Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

www.elsevier.com/locate/apgeog

Groundwater vulnerability and risk mapping

for the Basaltic aquifer of the Azraq basin of
Jordan using GIS, Remote sensing and
DRASTIC
R.A.N. Al-Adamat a, I.D.L. Foster b,
, S.M.J. Baban c
a

Jordan Badia Research and Development Programme, Safawi, Mafraq, Jordan

Centre for Environmental Research and Consultancy, School of Science and the Environment
(Geography), Coventry University, Priory St., Coventry CV1 5FB, UK
CLEAR, Department of Surveying and Land Information, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine,
Trinidad and Tobago
b

Accepted 6 August 2003

Abstract
Water consumption in Jordan already exceeds renewable freshwater resources by more
than 20% and, after the year 2005, freshwater resources are likely to be fully utilised. Over
50% of supply derives from groundwater and this paper focuses on a small part of the
northern Badia region of Jordan that is underlain by the Azraq groundwater basin where it
has been estimated that annual abstraction stands at over 100% of the projected safe yield.
While water supply is a crucial issue, there is also evidence to suggest that the quality of
groundwater supplies is also under threat as a result of salinisation and an increase in the
use of agrochemicals. Focusing on this area, this paper attempts to produce groundwater
vulnerability and risk maps. These maps are designed to show areas of greatest potential for
groundwater contamination on the basis of hydro-geological conditions and human impacts.
All of the major geological and hydro-geological factors that aect and control groundwater
movement into, through, and out of the study area were incorporated into the DRASTIC
model. Parameters included; depth to groundwater, recharge, aquifer media, soil media, topography, and impact of the vadose zone. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer was not
included in calculating the nal DRASTIC index for potential contamination due to a lack
of sucient quantitative data. A Geographical Information System (GIS) was used to create
a groundwater vulnerability map by overlaying the available hydro-geological data. The

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44(0)2476888341; fax: +44(0)2476888702.

E-mail address: gex002@coventry.ac.uk (I.D.L. Foster).

0143-6228/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2003.08.007

304

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

resulting vulnerability map was then integrated with a land use map as an additional parameter in the DRASTIC model to assess the potential risk of groundwater to pollution in the
study area. The nal DRASTIC model was tested using hydrochemical data from the aquifer. Around 84% of the study area was classied as being at moderate risk while the remainder was classied as low risk. While the analysis of groundwater chemistry was not
conclusive, it was encouraging to nd that no well with high nitrate levels was found in the
areas classied as being of low risk suggesting that the DRASTIC model for this area provided a conservative estimate of low risk areas. It is recognised that the approach adopted to
produce the DRASTIC index was limited by the availability of data. However, in areas with
limited secondary data, this index provides important objective information that could be
used to inform local decision making.
# 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Groundwater vulnerability; Jordan; GIS; Remote sensing; DRASTIC index

Introduction
In 2002, the Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI, 2002a) published a crucial National Water Strategy and Policy document which recognised,
amongst other key issues, that water use in the country already exceeded renewable
freshwater resources by more than 20%, that after the year 2005 freshwater resources would be fully utilised, that there remain no known resources within the country to develop, and that Jordan was already below the water poverty line.
Population growth over the last decade stands at ca. 3.5%, in large part a reection
of Jordans acceptance of refugees and displaced persons resulting from prolonged
conicts in the Middle East. A key reaction to abrupt increases in population has
been over-extraction of water from groundwater aquifers. The MWI (2002a) estimated that, in general, this has led to the exploitation of groundwaters at more
than double their sustainable yield.
There are 11 major groundwater basins in Jordan providing an estimated safe
yield of ca. 276  106 m3 yr1 (Salameh, 2001). Current national groundwater
abstraction stands at ca. 485  106 m3 yr1 , representing 54% of total water usage.
38% derives from surface water supplies and 8% of total water use, exclusively for
irrigation, comes from treated wastewater (MWI, 2002b). This paper focuses on a
small region of the northern Badia underlain by the Azraq groundwater basin that
has an estimated safe yield of ca. 24  106 m3 yr1 (USGS, 2000; Salameh, 2001) but
where annual abstraction currently stands at ca. 53  106 m3 (MWI, 2002b).
While water supply is a crucial issue, there is also substantial evidence to suggest
that the quality of groundwater supplies is also under threat as a result of salinistion and an increase in the use of agrochemicals (Allison et al., 1998; 2000; Millington,
2001; MWI, 2002a). The latter is generally a function in the northen Badia of the
change from a nomadic/pastoralist society in the 1970s to one which now contains
settled agricultural communities and where livestock grazing has diminished and
fruit and tree crop production has expanded (Al-Adamat, 2002; Al-Hussein, 2000;
Dutton, 1998; Millington, Al-Hussein, & Dutton, 1999).

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

305

As a consequence of limited water availability and potential issues of water quality in Jordan, there is clearly an urgent need for rapid reconnaissance techniques
that allow an assessment of groundwater vulnerability over large areas despite the
fact that there may be only limited secondary data. Groundwater vulnerability
mapping is based on the idea that some land areas are more vulnerable to groundwater contamination than others (Piscopo, 2001) and basic vulnerability indices
have been developed extensively for planning purposes in many areas of the
world, including the UK, since the 1980s (e.g. Carter, Palmer, & Monkhouse, 1987;
NRA, 1994). Planning is often based on concepts of both resource and source protection, although the success of EU and national government policies on groundwater protection have often been brought into question since general policies often
require signicant local modication and improved dissemination of information
(e.g. Foster & Ilbery, 1992; Foster & Thorn, 1993). The vulnerability concept is
implemented by classifying a geographical area with regard to its susceptibility to
groundwater contamination rather than using dynamic groundwater models, because groundwater models often have data requirements that cannot be satised in
many parts of the world (Knox, Sabatini, & Canter, 1993).
One of the most widely used models to assess groundwater vulnerability to a
wide range of potential contaminants is DRASTIC (Evans & Mayers, 1990; Fritch,
McKnight, Yelderman, & Arnold, 2000; Knox et al., 1993; Piscopo, 2001; Rundquist et al., 1991; Secunda, Collin, & Melloul, 1998). In this model, spatial datasets
on Depth to groundwater, Recharge by rainfall, Aquifer type, Soil properties, Topography, Impact of the vadose zone and the hydraulic Conductivity of the aquifer
are combined (Navulur & Engel, 1998). DRASTIC is a numerical rating scheme,
which was developed by the US EPA, for evaluating the potential for groundwater
contamination at a specic site given its hydrogeological setting (Knox et al.,
1993). Determination of the agricultural DRASTIC index involves multiplying
each factor weight by its point rating and summing the total (Knox et al., 1993).
The governing equation for the DRASTIC index is:
DRASTIC index Dr  Dw Rr  Rw Ar  Aw Sr  Sw Tr
 Tw Ir  Iw Cr  Cw

where (1) D: depth to groundwater, (2) R: recharge rate (net), (3) A: aquifer media,
(4) S: soil media, (5) T: topography (slope), (6) I: impact of the vadose zone, (7) C:
conductivity (hydraulic) of the aquifer (8) r: rating for the area being evaluated and
(9) w: importance weight for the parameter (Fortin, Thomson, & Edwards, 1997;
Fritch et al., 2000; Knox et al., 1993).
Several studies have used the DRASTIC model within a GIS environment
although few attempts have been made to apply the DRASTIC methodology in
arid and semi-arid environments. Fritch et al. (2000), for example, used GIS
combined with a modied DRASTIC equation to perform a groundwater vulnerability assessment on the Paluxy aquifer in north-central Texas, USA. They argued
that the use of this methodology allowed an investigation of the potential for
groundwater contamination on a regional, rather than on a site-specic basis. This

306

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

study produced a pollution potential map for the area and classied 47% as having
low pollution potential, 26% as having moderate pollution potential, 22% as having high pollution potential, and 5% as having very high pollution potential.
Secunda et al. (1998) integrated the impact of extensive land use (risk) data over
long periods of time upon aquifer media as an additional parameter in the DRASTIC
model, again integrated into a GIS, to assess the potential level of groundwater
vulnerability to pollution in Israels Sharon region. The methodology employed
empirical means to integrate aquifer media and extensive agriculture land use data.
The nal assessment thus incorporated both the natural state of the vadose zone
and aquifer media (vulnerability) as well as the potential danger posed by the longterm eect upon the media of existing extensive land usage (risk) to the regions
groundwater. Piscopo (2001) used DRASTIC and GIS to produce a groundwater
vulnerability map for the Castlereagh Catchment in Australia. In this research, the
author excluded hydraulic conductivity from the nal DRASTIC calculation due
to the lack of data. Furthermore, Piscopo (2001) replaced the recharge parameter
(net recharge) as dened by the US EPA by the potential of an area to have a recharge based on the rainfall amount, slope and soil permeability. Rundquist et al.
(1991) described a technique for implementing the DRASTIC groundwater-vulnerability model within the context of an automated raster-based GIS. The outcomes
of this research identied areas of Nebraska that were considered vulnerable to
groundwater pollution and produced a ow chart illustrating procedures and a
map of calculated potential pollution hazard. Rundquist et al. (1991) claimed that
the methodology could be executed successfully with minimal training and experience. Evans and Mayers (1990) also used a GIS-based approach to evaluate the
potential for regional groundwater pollution with a modied DRASTIC approach
in southern Delaware, USA. Three DRASTIC parameters were not used in this research; net recharge, impact of the vadose zone and the aquifer media. Instead,
the authors added new parameters to the DRASTIC index; the land use/land
cover and septic tank system density. The authors claimed that their approach
could generate groundwater-related information for large geographical areas that
was suciently detailed for use by government agencies involved in protecting
groundwater.
For the purposes of this research project, DRASTIC was also implemented
within a GIS environment. The recharge ratings and weightings used were based
on those proposed by Piscopo (2001) and the land use ratings and weightings were
based on those published by Secunda et al. (1998). The remaining parameter
weights and ratings were based on those of Knox et al. (1993). Hydraulic conductivity was not used in the development of the DRASTIC index because there were
insucient data from which to estimate this parameter. The DRASTIC index was
compiled in two separate stages. Stage one involved an assessment of groundwater
vulnerability, which is dependent on the physical conditions found in a specic environment and is essentially independent of the use to which the land is put. Stage
two involved the addition of risk factors focusing on land use in the study area.
These factors were added to the DRASTIC vulnerability index in order to produce
a risk index.

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

307

Study area
The study area in which the DRASTIC model was applied is located in the
northern part of the Azraq basin of Jordan within the basalt aquifer (Fig. 1). The
area under detailed investigation covers 867.4 km2 and comprises around 18% of
the total basalt aquifer in the Azraq basin. This area was selected since it has been
subjected to permanent settlement and signicant agricultural expansion since the
early 1990s, growing from a cultivated area of only 28.5 ha in 1990 to 1077.3 ha in
the year 2000 (Al-Adamat, 2002). Over the period from May 1966 to May 1998 a
total of 63 wells were drilled, although 55 of these were opened after a government
decision in 1990 to allow, and provide loans for, wells to be drilled in areas close to
the Syrian borders (Kirk, 1998). All irrigation wells in the study area were drilled
in the upper aquifer of the Azraq basin and within the basalt area (Al-Hussein,
2000; Dottridge, 1998). Depth to the water table in 54 of these wells for which data
are available ranged from 233 to 466 m at the date of drilling. The distribution of
38 of these wells that were sampled and analysed for nitrate concentration in this
study is shown in Fig. 2.
The basalt plateau, in which the aquifer is located, covers an area of 11 
103 km2 in the Northern Badia of Jordan (Allison et al., 1998; Al-Tarawneh,
1996). The basalt is part of a 45  103 km2 lava plateau stretching over about 700 km
in a NWSE direction from Syria to Saudi Arabia through Jordan (Al-Tarawneh,
1996) The study area consists of three geological groups. These groups are (a)
Bishriyya, (b) Rimah, and (c) Asfar. Each of these groups is subdivided into a
number of formations (Table 1). Six major faults have been identied in the study

Fig. 1. The study area within the Azraq basin of Jordan.

308

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

Fig. 2. Distribution of the wells sampled during the eld survey during the year 2000 with rainfall stations at Umm Al-Quttain and Dayr Al-Kahf.

area, are generally orientated in a north-south direction and exhibit strike slip
movement (Ibrahim, Rabba and Tarawaneh, 2001; Fig. 3).
The surface topography of the study area slopes gently from north to south (ca. 1%
slope) and wadis systems follow both this slope and the direction of the major fault
lines (Fig. 3). These wadis often have poorly dened drainage patterns because of
the low gradient slopes and it has been estimated that surface runo generated in
the wadi systems represents between 2 and 4% of annual rainfall (Allison et al.,
2000). Inltration in the wadi channels is high and can reach up to 200 mm hr1,
potentially providing an important mechanism for groundwater recharge (Allison
et al., 2000).
The soils in the study area are associated with the North Jordan basalt plateau
which include well developed xerochrepts on older basalt ows, with gypsitic and
calcitic horizons, and weakly developed xerothents on the recent basalt ows and
Table 1
The geological formations in the study area (after Ibrahim et al., 2001)
Group

Formation

Depth (m)

Bishriyya

Fahda vesicular basalt (FA)

Wadi Manasif basalt (WMF)
Hassan scoriaceous (HN)
Mahadda (M)
Madhala (MOB)

2560
2560
1540
Up to 100
1025

Rimah
Asfar

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

309

Fig. 3. Wadi systems and major fault lines in the study area.

in the Wadis (Allison et al., 1998). Xeric and Xerochreptic subgroups constitute
80% of the soil types in the area. Within the study area, 5 soil units have been
identied. These soil units are (i) BIS (Bishriyya), (ii) FAR (Mafarid), (iii) SAB
(Sabha), (iv) WAY (Huwaylat) and (v) ZUM (Zumaylat). Table 2 gives the physical properties of these soil units.
The study area falls within a region recognised to form a transition zone between
the climatic environment of the Jordan Valley and the arid interior desert of eastern Jordan. The climate is dominated by low precipitation (50200 mm) and high
potential evaporation (15002000 mm) (Allison et al., 1998) and is generally characterised by hot dry summers and cold winters. Rainfall usually falls in the form of
high intensity, short duration storms (Al-Ansari & Baban, 2001). The study area
receives the greatest amount of rainfall on the highest parts in the north adjacent
Table 2
Properties of soil units in the study area (modied from Al-Hussein, 2000; Jordan Ministry of Agriculture, 1994)
: based on the USDA soil classication (after Fitzpatrick, 1986)
Parameter

Clay (%)
Silt (%)
Sand (%)
OM (%)
Rock outcrop (%)
Texture

Soil unit
BIS
(Bishriyya)

FAR
(Mafarid)

SAB
(Sabha)

WAY
(Huwaylat)

ZUM
(Zumaylat)

25.9
50
24.1
1.21
10
Silt Loam

27.3
44
28.7
1.21
15
Clay loam

28.7
50
21.3
1.22
10

27.8
50.2
22
1.21
10

26.7
50
23.3
1.22
15
Silt Loam

310

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

to the Syrian border and the lowest amounts in the south (Dutton & Shahbaz,
1999). Rainfall occurs mainly between November and May, with 80% of the
annual precipitation falling between the months of December and March (Allison
et al., 1998). Rainfall amount varies from one year to another and from decade to
decade (Dutton and Shahbaz, 1999; Table 3). Of particular relevance to local
groundwater recharge of the Azraq basin has been the signicant decrease in average annual rainfall over the last three decades (Table 3). The average daily evaporation for the period from 1967 to 1995 is estimated to be between 5.9 and 6.3 mm
day1 (Al-Ansari & Baban, 2001). There is a strong seasonal variation in temperature in the study area. In the summer season, mean annual maximum temperatures
v
v
reach 3538 C in August but absolute maxima rarely exceed 40 C. In winter,
temperatures occasionally fall below freezing, with annual minimum temperatures
v
as low as 29 C (Allison et al., 1998; Millington et al., 1999).
The total population of the study area was 13,189 in 1993 who were living in 33
towns, villages and small settlements (BRDP, 1994). The population is predicted to
be 21,464 and 25,247 in the years 2008 and 2013 respectively, based on a 3.3%
annual population growth rate (Maani, Hunaiti, & Findlay, 1998). The majority of
farmers in the area cultivate vegetables and fruit such as tomatoes and water melon
as farmers claim that they generate a rapid prot (Kirk, 1998). However, the same
eld is not cropped in two successive years and virgin areas are reclaimed for cultivation on an annual basis because of fertility and salinity problems (Al-Adamat,
2002). Other farmers cultivate olives and fruit trees while several farmers have
mixed farms including trees, fruit and vegetables (Al-Hussein, 2000; Waddingham,
1998). Farmers use a combination of organic (sheep and chicken manure) and
inorganic fertilisers. Application rates of inorganic N, P and K to trees averages
ca. 36, 6 and 9 kg ha1 yr1, respectively, while for vegetable farms average
application rates are ca. 579, 61 and 90 kg ha1 yr1 for N, P and K, respectively
(Al-Adamat, 2002).

Table 3
Rainfall characteristics (mm) for Umm Al-Quttain and Dayr Al-Kahf Stations 19712000 (see Fig. 2 for
location of stations)

Mean Annual (19712000)

Standard Deviation (19712000)
Minimum (19712000)
Maximum (19712000)
Mean (19711980)
Mean (19811990)
Mean 19912000)

Umm Al-Quttain

Dayr Al-Kahf

140.3
65.6
16.0
277.0
180.1
136.8
113.0

110.6
62.2
13.5
291.3
139.2
114.0
75.0

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

311

Compiling the data base for the DRASTIC index

A range of secondary data were required in order to provide quantitative information for the groundwater vulnerability assessment including the distribution of
soil types, depth to groundwater and the spatial rainfall distribution. These data
were derived from a variety of sources and were obtained in a range of formats.
Information concerning the type, source and characteristics of individual data sets
are given in Table 4. However, because of the shifting nature of fruit and vegetable
cultivation on an annual basis, land use information was compiled from aerial
photographs and ground survey in the year 2000.
The Royal Jordanian Geographic Centre provided 29 aerial photographs at a
scale of 1:25,000. The Centre took these photographs in late October and early
November 2000. A eld survey was carried out in late April 2000 in order to identify existing agricultural activities and collect groundwater samples from wells located in the study area (Fig. 2). The areas of irrigated eld crops, built-up areas and
uncultivated land were the three major land use classes extracted from the aerial
photographs. The aerial photographs were scanned at high resolution (600 dpi)
and edge matched in Adobe Photoshop. The nal image was then imported into
IDRISI. Geometric correction was performed on this image to convert it to the local coordinate system of Jordan (JTM) using 23 ground control points (GCP).
These points were identied from the road and wadis hydrology maps (Table 4)
and the overlay of both maps in IDRISI. This process generated 23 points in JTM
co-ordinates. The digitising process in IDRISI was used to extract the three classes
identied above and the nal image is shown in Fig. 4.

Table 4
Secondary data available for groundwater vulnerability assessment
Map type

Year of survey Format

Original scale

Source

Topography (10 m contour interval)

Soil type
Road Network
Wadis Distribution
Rainfall Distribution
Well Locations and Depth to
Groundwatere

1995
1994
1995
1995
1995
19661998

1:50000
1:50000
1:50000
1:50000
1:50000

JBRDPa
JMoAb
RJGCc
RJGCc
JMoAb
WAJd

a
b
c
d
e

GIS Vector
GIS Vector
GIS Vector
GIS Vector
GIS Vector
Excel Files
imported into
GIS

Jordan Badia Research and Development Programme.

Jordan Ministry of Agriculture.
Royal Jordanian Geographic Centre.
Water Authority of Jordan.
Depth to groundwater only available at time of well drilling.

312

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

Fig. 4. The major land use classes in the study area in the year 2000.

Development of the DRASTIC vulnerability index

The DRASTIC index was calculated in the ArcView GIS environment to map
the groundwater vulnerability of the study area and Eq. (1) was used to produce
the DRASTIC index. However, hydraulic conductivity data were not available for
this area of the Azraq basin and no attempt was made to estimate hydraulic conductivity values because of the fractured nature of the basalts. While most of the
data required for the calculation of the index were directly available from the GIS
data sets, the estimated recharge values were computed from a combination of
slope, soil permeability and rainfall following the methods of Piscopo (2001).
Recharge
In order to calculate the recharge value (Rr  Rw), a digital elevation model
(DEM) of the study area was generated from the 10 m contour map. The slopes
in the study area were then derived from the DEM and classied according to the
criteria given in Table 5a. The resulting slope map was converted into a grid coverage taking into consideration that the pixel values in this grid coverage are based
on the slope ratings. The soil map was classied into two classes based on the
criteria given in Table 5c and was then converted into grid coverage. This process
was essential in order to perform arithmetic operations within the GIS.
Finally, both grids were added together with the rating value of the rainfall,
which is equal to 1 in the study area (Table 5b). Recharge was then calculated
from:
Recharge value Slope% Rainfall Soil permeability

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

313

Table 5
The recharge ratings and weightings for the study area (modied from Piscopo, 2001); (
Soil
permeability is based on USDA, 1994)
a) Slope

b) Rainfall

c) Soil permeability

d) Recharge value

Slope (%)

Factor

Rain (mm)

Factor

Range

Factor

Range

Rating

<2
210
1033

4
3
2

<500

Moderate
Low

4
2

911
79
57
Weight

8
5
3
2

The resulting map was then classied according to the criteria given in Table 5d
and multiplied by the weighting factor of the recharge parameter as shown in Fig. 5
and Table 6.
Depth to groundwater
The depth to groundwater in the study area was signicantly greater than 30 m
in all wells (WAJ, 1995). The depth index was obtained as a result of multiplying
Dr  Dw 5 based on the weighting system of Knox et al. (1993) (Table 6).
Aquifer media
Based on the geological description of the study area, the aquifer media was
classied as fractured basalt, which has a rating of between 2 and 10 (typical rating: 9) and a weight of 3 (Knox et al., 1993; Table 6). The result of multiplying Ar

Fig. 5. The spatial distribution of the recharge index (Rr  Rw).

314

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

Table 6
The DRASTIC index for the study area a: after Knox et al., 1993; b: after Piscopo, 2001; c: after Evans
& Mayers, 1990)
D: Depth to Groundwatera
Range (m)
More than 30
Weight (Dw)
S: Soil mediaa
Soil type
Silt loam
Clay loam
Weight (Sw)
R: Rechargeb
Range
911
79
57
Weight (Rw)
T: Topographya
Slope (%)
02
26
612
1218
More than 18
Weight (Tw)
A: Aquifer mediaa
Material
Basalt
Weight (Aw)
I: Impact of the Vadose zonea
Material
Basalt
Weight (Iw)
C: Conductivity (Hydraulic) Not used

Dr
1
5
Sr
5
3
5
Rr
8
5
3
2
Tr
10
9
5
3
1
3
Ar
9
3
Ir
9
4

by Aw is equal to 27. This number was added to the total DRASTIC index as a
xed number for all locations in the study area.
Soil media
Based on Table 2, the soil map was classied into two classes based on the ratings for the soil texture (Table 6). The vector layer of soil was converted to a raster
grid and multiplied by the weighting factor of the soil media which has produced
the map of Sr  Sw as presented in Fig. 6.
Topography
In Table 6, the topographic parameter is sub-divided into 5 classes. The slope index, which was derived from the DEM to nd the ratings for recharge, was reclas-

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

315

Fig. 6. The spatial distribution of the soil index (Sr  Sw).

sied and then converted into grid coverage and multiplied by the topographic
weight as shown in Fig. 7.
Impact of the vadose zone
The geological description of the study area indicated the existence of fractured
basalt. The typical rating value for basalt is 9 and the weight of this parameter is 4

Fig. 7. The results of the multiplying the topography ratings and weight (Tr  Tw).

316

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

Table 7
The DRASTIC index for the study area
DRASTIC index

DRASTIC range

Area (Km2)

% of the total area

Low
Moderate

92118
123139

137.1
730.3
867.4

15.81
84.19
100

Total

(Table 6). The result of multiplying Ir by Iw is equal to 36. This xed number was
also added to the total DRASTIC index.
The DRASTIC vulnerability index
The GIS coverage (Figs. 57) were all in raster format and values for each overlay were summed in ArcView GIS according to the pixel value of each area that
resulted from multiplying the ratings with its appropriate DRASTIC weight (Table
6). A xed number of 68 was added to the nal raster grid coverage. This number
represents:
Dr  Dw Ar  Aw Ir  Iw

Since that the minimum possible DRASTIC index using these parameters is 24 and
the maximum is 220, this range was divided into four equal classes. These classes
were: (a) 2471 (No risk), (b) 72121 (Low), (c) 122170 (moderate) and (d) 171220
(High).
The resulting DRASTIC values in this application lay between 92 and 139. This
range was classied on the basis of the above classication as: (i) 92118, which
was assigned a low vulnerability and (ii) 123139, which was assigned a moderate
vulnerability as shown in Table 7 and Fig. 8. Table 7 shows that more than 84% of

Fig. 8. The groundwater vulnerability assessment.

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

317

Table 8
Land use categories for the study area and the weight of this parameter (modied from Secunda et al.,
1998)
Land use category

Lr

Built up area
Irrigated eld crops
Uncultivated land
Lw

8
8
5
5

the study area has a moderate groundwater vulnerability to contamination while

the remainder of the study area (less than 16%) has a low vulnerability.

Development of the DRASTIC risk assessment

In order to introduce a land use factor into the DRASTIC index, the land use
map (Fig. 4) was rated according to the values given in Table 8. This map was converted into a raster grid and multiplied by the weight of the parameter (Lw 5) as
shown in Fig. 9. The resultant grid coverage was then added to the DRASTIC index based on Eq. (4) (modied from Secunda, Collin, & Melloul, 1998).
MDi DI Lr  Lw

where DI is the DRASTIC index and Lr  Lw is the land use index.

Using the same classication methodology applied for the DRASTIC index, the
modied DRASTIC index was sub-divided into two classes, (i) 123144 with low
risk and (ii) 148179 with moderate risk (Table 9 and Fig. 10). It appears from

Fig. 9. The results of the multiplying the land use ratings and weight (LrxLw).

318

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

Table 9
The modied DRASTIC index for the study area
Modied DRASTIC index

DRASTIC range

Area (Km2)

% of the total area

Low
Moderate

123144
148179

129.00
738.40
867.4

14.87
85.13
100

Total

Tables 7 and 9 that the introduction of land use into the DRASTIC rating has
only increased the areas that have moderate vulnerability by less than 1% (8.1 km2
of the total study area) which appears to be explained by the fact that many settlements and/or irrigated agricultural areas lie within the low vulnerability zone as
discussed below.
Groundwater vulnerability and land use
In order to establish if there was a spatial relationship between land use and
groundwater vulnerability of the study area, the land use map was overlaid on the
groundwater vulnerability map. This was an essential step in order to nd out whether any possible sources of contamination (farms and settlements) lay within the
low or moderate vulnerability zones. The results of this operation are shown in
Table 10. This table illustrates the relationship between the land use classes and
groundwater vulnerability zones. It appears from this table that less than 1% of the
study area has a low vulnerability and possible source of contamination (farms and
settlements) which corresponds with the modied DRASTIC index (Table 9).

Fig. 10. The modied groundwater vulnerability risk index.

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

319

Table 10
The distribution of land use within the groundwater vulnerability zones
DRASTIC index

Land use Classes (Area (km2)/% total area)

Farm/ Urban Centre

Low
Moderate
Total

8.10 (0.93%)
129.00 (14.87%)

Uncultivated land
27.20 (3.14%)
703.10 (81.19%)
867.4 (100%)

Around 81% of the study area has a moderate vulnerability but no possible source
of contamination. Furthermore, more than 14% of the study area has a moderate vulnerability and possible sources of contamination in the same area while
around 3% of the study area has low vulnerability and no possible source of
contamination.

Groundwater vulnerability and nitrate concentrations in groundwater

In order to investigate the relationship between groundwater vulnerability and
nitrate concentrations in groundwater, the well location map was overlaid on the
modied DRASTIC map and the assign data by location operation in ArcView
GIS was used to spatially join the two maps. In this operation, the attribute le of
the wells map was updated with the data from the attribute le of the modied
DRASTIC map based on the spatial relationship between the features in the two
maps. This means that if a well is inside a low vulnerability zone, the new attribute
le of the wells map will record that value in the corresponding eld for that well.
Fig. 11 illustrates the nitrate (NO3) concentrations in wells that exist inside the low
vulnerability zone. The concentration varies between 8.11 mg l1 in well NN1 to
11.64 mg l1 in well NMA4. The average concentration of nitrate (NO3) in these
wells is 9.99 mg l1. Fig. 12 illustrates the nitrate (NO3) concentration (mg l1) in
the wells that exist in the moderate vulnerability zone. The concentration varies between 7.03 mg l1 at well SN1 to 21.01 mg l1 at well RK2. The average concentration of NO3 in the moderate vulnerability zone is 10.52 mg l1.
There is no statistically signicant dierence between the average concentrations
for wells in low and moderate risk areas (Mann Whitney U test, p < 0:05). However, six wells have nitrate concentrations in the moderate vulnerability zone in
excess of the maximum nitrate concentration in the low vulnerability zone. The
average NO3 concentration in these 6 wells is 14.67 mg l1, some 50% higher than
the average for the remaining wells within the moderate vulnerability area. All
eight wells inside the low vulnerability zone have nitrate concentrations greater
than the minimum nitrate concentration found in the moderate vulnerability zone.
Furthermore, two wells inside the moderate vulnerability zone have lower nitrate
concentrations than the minimum detected nitrate concentration in well NN1 in
the low vulnerability zone.

320

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

Fig. 11. The nitrate (NO3) concentration (mg l1) in wells inside the low vulnerability zone.

Fig. 12. Nitrate (NO3) concentrations (mg l1) in wells inside the moderate vulnerability zone.

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

321

While an exact evaluation of the DRASTIC classication scheme is dicult with

such limited data, it appears that the classication of moderate risk areas has
always included wells with high nitrate concentrations and no high concentrations
have been found in wells in the low risk areas.

Summary and conclusions

The DRASTIC model has been used to investigate potential groundwater vulnerability and risk in the northern part of the Azraq basin of Jordan within the
basalt aquifer. Six DRASTIC parameters were used to calculate the potential for
groundwater vulnerability within a GIS environment in stage one of the exercise.
The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer was excluded from the calculation due to
the lack of data. The DRASTIC index varied between 123 and 139, which was divided into two groups of low and moderate vulnerability. Moderate vulnerability
ranked groundwater areas dominated the study area (>84%). A modied DRASTIC index (vulnerability plus risk) was developed in stage two of this exercise by
integrating land use with the DRASTIC model. It was found that the introduction
of land use only increased the potential for moderate groundwater vulnerability by
ca. 1%
Nitrate concentrations in six wells inside the moderate vulnerability zone were
much higher than those in the low vulnerability zone, although some wells inside
the low vulnerability zone had nitrate concentrations higher than those recorded in
wells in the moderate vulnerability zone. Overall, it was encouraging to nd that
no well with very high nitrate concentrations was found within the low vulnerability zone suggesting that the model may be conservative in identifying those
areas at a low risk of contamination. Although the groundwater is relatively deep,
the results suggest that great care should be taken when siting developments in the
moderate vulnerability areas due to importance of the basalt aquifer as a groundwater resource for drinking water supply for the local population and for the
major cities of Jordan.
While the DRASTIC index can be computed from data that are likely to be
available for many parts of the world, it must be emphasised that no attempt was
made to directly model recharge rates or processes or to model groundwater uxes
and ow directions within the aquifer. This must be considered a serious weakness
in the DRASTIC methodology applied here. The index is highly sensitive to the
parameter scores and weightings and the numerical values assigned to these parameters are essentially arbitrary. In the development of the vulnerability index, no
account was taken of the potentially more rapid groundwater recharge associated
with faults and/or wadis despite the fact that the latter are known to be important
local recharge areas. In the development of the risk index, settlements were included to represent potential point source impacts from septic tank systems that
are widely used throughout the Badia region in the absence of sewerage and sewage treatment plants (Al-Adamat, 2002). However, the index takes no account, for
example, of the proximity of septic tanks to well heads (resource protection), of

322

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

their proximity to other potentially important local recharge zones (wadis and
fault lines), or the risk associated with other activities within or associated with
urban areas such as landll sites.
While the maps produced by this exercise could be used as a general guide to
vulnerability and risk, local conditions on the ground must be taken into account
by local managers and planners. Further investigations are clearly required in
order to understand the mechanisms of groundwater recharge and contaminant
transport in this aquifer, especially in relation to the spatial distribution of potentially important geological features such as faults and the role that wadis play in
relation to groundwater recharge, neither of which have been included in this preliminary risk assessment. Estimates of hydraulic conductivity for the aquifer could
also be obtained in order to rene the vulnerability assessment of the groundwater
in the aquifer using the DRASTIC index. However, given the fractured nature of
the basalts in this region, a limited number of hydraulic conductivity values should
be used with considerable caution.
Acknowledgements
The lead author (R.A.N. Al-Adamat) gratefully acknowledges the receipt of a
BRDP scholarship held at Coventry University in order to undertake this research
project. Special thanks are extended to Prof. Nadhir Al-Ansari (Al-Al-Bayt University) and Dr M. Shahbaz, (Director of BRDP) for support and encouragement
to complete this research.
References
Al-Adamat, R.N.A. (2002). The use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Remote sensing to
investigate Groundwater Quality in the Azraq Basin, Jordan. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Coventry University, Coventry UK.
Al-Ansari, N. A., & Baban, S. M. J. (2001). The climate and water resources. In S. M. J. Baban, & N.
A. Al-Ansari (Eds.), Living with water scarcity: Water resources in the Jordan Badia Region, the way
forward (pp. 3153). Jordan: Al Al-Bayt University.
Al-Hussein, S. (2000). GIS modelling of land degradation in Northern Jordan using satellite imagery.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK.
Allison, R. J., Higgitt, D. L., Kirk, A. J., Warburton, J., Al-Homoud, A., Sunna, B., & White, K.
(1998). Geology, geomorphology, hydrology, groundwater and physical resources. In R. Dutton, J.
Clarke, & A. Battikhi (Eds.), Arid land resources and their management, Jordan desert margin (pp. 21
46). London: Kegan Paul International.
Allison, R. J., Grove, J. R., Higgitt, D. L., Kirk, A. J., Rosser, N. J., & Warburton, J. (2000). Geomorphology of the Eastern Badia Basalt Plateau. The Geographical Journal, 166, 352370.
Al-Tarawneh, K. (1996). The geology of The Al-Hamidiyya (Al-Hababiyya) area, map sheet no. 3354II,
Bulletin 35, Geology Directorate, Geological Mapping Division, Natural Resources Authority,
Amman, Jordan.
BRDP (Jordan Badia Research and Development Programme) (1994). The baseline socio-economic
survey of the Badia programme area. BRDP Internal Report, Amman, Jordan.
Carter, A. D., Palmer, R. C., & Monkhouse, R. A. (1987). Mapping the vulnerability of groundwater to
pollution from agricultural practice, particularly with respect to nitrate. In W. van Duijvebooden, &
H. G. van Waegeningh (Eds.), Proc. Int. Conf. Vulnerability of Soil and Groundwater to Pollutants

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

323

(pp. 333342). The Hague, Netherlands: National Institute Public Health and Environmental
Hygiene. Proc and Info No. 38.
Dottridge, J. (1998). Water resources quality, sustainability and development. In R. Dutton, J. Clarke, &
A. Battikhi (Eds.), Arid land resources and their management, Jordan desert margin (pp. 6780).
London: Kegan Paul International.
Dutton, R. W. (1998). Population, environment and development. In R. Dutton, J. Clarke, & A. Battikhi (Eds.), Arid land resources and their management, Jordan desert margin. London: Kegan Paul
International.
Dutton, R. W., & Shahbaz, M. (1999). The Badia Programme: Dening and overcoming constrains on
sustainable development. Applied Geography, 19, 275281.
Evans, B. M., & Mayers, W. L. (1990). A GIS-based approach to evaluating regional groundwater pollution potential with DRASTIC. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 45, 242245.
FitzPatrick, E. A. (1986). An introduction to soil science. Harlow: Longman.
Fortin, M., Thomson, K., P. B., & Edwards, G. (1997). The role of error propagation for integrating
multisource data within spatial models: The case of the DRASTIC groundwater vulnerability model.
Earth Surface Remote Sensing (pp. 358361). London: Procedure SPIE Conference.
Foster, I. D. L., & Ilbery, B. W. (1992). Water protection zones: A valid management strategy?. In A. W.
Gilg (Ed.), Restructuring the countryside (pp. 203222). London: Avebury Studies in Green Research.
Foster, I. D. L., & Thorn, R. H. (1993). Contrasting problems of implementing European Community
Water Protection Zone Policies in Ireland and Great Britain. Jnl. Inst. Water & Environ. Managers,
7, 6267.
Fritch, T. G., McKnight, C. L., Yelderman Jr, J. C., & Arnold, J. G. (2000). An aquifer vulnerability
assessment of the paluxy aquifer, central Texas, USA, using GIS and a modied DRASTIC
approach. Environmental Management, 25, 337345.
Ibrahim, K., Rabba, I., & Tarawaneh, K. (2001). Geological and mineral occurrence map of the Northern
Badia Region, Jordan, Scale 1:250,000, Geology Directorate, Geological Mapping Division, Natural
Resources Authority, Amman, Jordan.
Jordan Ministry of Agriculture. (1994). National soil map and land use project, the soils of Jordan.
Amman, Jordan: Ministry of Agriculture.
Kirk, A. (1998). The eect of intensive irrigated agricultural upon soil degradation: A case study from
Ashrayya. In R. Dutton, J. Clarke, & A. Battikhi (Eds.), Arid land resources and their management,
Jordan desert margin (pp. 127156). London: Kegan Paul International.
Knox, R. C., Sabatini, D. A., & Canter, L. W. (1993). Subsurface transport and fate processes. USA:
Lewis Publishers.
Maani, M., Hunaiti, H., & Findlay, A. M. (1998). Demographic change and population projections
19762013. In R. Dutton, J. Clarke, & A. Battikhi (Eds.), Arid land resources and their management,
Jordan desert margin (pp. 215246). London: Kegan Paul International.
Millington, A. (2001). Introduction: Water and development in Jordans Badia, turning o the sustainability tap?. In S. M. J. Baban, & N. A. Al-Ansari (Eds.), Living with water scarcity: Water resources
in the Jordan Badia region, the way forward (pp. 517). Jordan: Al Al-Bayt University.
Millington, A., Al-Hussein, S., & Dutton, R. (1999). Population dynamics, socio-economic change and
land colonisation in Northern Jordan, with spatial reference to the Badia Research and Development
Project area. Applied Geography, 19, 363386.
MWI. (2002a). Jordans Water Strategy and Policies. Amman, Jordan: Ministry of Water and Irrigation.
MWI (2002b). Water Resources in Jordan. Found at http://www.mwi.gov.jo/ministry_of_water_
and_irrigationout.htm
Navulur, K. C. S., & Engel, B. A. (1998). Groundwater vulnerability assessment to non-point source
nitrate pollution on a regional scale using GIS. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, 41, 16711678.
NRA. (1994). Policy and practice for the protection of groundwater. Bristol: UK National Rivers Authority.
Piscopo, G. (2001). Groundwater vulnerability map, explanatory notes, Castlereagh Catchment, NSW.
Department of Land and Water Conservation, Australia, Found at: http://www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au/
care/water/groundwater/ reports/pdfs/castlereagh_map_notes.pdf

324

R.A.N. Al-Adamat et al. / Applied Geography 23 (2003) 303324

Rundquist, D. C., Peters, A. J., Liping, D., Rodekohr, D. A., Ehrman, R. L., & Murray, G. (1991).
State-wide groundwater vulnerability assessment in Nebraska using the DRASTIC/GIS model. Geo
Cartography International, 6, 5158.
Salameh, E. (2001). Water shortages and environmental degradation. In S. M. J. Baban, & N. A. AlAnsari (Eds.), Living with water scarcity: Water resources in the Jordan Badia Region, the way forward (pp. 7187). Jordan: Al Al-Bayt University.
Secunda, S., Collin, M., & Melloul, A. J. (1998). Groundwater vulnerability assessment using a composite model combining DRASTIC with extensive land use in Israels Sharon region. Journal of
Environmental Management, 54, 3957.
USDA (United State Department of Agriculture). (1994). Permeability Key, Found at: http://
www.mn.nrcs.usda.gov/mo10/mo10guides/permkey
USGS (United States Geological Survey). (2000), Groundwater Basin Summaries, Azraq Basin, found
at: http://water.usgs.gov/exact/overview/p15.htm
Waddingham, J. (1998). Water demand. In R. Dutton, J. Clarke & A. Battikhi (Eds.), Arid land resources and their management, Jordan desert margin (pp. 119126). London: Kegan Paul International.
WAJ (Water Authority of Jordan) (1995). Groundwater resources of Northern Jordan (Vol. 2, Part 1),
Groundwater Abstraction in Northern Jordan, Water Authority of Jordan, Amman, Jordan.