Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

www.elsevier.com/locate/jcsr

Analysis of bolted moment connections in

cold-formed steel beamcolumn sub-frames
W.K. Yu, K.F. Chung, M.F. Wong
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon,
Hong Kong SAR, China
Received 3 September 2004; accepted 14 March 2005

Abstract
An extensive experimental investigation on bolted moment connections between cold-formed
steel sections was carried out, and a total of 16 internal and external beamcolumn sub-frames
with various connection configurations were tested under lateral loads. It is found that for those six
beamcolumn sub-frames with large bolt pitches and thick gusset plates in the connections, flexural
failure of connected sections is always critical. The moment resistances of the connections attain at
least 85% of the moment capacities of the connected sections.
This paper presents a theoretical investigation for predicting the structural behaviour of bolted
moment connections between cold-formed steel sections. An analysis and design method for internal
force distribution of the connections is presented, and hence a set of design rules for section failure of
connected sections under combined bending and shear is proposed. Moreover, a non-linear finite element model of the beamcolumn sub-frames incorporating the effect of semi-rigid joints is also presented. On the basis of the measured moment joint rotation curves of the bolted moment connections,
the overall lateral loaddeflection curves of the sub-frames are predicted, and they are found to follow
closely the curves obtained from tests. Furthermore, a semi-empirical formula for flexibility prediction of the bolted moment connections is also proposed after careful calibration against test data.
It is demonstrated that the proposed rules are highly effective for predicting the structural performance of cold-formed steel frames with bolted moment connections. Hence, structural engineers
are encouraged to design and build cold-formed steel structures with bolted moment connections to
achieve practical and efficient construction.
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Corresponding author.

E-mail address: cekchung@polyu.edu.hk (K.F. Chung).

0143-974X/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcsr.2005.03.001

W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

1333

Keywords: Cold-formed steel; Bolted moment connections; Combined bending and shear; Non-linear analysis;
Semi-rigid joints; Connection flexibility

1. Introduction
Cold-formed steel sections are lightweight materials and suitable for building
construction owing to their high structural performance. Conventionally, they are used as
purlins and side rails in the building envelopes of industrial buildings. The most common
sections are lipped C and Z sections, and the thickness typically ranges from 1.2 to 3.2 mm,
and sections with yield strengths at 280, 350 and 450 N/mm2 are commonly available.
For typical applications of cold-formed steel sections, there are a number of codes of
practice [14] available in the literature together with complementary design guides and
worked examples [58] to assist practising engineers.
Since 1990, there is a growing trend to use cold-formed steel sections as primary
structural members in building construction, such as low to medium rise residential
houses and portal frames of modest span. A number of research projects have been
carried out to study the structural behaviour of cold-formed steel purlin members with
different connection configurations [912]. In order to extend the use of cold-formed
steel sections in building construction, it is highly desirable to develop efficient moment
connections between cold-formed steel sections to achieve practical and efficient framing.
An experimental investigation [13,14] on simple connections between cold-formed steel
sections using web cleats of folded cold-formed steel strips is reported, and complementary
design rules for strength assessment of web cleats are also provided. Moreover, a
number of experimental investigations on bolted connections between cold-formed steel
beamcolumn sub-frames in typical building construction are also reported [1518], such
as column bases and primary beam-to-column connections. Advanced finite element
modelling using three-dimensional solid elements with material, geometrical and boundary
non-linearities is also reported [1922]. More recently, numerical investigations on the
deformation characteristics of bolted moment connections between cold-formed steel C
sections were reported by Lim and Nethercot [23] as well as Chung et al. [24] separately.
In various codes of practice for design of cold-formed steel structures [14], a number
of design methods are available for the evaluation of section capacities and member
resistances of typical sections against both local and overall buckling. However, for
connection design, these codes only provide design rules for the load carrying capacities
of individual fastenings with bolts, screws and welds while no guidance on the structural
behaviour of connectors such as web cleats in simple connections, and gusset plates in
moment connections is given at all. Hence, it is desirable to provide design rules for the
analysis and design of bolted connections between cold-formed steel sections.
Furthermore, it should be noted that conventional analysis and design of steel framework are performed using idealized connections, i.e. simple pinned connections and fully
rigid connections. However, it is widely recognized that there are always some rotational deformations in beamcolumn connections caused by in-plane bending moments.
Hence, it will be highly desirable to allow for the actual moment rotation characteristics in

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W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

practical connections, i.e. semi-rigid joints. For the last thirty years, a large amount of research effort has been dedicated to the effect of semi-rigid joints on the overall behaviour
of hot-rolled steel structures [2527]. However, there is little practical design guidance on
the use of semi-rigid joints in cold-formed steel structures. As cold-formed steel structures tend to be very slender when compared with typical hot-rolled steel structures, it is
expected that deformations in cold-formed steel structures will often be significant. Thus,
any non-linear effect such as material yielding and secondary moments induced by both
overall and local deformations of a structure should be fully incorporated in assessing the
structural performance of cold-formed steel structures. Hence, it is important to extend the
investigation of semi-rigid joints from hot-rolled steel structures to cold-formed steel structures. Moreover, the effect of local rotational characteristics of bolted moment connections
on the overall behaviour of cold-formed steel structures should be carefully examined.
2. Scope of work
This paper presents a theoretical investigation for predicting the structural behaviour
of bolted moment connections between cold-formed steel beamcolumn frames, and the
main objectives of the present investigation are:
To establish the structural performance of bolted moment connections between coldformed steel double C sections back-to-back in terms of both strength and stiffness.
To predict the overall structural behaviour of cold-formed steel beamcolumn subframes on the basis of the measured local characteristics of the connections, i.e. lateral
loaddeflection curves of beamcolumn sub-frames versus moment joint rotation curves
of bolted moment connections.
To demonstrate the importance of the effect of semi-rigid joints on the structural
behaviour of cold-formed steel structures with bolted moment connections.
An analysis and design method for internal force distribution of the connections is
presented, and design rules for section failure of connected sections under combined
bending and shear are proposed. Moreover, a non-linear finite element model of the
beamcolumn sub-frames incorporating the effect of semi-rigid joints is also presented. On
the basis of the measured moment joint rotation curves of the bolted moment connections,
the overall lateral loaddeflection curves of the sub-frames are predicted, and they are
found to follow closely the curves obtained from tests. Furthermore, a semi-empirical
formula for flexibility prediction of the bolted moment connections is also proposed after
careful calibration against test data.
3. Efficient bolted moment connections in beamcolumn sub-frames
Studies of a total of 16 cold-formed steel beamcolumn sub-frames with double
C sections back-to-back and with different connection configurations were carried out.
Fig. 1 presents the general layout of the tests together with details of the connection
configurations. The structural behaviours of all the beamcolumn sub-frames were fully
reported [17,2830].

W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

1335

(a) Internal beamcolumn sub-frames.

(b) External beamcolumn sub-frames.

Fig. 1. General test set-up for cold-formed steel beamcolumn sub-frames.

While four different failure modes are identified in all the tests, it should be noted that
flexural failure in connected sections, as shown in Fig. 2, is found to be the most desirable
mode of failure due to the associated high structural efficiency. This mode of failure only
occurs in connections with thick gusset plates and large bolt pitches, and the moment
resistances of the connections are found to attain 87%97% of the moment capacities of
the connected sections, on the basis of the present connection configurations covered in the
tests. Table 1 presents all the test data for the six beamcolumn sub-frames with flexural
failure at connected sections.
The lateral loaddeflection curves of the six beamcolumn sub-frames are shown in
Fig. 3 while the measured moment joint rotation curves are plotted in Fig. 4. It should
be noted that as stationary transducers are used in measuring both the vertical and the
horizontal displacements of the connections in the tests, it is necessary to correct the
measured moment joint rotation curves in the presence of large horizontal displacements
of the sub-frames [17]. The corrected moment rotation curves are also presented in Fig. 4
for easy comparison.
4. Moment resistances of bolted moment connections
In order to assess the moment resistances of the bolted moment connections, it is
essential to determine the internal forces within the connections [31]. Referring to the
connection shown in Fig. 5, the following assumptions are adopted:
(a) The centre of rotation of the connection, O, coincides with the bolt group centre.

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W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

Fig. 2. Flexural failure of the connected cold-formed steel section in an external beamcolumn sub-frame test.

Table 1
Summary of test programme and test data
Test

S180A2
E180C2
S180D1
E180D1
S240D1
E240D1

Thickness

Yield strength

Maximum
applied load

Normalized
failure load

Moment
resistance
ratio

PT N (kN)

Normalized
moment at
critical cross-section
(kN m)

t (mm)

p y (N/mm2 )

PT (kN)

1.99
1.94
2.02
2.06
2.01
2.04

454
468
486
476
478
450

20.94
11.05
21.47
11.35
22.91
10.43

20.86
10.95
19.68
10.42
21.46
10.23

19.73
20.72
18.61
19.70
19.58
18.66

0.92
0.97
0.87
0.92
0.92
0.87

Notes:
(a) All beam and column members are lipped C section back-to-back, designated as C15020DS G450.
(b) Flexural failure of connected section, FFcs, is identified in all the six tests.
(c) The measured moment capacity of C15020DS G450 is 21.36 kN m
after normalization to design thickness and yield strength.
(d) Designation:
S
denotes an internal beamcolumn sub-frame with a cross-shaped gusset plate
E
denotes an external beamcolumn sub-frame with a tee-shaped gusset plate
A2 and C2
denote four bolts per member without chamfers in 16 mm gusset plate
D1
denotes four bolts per member with chamfers in 10 mm gusset plate.

(b) The magnitude of the bolt force due to moment Fb is proportional to the distance
between the bolt hole and the centre of rotation of the connection, O. Moreover,

W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

1337

(a) Sub-frames S180A2 and E180C2.

(b) Sub-frames S180D1 and E180D1.

(c) Sub-frames S240D1 and E240D1.

Fig. 3. Loaddeflection curves of beamcolumn sub-frames with bolted moment connections.

the direction of Fb is derived from the moment equilibrium consideration of the

connection.
(c) Both the magnitude and the direction of the bolt force due to the shear force Fs are
obtained from the force equilibrium consideration of the connection.

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W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

(a) Sub-frame S180D1.

(b) Sub-frame E180D1.

Fig. 4. Measured and corrected moment joint rotation curves of sub-frames S180D1 and E180D1.

On the basis of force and moment equilibrium, all the internal forces within the
connections are illustrated in Fig. 5. Both the shear force and the bending moment diagrams
are then readily established, and they are also presented in Fig. 5 together with all the
expressions for internal forces. It should be noted that the expressions are modified from
those given in Ref. [31] which were originally developed for lapped sections between coldformed steel Z sections. According to the maximum applied loads measured from tests, the
corresponding shear forces V1 and V2 , and moments M1 and M2 on the left hand side (LHS)

W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

Fig. 5. Force distributions within bolted moment connections.

1339

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W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

Table 2
Analysis of section failure against combined bending and shear
Test

LHS of critical cross-section

V1
M1
V1 / Vc,1
(kN)
(kN m)

M1 /Mc,1

RHS of critical cross-section

V2
M2
V2 / Vc,2
(kN)
(kN m)

M2 /Mc,2

S180A2
E180C2
S180D1
E180D1
S240D1
E240D1

11.54
12.11
10.88
11.52
11.87
11.31

1.07
1.12
1.01
1.07
1.06
1.01

1.16
1.27
1.03
1.15
1.14
1.03

86.52
90.86
81.63
86.41
70.80
67.47

0.89
0.94
0.84
0.89
0.92
0.88

1.29
1.42
1.15
1.29
1.18
1.08

19.73
20.72
18.61
19.70
19.58
18.66

0.11
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11

17.65
18.54
16.65
17.63
18.29
17.43

0.70
0.74
0.66
0.70
0.58
0.55

Notes:
(a) All beam and column members are lipped C section back-to-back, designated as C15020DS G450.
(b) 1 and 2 are the checking values of Eqs. (2a) and (2b) respectively.
(c) All the shear and the moment resistances of C15020DS G450 are determined according to
BS5950: Part 5: 1998 as follows:
Design moment resistance, Mc,1 = 18.45 kN m (effective section)
Design moment resistance, Mc,2 = 19.79 kN m (gross section)
Design shear resistance, Vc,1 = 103.66 kN (shear buckling)
Design shear resistance, Vc,2 = 123.12 kN (plastic shear yielding)
(d) The presence of bolt holes in the critical cross-sections has been allowed for in evaluating both
Vc,2 and Mc,2 .

and the right hand side (RHS) of the critical cross-sections of the connections respectively
of the sub-frames are summarized in Table 2. It should be noted that all the force and
moment quantities are normalized with respect to design yield strength and geometrical
dimensions of the double C sections back-to-back.
For structural adequacy of the bolted moment connections, both the applied shear forces
and the applied moments at the critical cross-sections should be checked against their
respective section capacities as follows:
V1
1.0
Vc,1
V2
v2 =
1.0
Vc,2
M1
m1 =
1.0
Mc,1
M2
1.0
m2 =
Mc,2
v1 =

(1a)
(1b)
(1c)
(1d)

where
v1 , v2
m 1, m 2
Vc,1 , Vc,2

are the shear force ratios for the LHS and the RHS of the critical crosssection respectively;
are the moment ratios for the LHS and the RHS of the critical crosssection respectively;
are the design shear capacities on the LHS and the RHS of the critical
cross-section respectively; and

W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

1341

Fig. 6. Combined bending and shear at critical cross-section.

Mc,1 , Mc,2 are the design moment capacities on the LHS and the RHS of the critical
cross-section respectively.
The critical cross-section of the bolted moment connection is defined as the crosssection at the first row of bolts in the connection, as shown in Fig. 5. It should be noted
that as the RHS of the critical cross-section is firmly attached to the gusset plate through
two bolts, local buckling is unlikely to occur, and hence Vc,2 should be taken as the plastic
shear capacity of the section while Mc,2 should be taken as the gross moment capacity of
the section. Moreover, allowance for the presence of bolt holes in the critical cross-sections
should be made in evaluating both Vc,2 and Mc,2 .
Furthermore, it is also necessary for both the LHS and the RHS of the critical crosssection to be checked against combined bending and shear as follows:
v12 + m 21 1.0
v22

+ m 22

1.0.

(2a)
(2b)

It should be noted that while the design rules for both shear and moment capacities
differ significantly between BS5950: Part 5 and Eurocode 3: Part 1.3, the same quadratic
interaction curve for combined bending and shear is adopted in both codes, as shown in
Fig. 6.
In order to allow for the restraining effect against shear buckling at the LHS of the
critical cross-section due to the presence of the gusset plate, the design rule on shear
buckling of cold-formed steel sections developed for lapped Z sections [31] is adopted.
The shear capacity of the connected section at the LHS of the critical cross-section, Vc,1 ,

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W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

is given as follows:
Vc = qcr Av

(3)

where
Av

is the shear area of the connected section;

= Dt

qcr

is the shear buckling strength of the connected section;

2


2E
t
=
k
Dt
12(1 2 )

is the modulus of elasticity of steel, and equal to 205 kN/mm2 ;

is the Poissons ratio, and equal to 0.3;
is the shear buckling coefficient
= 5.34

for general design

4
= 5.34 + 2 or 6.90 for connected section with effective restraint
sb
sb
L sb
D
t

is the aspect ratio of the shear panel, and equal to L sb /D;

is the length of the shear panel which is conservatively taken to be 1.6D for
connected sections as observed in tests;
is the overall section depth; and
is the web thickness.

Table 2 summarizes the shear force ratios and the moment ratios at both the LHS and
RHS of the critical cross-sections of the bolted moment connections of all the sub-frames,
and they are plotted in Fig. 6 together with the quadratic interaction curve for combined
bending and shear in order to allow for direct comparison. It should be noted that combined
bending and shear is critical at the RHS of the critical cross-sections while bending is
always critical on the LHS of the critical cross-sections. Hence, both the moment and the
shear effects are very significant in the critical cross-sections, and both effects should be
properly quantified in analysis and allowed for in design.
In order to establish the adequacy of the proposed analysis and design rules, a model
factor, D , is established which is defined as follows:
D =

Measured load resistance from test, PT

.
Load resistance obtained from the proposed rules, PD

(4)

The design resistances, PD , of the sub-frames based on the proposed rules are
summarized in Table 3 together with the corresponding model factors, D . It is shown
that the values of D range from 1.04 to 1.19 with an average value of 1.11. Hence, the
proposed rules are considered to be structurally adequate, and bolted moment connections
with high structural efficiency are readily achieved in cold-formed steel beamcolumn subframes. However, it should be noted that the proposed analysis and design rules are only
applicable to bolted connections with configurations essentially similar to those covered in
the present study.

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1343

Table 3
Summary of predicted resistances
Test

S180A2
E180C2
S180D1
E180D1
S240D1
E240D1

Normalized
failure load
PT N (kN)

Predicted
load resistance
PD (kN)

20.86
10.95
19.68
10.42
21.46
10.23

18.37
9.19
18.37
9.19
19.72
9.86

Model factor
D

Predicted
load resistance
PFEM (kN)

Model factor
FEM

1.14
1.19
1.07
1.13
1.09
1.04

20.60
10.73
19.62
10.31
21.12
9.82

1.01
1.02
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.04

Notes:
(a) PD

is determined against combined bending and shear in connected sections according to the
proposed analysis and design rules.
is determined using the measured moment joint rotation curve and the corresponding
(b) PFEM
limiting rotations.
(c) The model factors are defined as follows:
PT N
PD
P
FEM = PT N .
FEM

D =

5. Normalized rotational stiffnesses of bolted moment connections

In order to present the rotational characteristics of bolted moment connections with
various configurations effectively, normalized moment joint rotation curves, m r r curves,
are introduced where the normalized moment ratio, m r , and the normalized joint rotation
ratio, r , are defined as follows:
j
Mcon
mr =
(5)
and
r =
MRef
MRef /(E I /L)
where
Mcon
MRef

is the measured moment resistance of the connection;

is the measured moment capacity of the connected section
normalized to nominal thickness and design yield strength;
is the measured joint rotation;
j
MRef /(E I /L) is the rotation parameter;
EI
is the flexural rigidity of the cold-formed steel section; and
L
is the length of the cold-formed steel section within the connection.
All the corrected moment joint rotation curves of the sub-frames covered in the present
study are normalized according to Eq. (5), and they are plotted in Fig. 7 where three stages
of deformation are clearly identified, namely, (i) the initial stage, (ii) the non-linear stage,
and (iii) the final stage of deformation. While the initial stage represents the linear elastic
rotational stiffness of the connections, the non-linear stage represents the reduced rotational
stiffness of the connections primarily due to local bearing deformation of section webs
around bolt holes. The final stage marks the occurrence of flexural failure of the connected
sections at the corresponding limiting rotations of the connections. It should be noted that

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W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

(a) Sub-frames S180A2 and E180C2.

(b) Sub-frames S180D1 and E180D1.

(c) Sub-frames S240D1 and E240D1.

Fig. 7. Normalized moment joint rotation curves.

W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

1345

Table 4
Measured moment joint rotation curves
Test

Initial stage
Rotational
stiffness
(kN m/rad)

Limiting
rotation
(103 rad)

mr

Non-linear stage
Rotational
Limiting
stiffness
rotation
(kN m/rad)
(103 rad)

S180A2
E180C2
Flexibility
Prediction

1600
1750
1511

1.9
5.1
2.1

0.14
0.42
0.15

0.03
0.09
0.04

330
500
366

S180D1
E180D1
Flexibility
Prediction

1500
1600
1562

1.3
2.5
2.1

0.09
0.19
0.15

0.02
0.04
0.03

S240D1
E240D1
Flexibility
Prediction

2000
1500
1753

2.0
3.0
1.8

0.19
0.21
0.15

0.04
0.05
0.03

mr

49.2
24.8

0.87
0.90

0.88
0.44

290
280
369

56.0
53.5

0.83
0.86

1.00
0.91

330
230
456

45.7
54.3

0.89
0.76

0.82
0.97

Notes:
(a) m r is the normalized moment ratio of the connection.
(b) r is the normalized joint rotation ratio of the connection.

the proposed formulation of the normalized moment joint rotation curves follows the usual
practice for similar studies of conventional hot-rolled steel sections [2527].
Table 4 summarizes the details of the normalized moment joint rotation curves of the
connections of all the sub-frames shown in Fig. 7, and the corresponding rotation limits
at various stages of deformation are also presented. It should be noted that the normalized
moment joint rotation curves of the bolted moment connections are fully incorporated in
subsequent non-linear analyses.
6. Non-linear analyses with semi-rigid joints
In the present investigation, established geometrical and material non-linear analysis
software, GMNAF [32,33], is employed to determine both the load resistances and the
overall deformation characteristics of the cold-formed steel beamcolumn sub-frames.
Advanced finite element models are established for predicting the structural behaviour
of the beamcolumn sub-frames, as shown in Fig. 8, and the effect of semi-rigid joints is
fully incorporated. All the beam and the column members are double C sections back-toback, with a section depth of 150 mm and a thickness of 2.0 mm, or C15020DS; the design
yield strength is 450 N/mm2 . It should be noted that the bolted moment connections are
modelled as rigid links with a finite length, Sr . Moreover, each rigid link is attached rigidly
to the column member at one end while it is attached in a semi-rigid manner to the beam
member at the other end.
As the moment joint rotation curves of the connections are derived in such a way that
all flexibilities between the beam and the column members have been fully incorporated

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W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

(a) Internal beamcolumn sub-frames.

(b) External beamcolumn sub-frames.

Fig. 8. Finite element model of beamcolumn sub-frames.

into the rotational characteristics of the semi-rigid joints, the use of rigid links is thus
justified. On the basis of the geometrical dimensions of the sub-frames and also the
normalized moment joint rotation curves of the connections, the structural behaviours
of the beamcolumn sub-frames are predicted with advanced finite element models. The
predicted lateral loaddeflection curves of all the sub-frames are illustrated in Fig. 9,
and the measured lateral loaddeflection curves are also plotted onto the same graphs
for easy comparison. It is shown that the predicted lateral loaddeflection curves follow
the measured curves closely through the entire deformation ranges in almost all cases.

W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

1347

(a) Sub-frames S180A2 and E180C2.

(b) Sub-frames S180D1 and E180D1.

(c) Sub-frames S240D1 and E240D1.

Fig. 9. Predicted loaddeflection curves.

Table 3 also summarizes the predicted load resistances of all the sub-frames according to
the limiting rotations of the connections.

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W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

In order to establish the adequacy of the finite element models, a model factor, FEM , is
established which is defined as follows:
FEM
=

Measured lateral load resistance from test, PT

.
Load resistance obtained with normalized moment joint rotation curves, PFEM
(6)

It is shown that the model factors for all the sub-frames range from 1.00 to 1.04 with
an average value of 1.02. Consequently, the proposed advanced finite element models
with semi-rigid joints incorporating normalized moment joint rotation curves of the bolted
moment connections are shown to be accurate in predicting both the load resistances and
the overall deformation characteristics of the cold-formed steel beamcolumn sub-frames.
However, it should be noted that the accuracy of the predicted load resistances depends
primarily on the availability and accuracy of the moment joint rotation curves of the
connections which are generally obtained from tests. It is highly desirable to be able to
derive the moment joint rotation curves analytically without the need for testing.
7. Flexibility prediction of bolted moment connections
In general, the rotational stiffness of bolted moment connections depends largely on
the constructional details of the connections, such as connection configurations, load paths
within connections, frictional forces in interfaces between steel sections and washers, and
clamping forces developed in bolt shanks. For all the bolted moment connections under
investigation in this project, the flexibility of the bolted moment connections is considered
to arise from:
Bearing deformation around bolt holes in connected section webs of both beam and
column members.
Clearances in bolt holes in both cold-formed steel sections and hot-rolled steel gusset
plates.
Flexural and shear deformations in both cold-formed steel sections and hot-rolled steel
gusset plates.
Slippage against friction between the washers and the connected parts of both coldformed steel sections and hot-rolled steel sections, if any.
In general, shear deformations of hot-rolled steel gusset plates under lateral loads are
considered to be small, and are thus neglected.
The determination of the rotational stiffnesses of bolted moment connections is
generally complicated, and a semi-empirical design rule for the flexibility prediction of
bolted moment connections between cold-formed steel sections is proposed as follows:
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
K con
K cfs
Kb
K gp
where
1
K con

is the overall flexibility of the connection;

(7)

W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

1349

Fig. 10. Flexibility in bolted moment connections.

1
K cfs

is the flexibility due to bending deformation of the cold-formed steel section

within the connection;
is the flexibility due to bearing deformation of the connected section web of the
cold-formed steel section around the bolt hole;
is the flexibility due to bending deformation of the hot-rolled steel gusset plate
within the connection;

1
Kb
1
K gp

3(E I )cfs
lcon
M
b
Kb =
where b =
b
r
3(E I )gp
K gp =
lcon

K cfs =

(E I )cfs
(E I )gp
lcon
r
b

(8)

is the flexural rigidity of the cold-formed steel section;

is the flexural rigidity of the gusset plate;
is the length of the connection;
is the distance from the bolt group centre to the outermost bolt; and
is the bearing deformation of the section web around bolt hole to be specified.

It should be noted that at the initial stage, the bearing deformation of the section web
around bolt hole, b , is expected to be small, being limited to within 1 mm. Moreover,
the corresponding limiting rotations may be readily evaluated when the applied moments
reach 0.15 times the moment capacities of the connected sections, as shown in Fig. 7.
However, at the non-linear stage, the bearing deformation is likely to exceed 3 mm. In
order to examine the various degrees of flexibility in the non-linear stage due to bearing
deformation in connected section webs around bolt holes, a series of non-linear analyses
for sub-frame S180D1 was carried out where the value of b varies from 3 to 8 mm.
The corresponding lateral loaddeflection curves with different values of b are illustrated
in Fig. 10. It is shown that after comparison with test data, the rotational stiffness of the
connections at both the initial and the non-linear stages of deformation may be readily

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W.K. Yu et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 61 (2005) 13321352

obtained with b equal to 1 and 5 mm respectively. Consequently, the rotational stiffnesses

of all the sub-frames at both the initial and the non-linear stages of deformation are
determined accordingly, and they are summarized in Table 4. The predicted rotational
stiffnesses are also plotted on the same graphs of the normalized moment joint rotation
curves in Fig. 7 for easy comparison. It should be noted that the rotational stiffnesses of
the bolted moment connections in the non-linear stage are found to be roughly 20% of
those in the initial stage.
Finite element analyses of all the sub-frames are repeated where the rotational
stiffnesses of the bolted moment connections predicted with the flexibility equation, i.e.
Eq. (7), are adopted as the rotational stiffnesses of the semi-rigid joints. The lateral
loaddeflection curves of the sub-frames are also plotted in Fig. 9 for direct comparison
with the curves obtained from tests as well as the lateral loaddeflection curves based on
normalized moment joint rotation curves. It is shown that the lateral loaddeflection curves
based on flexibility prediction follow both curves closely through the entire deformation
ranges. It should be noted that the proposed formula is only applicable to those bolted
moment connections with similar configurations covered in the present study, as shown in
Fig. 1.
It should be noted that section failure of connected sections is always critical in all
the sub-frames, and the predicted load resistances obtained from the proposed rules, i.e.
Eqs. (1)(3) for section failure under combined bending and shear, as listed in Table 3, are
also plotted on the graphs in Fig. 9 for easy comparison. Hence, the proposed analysis and
design rules for both strength and deformation assessment are demonstrated to be effective
in predicting the structural behaviour of cold-formed steel beamcolumn sub-frames with
bolted moment connections.
8. Conclusions
In order to investigate the structural performance of cold-formed steel beamcolumn
sub-frames with bolted moment connections, a total of 16 internal and external
beamcolumn sub-frames with various connection configurations were tested under lateral
loads. Of the tests, six are considered to be structurally efficient as the moment resistances
of the bolted moment connections attain 87%97% of the moment capacities of the
connected sections, on the basis of the connection configurations covered in the tests.
Hence, it is demonstrated that bolted moment connections between cold-formed steel
sections with high structural efficiency are readily achieved. Moreover, in all these six tests
where large bolt pitches and thick gusset plates are adopted in the connections, flexural
failure of the connected sections is always critical.
This paper presents a theoretical investigation for predicting the structural behaviour of
cold-formed steel beamcolumn sub-frames with bolted moment connections under lateral
loads, and it is shown that:
1. Flexural failure in connected sections is accurately predicted with the proposed analysis
and design rules, and the effect of combined bending and shear should be carefully
assessed and designed at the critical cross-sections of connected sections in the bolted
moment connections.

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1351

2. A non-linear finite element model is established to predict the overall structural

behaviour of the sub-frames, and the effect of semi-rigid joints is fully incorporated
in the model through the use of normalized moment joint rotation curves obtained from
tests. It is shown that the predicted lateral loaddeflection curves follow the measured
curves closely through the entire deformation ranges almost in all cases.
3. Moreover, a semi-empirical formula is also proposed for flexibility prediction for the
bolted moment connections after careful calibration against test data.
It is demonstrated that the proposed analysis and design rules for both strength and
deformation assessment are highly effective in predicting the structural performance of
cold-formed steel beamcolumn frames with bolted moment connections. Hence, structural engineers are encouraged to analyse, design and build cold-formed steel structures
with bolted moment connections to allow for practical and efficient framing.
Acknowledgements
The research project leading to the publication of this paper was supported by the
Research Committee of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University Research (Project No.
BQ584). All the test specimens were supplied by the P & Ls Engineering Co. Ltd. The
tests were carried out at the Heavy Structure Laboratory of the Department of Civil and
Structural Engineering of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
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