.
Alder, characteristics
Bearing
of, 228.
Angle between roof planes,
136,
of, 197.
of, 261.
piles, 181-183.
Beech, characteristics
of, 228.
Bending moment diagram, 252.
137, 168, 169.
Angles, to bisect,
10, 11.
Annulets, 196.
Bethell's process of preservation,

218.
Application of face-mould, 289.
Bevel-cut method, 289.
Architraves, 111, 112.
Bevelled shoulder joint, 59.
Area
of
window
space, 130.
Ash, characteristics
of,
226.
Astragal, 197.
Bevels for hand-railing, 286.

Bevels for purlins, 171.
Birch, characteristics
Birdsmouth
B
Back
linings, 119.
of, 229.
joint, 53.
Board, 39.
Borrowed
lights, 130.
Backing of the hip, 167-169.

Balk of timber, 38.
Balsam fir, characteristics of, 229.
Bottle-nose steps, 267, 269.
Balusters, definition of, 268.
Bow's notation, 259.
Band moulding.
Boxed shutters, 122.

Box gutters, 150.
111, 112.
Bareface tenons, 61.
Basement
floors, 87.
Boucherie's process of preservation,

219.
Brackets to sashes, 119.
Battened doors, 97-99.
Bracketted string, 270.

Brandering, 94.
Battened panels, 109.

Bead butt panels, 108.
Breaking weights, to find the, 262.

Bricknogged partitions, 90.
Bead
Bridle joint, 52.
Batten, 39.
flush panels, 108.
314
Bull-nose steps, 267, 278.
Curtail step, definition
Burnett's process of preservation,
Curbs to lantern light, 134-136.

Cut string, definition of, 268.
219.
of,
Cypress, characteristics
of,
268.
229.
C
Canary wood, characteristics
of,
Datum
231.
Camber,
Dead
144.
lines, 7.
shore, 188, 189.
Capillary attraction, 129.
Deal, dimensions
Carpenter's boast, 53.
Deal, red, 226.
of, 39.
Cased sash and frame, 115, 117.
Deal, white, 226.
Cedar, characteristics
Deal, yellow, 226.
of, 229.
Development
Centering, 190-193.
Centre line of
rail,
of cone, 29.
Dicotyledons, 225.
283, 284.
Charring the ends of posts, 218.
Dimensions to working drawings, 7.
Chase mortise,
Doatiness, 222.
60, 80.
Chestnut, characteristics
of,
229.
Circle on circle, 207-210.

Circle,
through three points,
wood,
stairs, 277-280.
Doors, double-margined, 104.

12.
characteristics
Doors, framed and battened, 98.
Doors, gunstock, 106, 107.
Circular louvre frame, 203, 204.
Citron
Dog-legged
Doors, battened, 97-100.
Circle, area of, 18.
of,
Doors,
jib, 109.
Doors, ledged, 98.
229.
Clamped
Doors, standard size
joint, 62, 63.
of, 102.
Classification of timber, 225.
Dormer
Close string, definition
of, 268.
Double-faced architraves, 111, 112.
Coke-breeze fixing blocks, 113.
Double floors, 78, 80.

Double-framed floors, 81, 82.
Douglas fir, characteristics of, 229.
Cogged
joint, 46.
Collar-beam truss, 160.

Colonel
Emy
Colouring,
Common
truss, 155, 157.
common,
68.
Dovetail, key, 63.
Dovetail, lap, 70.
5.
Components
Dovetail,
Dovetail, halved joint, 44, 45.
8, 9.
dovetail, 68.
Compasses,
lights, 133.
of a force, 239.
Dovetail, mortise and tenon, 60.
Conifers, 225.
Dovetail, notch, 44.
Conversion of timber, 223, 224.

Co-ordinate planes, 26.
Dovetail, secret, 70.
Corbels, brick, 86.
Dowel joint, 52.

Dragon tie, 165, 166.
Draped panels, 109.
Drawbore pinning, 66,
Counterlathing, 94.
Cups and screws,
Cup
shakes, 221.
118.
Dovetail, tongue and groove, 47.
INDEX
315
Drawing boards, 2.
Drawing pens, 6.
Foxtail wedging, 64.
Drips, 162, 163.
French casements, 125-128.
Druxiness, 222.
Frieze
Druxy
Funicular polygon, 245.
Framed and braced
knots, 222.
doors, 98, 99.
rail, 103.
E
Easing '^centres," 193.
Gantries, 193, 194.
Easing the
Gardner's process of preservation,
rail,
294.
Eaves gutter, 150, 151.

Ebony, characteristics of, 229.
Ellipse, problems relating to, 18-25.
Elm, characteristics of, 230.
Endogenous trees, 225.
Enlargement of mouldings, 198,
221.
Geometric mean,
15, 16.
Going, definition
of,
266, 267.
Gothic roofs, 155, 159, 160.

Graphic methods of representing
quantity, 237.
Greenheart, characteristics
199.
Equilibrant, 239.
Examination papers (1897), 301.

Examination papers (1898), 308.
Exogenous trees, 225.
of, 230.
Ground floor, 64.

Grounds framed and splayed,
Growth of timber, 211.
Gun-stock joint, 55, 58.
Gutter behind blocking course,
113.
149.
F
Facing-up material,
40.
Fielded panels, 107, 109.
Hair dividers, 6.
Half timbers, 38.
Fillet, 195.
Hand-rail, height
Fished
Hand-railing, 279, 294.
Facemould, to find the, 288, 293.
joints, 172, 173.
of, 268.
Fixing blocks, 113.
Hand-railing, classification
Flier, definition of, 267, 278.
Hammer-beam
Flight, definition
of,
Haunched
Flitch, definition
of, 39.
267.
of,
282.
truss, 158.
tenon, 56-58.
Head-room, 280.
Flitch girders, 82, 265.
Heart-shakes, 221.
Flitch plates, 83-85.
Height
Flooring joints, 70.
Hickory, characteristics
Flying shores, 187, 188.
Hips, to find the length
Folding wedges, 104, 105.
Hollow or cavetto, 196-198.
of lock rail, 102.

of, 230.
of,
167-169.
Force, particulars required, 237.
Holly, characteristics
Forces in roof couples, 243.
Hornbeam, characteristics of, 230.

Housed joint, 50.
Hyperbola, to draw the, 22-24,
Forked heading
Foxiness, 222,
joints, 54.
of,
230.
3i6
Line of loads, 245.
Inking in drawings,
Inner casings, 118.
Log
8.
of timber, 38.
Louvre frames, 203, 204.
Intersection of mouldings, 200-203.
Interties, 90.
Isometric projection, 31, 32.
Isometric projection of mouldings,

33.
Mahogany, characteristics
Mansard roofs, 152-154.
232.
Margary's process of preservation,
Isometric projection, pure, 35.

Isometric scale, 32, 36.
220.
Masons' mitre,
Matched
J
Jack
of,
Maximum
bending moment, 253.

Mezzanine floors, 74.
Mitre dovetail, 70.
rafters, 151, 170, 171.
Jamb
62.
joint, 54.
linings, 110, 111.
Jarrah, characteristics
231.
of,
Jib crane, forces set up
in, 242.
Mitre, plain, 42.
Jib doors, 109.
Mitred and halved joint, 41.

Mitred string, definition of, 270.
Joggle joint, 51.
Modes
Joints, various, 73.
Moment
of fracture, 236.
of a force, 250, 251.
Monocotyledons, 225.
Mortise and tenon, 55-57.
Kauri, characteristics
231.
of,
King-post, nature of stress

Kite, definition
of,
Knee, definition
267.
of,
Knots, definition
in, 143.
197.
270.
221.
of,
Kyan's process of preservation, 220.
Laggings, 190.
Landings, 272, 278.
Lantern lights, 134,

Lap or halved joint,
40, 41.
231.
of,
vitae,
Needle
leaf trees, 225.
of, 267.
Notched joint, 43.

Notch -board, definition
of, 270.
of, 94.
Ledged and braced doors,

Ledged doors, 97.
Lignum
floor timbers, 76.
Nosing, definition
136.
Larch, characteristics
Lettering drawings,
Naked
Newel, definition of, 268.

Nogging pieces, 90, 96.
Normal to an ellipse, 21.
Laths, various sizes
Mouldings, raking, 199, 200.

Mouldings, various forms of, 195-
7.
characteristics of,
Oak, characteristics of, 232, 233.

Oblique mortise and tenon, 59
Oblique nailing, 46.
Octagonal
231.
Lime, characteristics
98, 99.
of,
231.
roof, 161.
Off'sets, brick, 85.
INDEX
Open mortise and tenon, 41, 42.
Oregon pine, characteristics of, 229.
Orthographic projection,
Outer casings, 118.
26.
317
Q
Quadrilateral figures, 17.
Quality marks, 227.
Quartered partitions, 91.

Quartering, 39.
Ovolo, 195.
Queen-post, details
of, 146.
Queen-post, truss, 140, 144, 145.
Painting timber, 217.
wood, 113.
Pallets,
Raised or fielded panels, 107, 109.
Panelled doors, 100, 101.
Raking
Panelled jamb linings, 111, 112.
Ramp,
Panels, 108, 109.
Reactions, 247-249.
Parabola, to construct the, 21-23.
Red
Parallel forces, 244.
Resultants of a force, 239.
Parallel rules,
Riders, 185, 186.
4.
shores, 183.
definition of, 270.
deal, characteristics of, 234.
Parallelogram of forces, 238.
Rind
Parapet gutters, 148.
Rise of step, 267.
Parting beads, 118.
Riser, definition of, 267.
Parting laths, 118.
Roof, collar, 139, 140.
galls, 222.
Partitions, various forms of, 89.
Roof, couple, 139, 140.
Pencil drawings,
Roof, couple close, 139, 140.
8.
Pendentives, 205, 206.
Roof, king-post, 140, 141.
Philibert-de-Lorme truss, 152, 156.
Roof, lean-to, 138, 140.
Pine, yellow, 233.
Roof, pitches, 138.
Pinning, 65.
Roof, princess-post, 140.
Pinus rigida, 226.
Roof, queen-poiat, 140.
Pinus sylvestris, 226.
Roofing irregular plans, 165.
Pitch pine, 234.
Rosewood, characteristics
Pivoted sashes, 131, 132.
Rough
Rough
Plain jamb linings, 112.
brackets, 271, 272.

carriages, 270, 271.
Planing, 40.
Plank,
39.
Plans of
stairs,
various forms, 278.
Plugs, 113.
Pockets in walls, 86, 87.

Points of contrary flexure, 258.
Safe wedging, 65.
Sanding timber, 217.

Sapwood, 2 J 3, 221.
Sash doors, 106, 107.
Polar diagrams, 246.
Scale rule,
Poling boards, 179, 180.
Scantling, 39.
Polygon
of forces, 240, 241.
Polygons, to construct,
13, 14.
4.
Scarfing timbers, 172-175.
Scribed joints, 48, 49.
of, 234.
3i8
Scroll, to describe the, 291.
Striking centres, 193.
Secret nailing, 66.
Strings, 268, 269.
Secret screwing, 67.
Studded
Sectioning,
Studs, 89.
6.
partitions, 90.
Sections of panelled doors, 101.
Stufi", 39.
Sections of pyramid, 30.
Stump mortise and tenon, 61.

Swan-neck, 270, 280.
Sycamore, characteristics of, 235.
Syllabus of City and Guilds of
Set squares,
5.
Shearing stress diagrams, 252-258.

Sheeting, 181.
London
Shooting, 40.
Institute, 295.
Shoring, 183-189.
Shutters, vertical sliding, 122-124.
Side gutters, 162-164.

Sills, 82,
Silver
fir,
92-94, 114.
characteristics, 229.
Table or rule joint,

Tangents to circles,
50.
15.
Single flooring, 76.
Tangents to
Skylights, 133-135.
Tarring timber, 217.

Teak, characteristics
Smoking timber,
216.
Tee-squares,
Solid frames, 110, 111.
Sound pugging,
Theory
79.
of
235.
of,
3.
beams, 251.
Throating, 130.
Spar, 39.
Splayed heading joint,

Splayed shutters, 121.
Spring bows,
ellipses, 21.
68.
6.
Springtree, 270.
Spruce fir, characteristics of, 234.

Square boxed shutters, 122, 123.
Stair planning, 272.
Staircase, definition of, 266.
Stairs, definition of, 266.
Stairs, various
forms
of, 278.
Tie-beam,
nature
of
Torus, 195.
Transome
light, 127.
Tread, definition
Star-shakes, 212, 221.
Tread, proportion
Steaming timber, 216.
Tredgold's notch, 44.
of,
266.
of, 273.
Tredgold's tusk tenon, 47.
Stiles,
diminished, 106.
Stiles,
gun-stock, 106.
Treenails, 66.
Stiles,
mitred, 106.
Triangle of forces, 239.
Storey rod, 277.
Strengthening timbers, 175.

Stresses in king-post truss, 260.
in,
Timber defects, 221-223.

Timber growth, 211-213.
Timber preservation, 217-221.
Timber seasoning, 214-216.
Timbering excavations, 179-181.
Tongue and groove joint, 46.
Standards, timber, 226, 227.
Stop bead, 118.
stress
143.
Trussed partitions, 91-94.

Trussed timbers, 176-178.
Turret roofs, 158.
Twisted fibre, 222.
INDEX
U
319
Wall-strings, 268.
Walnut, characteristics
Upsets, 222.
Waney
V
Veneering around
of, 235.
timber, 223.
Well-string, 268.
scroll, 277.
Ventilating courses, 87, 88.

Ventilation of roof timbers, 150152.
Window backs, 120.

Window boards, 119.
Window elbows, 120.
Wood bricks, 113.
Wood joints, 113.
Wreathed-strings, 270.
Wainscot, 223.
Waling pieces, 179.

Wall plates, 85.
Wall pockets, 86, 87.
Wall posts, 89.
GLASGOW
Y
Yellow deal, characteristics of, 233.
Yellow pine, characteristics of, 233.
Yew,
characteristics of, 235.
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I.
II.
Guelphs and Ghibellines.

250- 1 409.
The Age of the Condottieri.
1409- 1 530.
Mr. Browning is to be congratulated on the production of a work of immense

labour and learning.' Westminster Gazette.
THE STORY OF IRELAND.

O'Grady.
O'Grady, Author of Finn and his Companions.'
'
*Most
it
Cr. ^vo.
2s. 6d,
most stimulating. Its racy humour, its original imaginings,

one of the freshest, breeziest volumes.
Methodist Times,
delightful,
make
By Standish
'
14
Biography
THE LIFE
Baring Gould.
PARTE. By S. Baring Gould.
S.
OF NAPOLEON BONAWith over 450
the Text and 12 Photogravure Plates.

'
Illustrations in
Large quarto.
Gilt top,
363-.
The
best biography of Napoleon in our tongue, nor have the French as good a
biographer of their hero.
book very nearly as good as Southey's "Life of
Nelson."
'The main feature of this gorgeous volume is its great wealth of beautiful photogravures and finely-executed wood engravings, constituting a complete pictorial
chronicle of Napoleon L's personal history from the days of his early childhood
at Ajaccio to the date of his second interment.' Daily Telegraph.
Nearly all the illustrations are real contributions to history.' Westminster Gazette.
'
'
THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF JOHN
Morris Fuller.
DAVENANT,
Fuller, B.D.
M. Rigg. ST.
J.
an
Demy
Svo.
By Morris
of Salisbury.
los. 6d.
ANSELM OF CANTERBURY A
:
Chapter
THE History of Religion. By J. M. Rigg. Demy Svo.
IN
Tvlr.
D.D. (1571-1641), Bishop
Rigg has
told the story of the life with scholarly ability,

interesting chapter to the history of the Norman period.'
W. Joyce. THE LIFE OF SIR FREDERICK

OUSELEY. By F. W. Joyce, M.A. ^s. 6d.
F.
'
ys, 6d,
and has contributed

Daily Chronicle.
GORE
This book has been undertaken in quite the right spirit, and written with sympathy,
insight, and considerable literary skill.'
Times,
W.
G. Collingwood.
THE LIFE OF JOHN RUSKIN.
By
W.
G. Collingwood, M.A. With Portraits, and 13 Drawings by

Mr. Ruskin.
Second Edition. 2 vols. Svo. ^2s.
No more
'
It is
magnificent volumes have been published for a long time.' Times.

long since we had a biography with such delights of substance and of form.
Such a book is a pleasure for the day, and a joy for ever.' Daily Chronicle.
Waldstein.
M.A. With
C.
'A thoughtful and
JOHN RUSKIN. By Charles

a Photogravure Portrait.
Post Svo.
Waldstein,
^s.
well-written criticism of Ruskin's teaching.*
Daily Chronicle.
A. M. F. Darmesteter. THE LIFE OF ERNEST RENAN, By

Madame Darmesteter. With Portrait. Second Edition. Cr,Svo. ds.
A polished gem of biography, superior in Its kind to any attempt that has been made
*
of recent years in England. Madame Darmesteter has indeed written for English
The Life of Ernest Renan."
readers
A then<zum.
is a fascinating and biographical and critical study, and an admirably finished
work of literary art.' Scotsman.
It is interpenetrated with the dignity and charm, the mild, bright, classical grace of
form and treatment that Renan himself so loved and it fulfils to the uttermost
the delicate and difficult achievement it sets out to accomplish.' Academy.
'
'It
'
W.
H. Hutton.
THE LIFE OF
W. H. Hutton, M.A.
*
With
SIR
Portraits.
The book
THOMAS MORE.
Crown
Svo.
By
^s.
lays good claim to high rank among our biographies.

It is excellently,
Scotsman.
even lovingly, written.
An excellent monograph.' Times.
'
'
15
Travel, Adventure and Topography

H. H. Johnston. BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA. By Sir
H. II. Johnston, K.C.B. With nearly Two Hundred Illustrations,
and Six Maps. Strand Edition. Crown ^to. 30J. 7iet,
'
fascinating book, written with equal skill and charm the work at once of a
and of a man of action who is singularly wise, brave, and experiIt abounds in admirable sketches from pencil.'
Westminster Gazette.
delightful book . . . collecting within the covers of a single volume all that Is
known of this part of our African domains; The voluminous appendices are of
literary artist
enced.
'
The book
Manchester Gtiardian.
takes front rank as a standard work by the one
extreme value.'
THREE YEARS
Decle.
L.
Lionel Decle.
Demy
Edition*
'
*
'
man competent
to write
Daily Chronicle.
it.'
With 100
Svo,
SAVAGE AFRICA. By
IN
Illustrations
and
Maps.
Second
21s.
A fine,
full book. 'Pall Mall Gazette.

Abounding in thrilling adventures.' Daily Telegraph,
His book is profusely illustrated, and its bright pages give a better general survey
of Africa from the Cape to the Equator than any single volume that has yet been
Times.
published.'
delightful book.' Academy.
Astonishingly frank. Every page deserves close attention.' Literature.
Unquestionably one of the most interesting books of travel which have recently
'A
*
*
Standard.
impressions of a keen-eyed and Intrepid traveller.'
Appealing powerfully to the popular imagination.' Globe.
appeared
*
'
'
The honest
Scotsman.
Henri of Orleans. FROM TONKIN TO INDIA. By Prince

Henri of Orleans. Translated by Hamley Bent, M.A. With
ICQ Illustrations and a Map.
Crown 410, gilt top. 25^*.
'A welcome contribution to our knowledge. The narrative is full and Interesting,
and the appendices give the work a substantial value.' Times.
his services to geography have been
'The Prince's travels are of real importance
considerable.
The volume is beautifully illustrated.' Athenceum.
.
R. S.
S.
Baden-PowelL
THE DOWNFALL OF PREMPEH.
Diary of Life in Ashanti, 1895.

Colonel Baden-Powell.
With 21 Illustrations and a Map. Cheaper Edition. La7'ge Crown
Svo.
*
R.
6s
A compact,
S. S.
faithful,
most readable record of the campaign.'
Baden-PoweU.
Daily Neivs.
THE MATABELE CAMPAIGN,
By Colonel Baden-Powell. With nearly 100 Illustrations.

*
1896.
Cheaper
Large Crown %vo, 6x.

Edition.
As a straightforward account of a great deal of plucky work unpretentiously done,
this
S. L.
book
is
well worth reading.'
Hinde. THE FALL

Hinde. With Plans,
S. L.
'
The book
Times,
OF THE CONGO ARABS. By

etc.
Demy
Sz>o.
12s. 6d.
of good things, and of sustained Interest.' St. James's Gazette.

graphic sketch of one of the most exciting and important episodes in the struggle
for supremacy in Central Africa between the Arabs and their European rivals.'
Times,
Is full
i6
A. St H. Gibbons. EXPLORATION AND HUNTING IN

CENTRAL AFRICA. By Major A, St. H. Gibbons, F.R.G.S.
With 8 full-page Illustrations by C. Whymper, 25 Photographs and
Demy
Maps.
%vo.
\^s.
a grand record of quiet, unassuming, tactful resolution. His adventures were as various as his sporting exploits were exciting.'
Times.
His book
is
WITH THE MASHONALAND FIELD
E. H. Alderson.
FORCE,
Illustrations
*An
By
1896.
Lieut. -Colonel
Demy Svo.
and Plans.
Alderson.
With numerous
los. 6d,
growth.'Daily
interesting contribution to the story of the British Empire's
Ne7us.
A clear,
vigorous,
and
soldier-like narrative.*
Scotsman.
Seymour Vandeleur. CAMPAIGNING ON THE UPPER

NILE AND NIGER. By Lieut. Seymour Vandeleur. With
an Introduction by Sir G. GoLDiE, K.C.M.G.
Large Crown Svo. los.
Illustrations, and Plans.
Upon the African question there is no book procurable which
With 4 Maps,
6d.
contains so
much
of
Guardian.
value as this one.'
A FRONTIER CAMPAIGN. By the Viscoimt

FiNCASTLE, V.C., and Lieut. P. C. Elliott-Lockhart. With a
Map and 16 Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown %vo, 6j.
Lord Fincastle.
*An admirable book, combining
in a volume a piece of pleasant reading for the

general reader, and a really valuable treatise on frontier war.' Aihencnum.
K. Trotter.
J.
THE NIGER SOURCES.
Trotter, R.A.
'A most
With a Map and
interesting as well as a lucidly
By
Illustrations.
Colonel
Crow7i %vo.
and modestly written book.'
J.
K.
^s,
Spectator.
Michael Davitt. LIFE AND PROGRESS IN AUSTRALASIA. By Michael Davitt, M.P, With 2 Maps. Croivn^vo.
ds.
500 pp.
interesting and suggestive work.' Daily Chronicle.
'Contains an astonishing amount of practical information.' Daily Mail.
'One of the most vaKiable contributions to our store of Imperial literature that has
been published for a very long time.' Pall Mall Gazette.
An
W.
Crooke.
INDIA
THE NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES OF
Their Ethnology and Administration. By W.

Crooke, With Maps and Illustrations. Demy Svo. los. 6d.
A carefully and well-written account of one of the most important provinces of the
:
Empire.
Mr. Crooke deals with the land in its physical aspect, the province
under Hindoo and Mussulman rule, under British rule, its ethnology and sociology,
its religious and social life, the land and its settlement, and the native peasant.
The illustrations are good, and the map is excellent.' Manchester Guardian.
A. Boisragon.
BoiSRAGON.
THE BENIN MASSACRE.
By Captain
't^s. 6d.
CroivnZvo.
Seco7td Edition.
If the story had been written four hundred years ago it would be read to-day as an
English classic' Scotsman.
'If anything could enhance the horror and the pathos of this remarkable book it is
the simple style of the author, who writes as he would talk, unconscious of his
own heroism, with an artlessness which is the highest art.' Pall Mall Gazette.
'
17
H. S. Cowper. THE HILL OF THE GRACES or, the Great

Stone Temples of Tripoli. By H. S. Cowper, F.S.A. With
:
Maps, Plans, and 75 Illustrations. Demy Svo. los. 6d.

Forms a valuable chapter of what has now become quite a large and important
branch of antiquarian research.'
W.
Times.
Kinnaird Rose. WITH THE GREEKS IN THESSALY.

By W. Kinnaird Rose, Reuter's Correspondent. With Plans and
Crown Zvo. 6j".
23 Illustrations.
SOUTH
AFRICA. By W. B. Worsfold,
B. Worsfold.
M.A. With a Map, Second Edition, Crow7i Svo. 6s.
'A monumental work compressed into a very moderate compass,' World.
W.
Naval and Military

W.
a.
NAVAL POLICY
Steevens.
Demy
Svo.
By. G.
W. Steevens.
6s,
This book is a description of the British and other more important navies of the world,
with a sketch of the lines on which our naval policy might possibly be developed.
'An extremely able and interesting work.' Daily Chronicle.
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ROYAL NAVY,
D. Hannay.
From Early Times to the Present Day.

2 Vols,
DemyZvo,
By David Hannay.
Vol. I., 1200- 1688.

and those who go to it for a lively and
brisk picture of the past, with all its faults and its grandeur, will not be disappointed.
The historian is endowed with literary skill and style.' Standard.
'We can warmly recommend Mr. Hannay's volume to any intelligent student of
naval history. Great as is the merit of Mr. Hannay's historical narrative, the
Illustrated.
We read it from cover
'js,
6d, each.
to cover at a sitting,
merit of his strategic exposition
is
even greater.'
Times.
Cooper King. THE STORY OF THE BRITISH

Colonel Cooper King, Illustrated. De7ny Svo.
ys,
C.
'
An
ARMY. By
6d.
and accurate story of England's military progress.' Daily Mail.

This handy volume contains, in a compendious form, a brief but adequate sketch of
the story of the British army.' Daily News.
authoritative
R. Southey.
ENGLISH SEAMEN (Howard, Clifford, Hawkins,
By Robert Southey.
Edited, with an
Introduction, by David Hannay. Second Edition,
Crown Svo. 6s.
Admirable and well-told stories of our naval history.' Ariny and Navy Gazette.
'A brave, inspiriting book.' Black and White.
Drake,
Cavendish).
W.
LINGWOOD.
'
THE LIFE OF ADMIRAL LORD
Clark RusselL
By W. Clark Russell,
With
COL-
Illustrations
by
Third Edition. C^-own %vo. 6s.

F. Brangwyn.
A book which we should like to see in the hands of every boy in the country.'
St. James s Gazette.
A really good book.' Saturday Review.
*
E. L. S. Horsburgh.
By
*A
E. L. S.
brilliant essay
THE CAMPAIGN OF VÂTERLOO.
Horsburgh, B.A.
With Plans,
simple, sound, and thorough.'

A 3
Crown
Daily Chronicle.
Svo.
5j.
i8
H. B.George. BATTLES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. ByH.B.

George, M.A., Fellow of New College, Oxford. With numerous
Plans.
Third Editio7t, Crown Svo. 6s.
Mr. George has undertaken a very useful task that of making military affairs intelligible and instructive to non-military readers
and has executed it with laudable intelligence and industry, and with a large measure of success.'
Times,
Baring
Gould.
S.
General Literature
Gould. OLD COUNTRY LIFE.
With
By
S.
Baring
Large Crown Zvo,
Sixty- seven Illustrations.
Fifth
Edition,
6s,
**'01d Country Life," as healthy wholesome reading,
full of breezy life and movement, full of quaint stories vigorously told, will not be excelled by any book to be
published throughout the year. Sound, hearty, and English to the core.'
World.
Baring Gould. HISTORIC ODDITIES AND STRANGE

EVENTS. By S. Baring Gould. Fourth Edition, Crown%vo, 6s,
A collection of exciting and entertaining chapters. The whole volume is delightful
S.
*
r ead ing. '
S.
'
Times.
Baring Gould. FREAKS OF FANATICISM. By

Gould. Third Edition, Crown Svo. 6s,
A perfectly fascinating book.' Scottish Leader.
Baring Gould.
S.
S.
Baring
A GARLAND OF COUNTRY SONG
English Folk Songs with their Traditional Melodies. Collected and

arranged by S. Baring Gould and H. F. Sheppard. Demy ^to, 6s.
SONGS OF THE WEST:
Baring Gould.
S.
Traditional
Ballads and Songs of the West of England, with their Melodies.

Collected by S. Baring Gould, M.A., and H. F. Sheppard,
M.A. In 4 Parts. Parts /., //., ///., 3^. each. Part IF., 5^.
In one Vol., French morocco, \<^s,
A rich collection of humour, pathos, grace, and poetic fancy.' Saturday Review.
Baring Gould. YORKSHIRE ODDITIES AND

EVENTS. By S. Baring Gould. Fourth Edition,
S.
STRANGE
Crown
8vo,
6s,
Baring Gould.
STITIONS. By
S.
STRANGE SURVIVALS AND SUPERS.
Baring Gould.
Crown
Svo,
Second Edition,
6s,
THE DESERTS OF SOUTHERN

Baring Gould.
FRANCE. By S. Baring. Gould, 2 vols. Demy Svo, 32s,
S.
Cotton Minchin. OLD

Minchin. Crown Svo
'
This book
is
HARROW
DAYS.
Second Edition,
an admirable record.'
Daily Chronicle.
51.
By
J.
G.
Cotton
W.
THE SPEECHES OF THE
E. Gladstone.
W.
E.
and H.
and X,
19
RT.
HON.
GLADSTONE,
M.P. Edited by A. W. Hutton, M. A.,

Cohen, M.A. With Portraits. Demy Svo. Vols, IX,
J.
125. 6d. each,
E. V. Zenker.
ANARCHISM. By
Demy
E. V. Zenker.
Svo.
7s. 6d.
T/ie Speaker.
Well-written, and full of shrewd comments.'
Herr Zenker has succeeded in producing a careful and critical history of the growth
of Anarchist theory. He is to be congratulated upon a really interesting work.'
'
Literature.
H. G. Hutchinson.
G. Hutchinson.
THE GOLFING PILGRIM.

Crow7t Svo.
By Horace
6s.
Truth.
Full of useful information with plenty of good stories.'
this book the golfer's library will be incomplete.'
Pall Mall Gazette.
recommend few books as better company.' St. Ja7ness Gazette.
'
'Without
We can
It will charm all golfers.'

Times.
Decidedly pleasant reading.' Athenceum.
'
'
Wells.
J.
OXFORD AND OXFORD
LIFE.
By Members
of
the University.
Edited by J. Wells, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of
Wadham College. Crown Svo. 3^. 6d.
We congratulate Mr. Wells on the production of a readable and intelligent account
of Oxford as it is at the present time, written by persons who are possessed of a
close acquaintance with the system and life of the University.' Athenceuni.
J.Wells.
OXFORD AND
ITS COLLEGES. By J. Wells, M. A.,

New.
Fellow and Tutor of Wadham College. Illustrated by E. II.

Leather, '^s. 6d. net.
Second Edition. Fcap. Svo. '^s.
'An admirable and accurate little treatise, attractively illustrated.' World.
*
*
luminous and tasteful little volume.' Daily Chronicle.

Exactly what the intelligent visitor wants.' Glasgow Herald.
VOCES ACADEMICS.
0. G. Robertson.
Robertson, M.A., Fellow of All

'
Grant
C.
With a Frontis-
33*. 6d.
piece.
Pott. Svo.
Decidedly clever and amusing.' Athencsum.
A clever and entertaining little hook.'Pall Mall Gazette.
Whibley.
L.
By
Souls', Oxford.
GREEK OLIGARCHIES THEIR ORGANISA:
TION AND CHARACTER.

of
An
Pembroke College,
exceedingly useful handbook
a careful and well-arranged study.'
ECONOMIC
Times.
AND
SCIENCE
PRACTICE,
Price.
By L. L. Price, M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Crown
L.
L.
Svo.
J.
6j.
Shedlock.
THE PIANOFORTE SONATA:
Its
Origin
CroivnSvo.
55.
J. S. Shedlock.
This work should be in the possession of every musician and amateur.
and lucid history and a very valuable work for reference.' Athenceum.
A concise
S.
and Development.
'
E.
By L. Whibley, M.A., Fellow

Cambridge. Crown Svo. 6j.
M. Bowden.
By
THE EXAMPLE OF BUDDHA
Being Quota-
from Buddhist Literature for each Day in the Year.

by E. M. Bowden. Third Edition. i6?no, 2s, 6d.
tions
Compiled
20
Science and Technology

Freudenreich. DAIRY BACTERIOLOGY. A Short Manual
for the Use of Students.
By Dr. Ed. von Freudenreich.
Translated by J. R. AiNswoRTH Davis, B. A.
Crown 2>vo 2s.6d.
OUTLINES OF BIOLOGY. By P.
Chalmers MitcheU.
Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., Illustrated. Crown Svo. 6s.
A text-book designed to cover the new Schedule issued by the Royal College of
Physicians and Surgeons.
G.Massee. A MONOGRAPH OF THE MYXOGASTRES. By

George Massee. With 12 Coloured Plates. Iô}/al Svo. iSs. net,
*
A work
much
organisms.
in advance of any book in the language treating of this group of

Indispensable to every student of the Myxogastres.
Nature.
'
Stephenson and Suddards. ORNAMENTAL DESIGN FOR

WOVEN FABRICS. By C. Stephenson, of The Technical
College, Bradford, and F. Suddards, of The Yorkshire College,
*
Leeds. With 65 full-page plates.

The book is very ably done, displaying an
taste,
and the faculty of clear
exposition.'
Demy
Svo.
ys. Sd.
intimate knowledge of principles, good

Yorkshire Post.
HANDBOOKS OF TECHNOLOGY.
GARNETT and WERTHEIMER.
TO MAKE A DRESS. By J. A. E. Wood.
Edited by Professors
HOW
Illustrated.
is. 6d.
Crow7i Svo.
text-book for students preparing for the City and Guilds examination, based on
the syllabus. The diagrams are numerous.
Though primarily intended for students, Miss Wood's dainty little manual may be
consulted with advantage by any girls who want to make their own frocks. The
directions are simple and clear, and the diagrams very helpful.' Literature,
'A splendid little book.' Evening News.
A
'
L. T.
Hobhouse.
Philosophy
THE TPIEORY OF KNOWLEDGE.
By
Demy Svo, 21s,

L. T. Hobhouse, Fellow of C.C.C, Oxford.
The most important contribution to English philosophy since the publication of Mr.
Bradley's
Glasgow Herald.
Appearance and Reality."
'
W.
'
brilliantly written volume.'
H. Fairbrother. THE PHILOSOPHY OF T. H.

By W. H. Fairbrother, M.A. Crown Svo. is, 6d,
In every
W.
F.
Times.
way an admirable
BusseU.
book.'
GREEN.
Glasgow Herald.
THE SCHOOL OF PLATO.
BussELL, D.D., Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford.
By F. W.
Demy Svo,
\os, 6d.
*
A highly valuable contribution to the history of ancient
'A
clever
and stimulating book,
Glasgow Herald.

P. S. Granger.
21
THE WORSHIP OF THE ROMANS.
By
F. S. Granger, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of Philosophy at Univer6s.

Crow7t Svo.
sity College, Nottingham.
*
scholarly analysis of the religious ceremonies, beliefs, and superstitions of ancient

in the new light of comparative anthropology.' 7"/ww,
Rome, conducted
Theology
1banM)OO?i0 of tCbeolop^*
General Editor, A. Robertson, D.D., Principal of King's College,
London.
THE XXXIX. ARTICLES OF THE CHURCH OF ENG*
LAND. Edited with an Introduction by E. C. S. Gibson, D.D.,

Vicar of Leeds, late Principal of Wells Theological College. Second
and Cheaper Edition in One Voluine, Demy %vo* I2s, dd.
Dr. Gibson is a master of clear and orderly exposition. And he has in a high
degree a quality very necessary, but rarely found, in commentators on this topic,
His book is pre-eminently honest.' Times.
that of absolute fairness.
After a survey of the whole book, we can bear witness to the transparent honesty
of purpose, evident industry, and clearness of style which mark its contents.
They maintain throughout a very high level of doctrine and tone.' Guardian,
The most convenient and most acceptable commentary.' Expository Times.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF RELIGION.

F. B. Jevons, M.A., Litt.D., Principal of Bishop Hatfield's
los. 6d.
Hall.
De?ny Svo.
*Dr. Jevons has written a notable work, which we can strongly recommend to the
serious attention of theologians and anthropologists.' Manchester Guardian.
The merit of this book lies in the penetration, the singular acuteness and force of the
author's judgment. He is at once critical and luminous, at once just and suggestive.
A comprehensive and thorough book.' Birmingham Post.
By
THE DOCTRINE OF THE INCARNATION.

Ottley, M. a.,
late fellow of Magdalen College,
By R. L.
Oxon., and Principal
of Pusey House. In Two Volumes. Demy Svo. 155.

Learned and reverent lucid and well arranged.' Record.
*A clear and remarkably full account of the main currents of speculation. Scholarly
precision
.
genuine tolerance
intense interest in his subject
are Mr.
Ottley 's merits.' Guardian.
*
JTbe
Cburcbman'6 ILibrar^*
J. H. BURN, B.D.
Edited by
THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH CHRISTIANITY.
By
W.
E. Collins, M.A., Professor of Ecclesiastical History at King's

College, London.
With Map. Crowit Svo. 35. 6d.
An investigation in detail, based upon original authorities, of the beginnings of the
English Church, with a careful account of earlier Celtic Christianity. Some very
full appendices treat of a number of special subjects.
excellent example of thorough and fresh historical work.
G^tardian.
An
SOME NEW
TESTAMENT PROBLEMS.
Wright, Fellow
'
Bold and outspoken
By Arthur
of Queen's College, Cambridge.

Crown Svo.
earnest and reverent.' Glasgow Herald.
6i".
Messrs. Methuen's
22
'îst
SERMONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED

WITH THE OLD TESTAMENT. By S. R. Driver, D.D.,
R. Driver.
S.
Canon of
Christ Church, Regius Professor of
versity of Oxford.
welcome companion
Crown
%vo,
to the author's
Hebrew
the Uni-
in
6^.
famous
'
Introduction.'
Guardian.
K. Oheyne. FOUNDERS OF OLD TESTAMENT CRITICISM. By T. K. Cheyne, D.D., Oriel Professor at Oxford.
T.
Large crown
%vo,
*js.
6d.
historical sketch of O. T. Criticism.

'A very learned and instructive work.'
Times.
H. H. Henson. DISCIPLINE AND LAW. By H. Hensley

Henson, B.D., Fellow of All Souls', Oxford; Incumbent of St.
Mary's Hospital, Ilford ; Chaplain to the Bishop of St. Albans.
Fcap. Svo.
2s. 6d.
An admirable little volume of Lent addresses. We warmly commend the general
Mr.
Henson's
book.' Guardian,
of
drift
'
AND
LEAVEN Historical and

H. H. Henson. LIGHT
Social Sermons. By H. Hensley Henson, M.A. Crown Svo,
:
6s.
'
They
are always reasonable as well as vigorous.
'
Scotsman.
Bennett. A PRIMER OF THE BIBLE.

W. H. Bennett. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d.
W. H.
'
The work
By
of an honest, fearless, and sound critic, and an excellent guide

compass to the books of the Bible.' Manchester Guardian^
primer.' English Churchman.
in
Prof.
a small
'A unique
CAMBRIDGE
SERMONS. Edited by C.H. Prior,

M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Pembroke College. Crown Svo. 6s.
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*A learned and interesting book, combining with no ordinary skill the authority of
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Scots7nan.
RELIGION IN BOYHOOD.
E. B. Layard.
Religious Training of Boys.
W.
THE
Yorke
Notes, etc.,
Notes on the
Layard, M.A. iSmo. is.
DE
CATECHIZANDIS
Fausset.
ST. AUGUSTINE. Edited, with Introduction,
by W. Yorke Fausset, M.A. Crown Svo. 35. 6d,
edition of a Treatise on the Essentials of Christian Doctrine, and the best

methods of impressing them on candidates for baptism.
SACRIFICE. By F Weston,
M.A.,
to the
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small
THE HOLY
Matthew's, Westminster. Pott Svo.

is.
volume of devotions at the Holy Communion, especially adapted
Weston.
E. B.
RUDIBUS OF
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F.
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needs of servers and those
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A Kempis. THE IMITATION OF
CHRIST.
23
By Thomas a
Kempis. With an Introduction by Dean Farrar. Illustrated by

CM. Gere, and printed in black and red. Second Edition, Fcap,
8vo.
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'Amongst
J.
Keble.
'
THE CHRISTIAN YEAR.
By John Keble. With an
Introduction and Notes by W. Lock, D. D. , Warden of Keble College,

Ireland Professor at Oxford.
Illustrated by R. Anning Bell.
Second Edition, Fcap. Szô, Buckram, 3^. 6^/. Padded morocco^ 55.
The present edition is annotated with all the care and insighi: to be expected from
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Introduction.
There is an interesting Appendix on the mss. of the "Christian
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Gtuirdian.
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*
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* Charming.'
Record.
'
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THE CONFESSIONS OF
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AUGUSTINE.
Newly
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late Student of Christ Church.
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Ti7nes.
*No translation has appeared in so convenient a form, and none, we think, evidenc'
ing so true, so delicate, so feeling a touch.' Bir7ninghavi Post.

Dr. Bigg has made a new and vigorous translation, and has enriched the text with
a luminous introduction and pithy notes.' Speaker,
THE CHRISTIAN YEAR.
By John Keble. With Introduction and Notes by Walter Lock, D.D., Warden of Keble
College, Ireland Professor at Oxford.
No prettier book could be desired.' Manchester Guardian.
'The volume is very prettily bound and printed, and may fairly claim to be an
advance on any previous editions.' Guardian.
The introduction is admirable, and admirers of Keble will be greatly interested in
the chronological list of the poems.' Bookman.'
THE IMITATION OF
CHRIST.
Revised Translation,
with an Introduction, by C. Bigg, D.D. late Student of Christ

Church.
Dr. Bigg has made a practically new translation of this book, which the reader will
,
have, almost for the

the author.
first
time, exactly in the shape in
'The text is at once scholarly

Church Latin in which the
simple and
intelligible.'
original
is
Scotsman.
which
it
left
the hands of
reproduction in English of the sonorous

composed, and popular in the sense of being
in its faithful
24
3leatifr0 oC
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:
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.
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THE GOD
'
IN
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CAR.
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brilliant,
A CHANGE OF
'A
AIR.
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'
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human nature.
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" The Prisoner of Zenda."
Fourth Edition.
A Man of Mark " is the
'
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PHROSq.
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J atnes s Gazette.
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From cover to cover " Phroso " not only engages the attention, but carries the reader
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*
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*
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'A
'
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MRS.
26
CHEAP JACK
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'
*
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*
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THE TRANSLATION OF A SAVAGE.

*
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The reader who is not interested in this original, fresh,
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THE TRAIL OF THE SWORD.

'
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WHEN VALMOND CAME TO

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The Last Adven-
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add to
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The best thing he has done one of the best things that any one has done lately.'
tures of
THE SEATS OF THE MIGHTY.

'
St.
James s
Gazette.
*Mr. Parker seems to become stronger and easier with every serious novel that he
attempts. He shows the matured power which his former novels have led us to
expect, and has produced a really fine historical novel.' Athencsum.
* A great book.'
Black and White.
*One of the strongest stories of historical Interest and adventure that we have read
for many a day. ... A notable and successful book.'
Speaker,
THE POMP OF THE LAVILETTES.
27
Second Edition, ^s.^d,
Living, breathing romance, genuine and unforced pathos, and a deeper and more
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Doyle.
'
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UNDER THE RED
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*
'
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'
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29
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Carpentry &amp; Joinery by Frederick C. Webber

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f RflNKLiN

W. GARNETT, D.C.L., and Prof.

Secretary of the Technical Education Board

Principal of the Merchant Venturers

CARPENTRY AND JOINERY

Technical Education Board of the London County Council,

B.A., F.I.C., F.C.S.,

Principal of the Merchant Venturers' Technical College,

Messrs. Methuen and Co. announce the issue of a series

to the size of the

TO MAKE A DRESS. By Miss Wood,

CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.

Webber, Chief Lecturer

to the Building Trades' Department of the Merchant Venturers'

of the Huddersfield Technical College.

DESIGNING AND WEAVING. By

A. F. Barker, Head Master

THE GEOLOGY OF COAL.

By G. A. Lebour, M.A., F.G.S.,

H. Wells, Principal of the

Battersea Polytechnic Institute.

H. Stroud, D.Sc, M.A., Professor

BOOT AND SHOE MANUFACTURE. By

County and Borough Councils.

WORKSHOP ARITHMETIC AND MENSURATION.

T. MiLLis, M.I.M.E., Principal of the Borough Polytechnic Institute,

7 will be suitable for use in the Laboratories of

Organized Science Schools.