Stress

Stress is "force per unit area" - the ratio of applied force F and cross section - defined as "force per
area".

tensile stress - stress that tends to stretch or lengthen the material - acts normal to the
stressed area

compressive stress - stress that tends to compress or shorten the material - acts normal to
the stressed area

shearing stress - stress that tends to shear the material - acts in plane to the stressed area at
right-angles to compressive or tensile stress

Tensile or Compressive Stress - Normal Stress

Tensile or compressive stress normal to the plane is usually denoted "normal stress" or "direct
stress" and can be expressed as
= Fn / A

(1)

where
= normal stress ((Pa) N/m2, psi)
Fn = normal component force (N, lbf (alt. kips))
A = area (m2, in2)

a kip is a non-SI unit of force - it equals 1,000 pounds-force

1 kip = 4448.2216 Newtons (N) = 4.4482216 kilonewtons (kN)

Example - Tensile Force acting on a Rod

A force of 10 kN is acting on a circular rod with diameter 10 mm. The stress in the rod can be
calculated as
= (10 103 N) / ( ((10 10-3 m) / 2)2)
= 127388535 (N/m2)
= 127 (MPa)
Example - Force acting on a Douglas Fir Square Post
A compressive load of 30000 lb is acting on short square 6 x 6 in post of Douglas fir. The dressed
size of the post is 5.5 x 5.5 in and the compressive stress can be calculated as
= (30000 lb) / ((5.5 in) (5.5 in))
= 991 (lb/in2, psi)
Shear Stress
Stress parallel to the plane is usually denoted "shear stress" and can be expressed as
= Fp / A

(2)

where
= shear stress ((Pa) N/m2, psi)
Fp = parallel component force (N, lbf)
A = area (m2, in2)

Strain
Strain is defined as "deformation of a solid due to stress" and can be expressed as
= dl / lo
=/E

(3)

where
dl = change of length (m, in)
lo = initial length (m, in)

 = unit less measure of engineering strain

E = Young's modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) (N/m2 (Pa), lb/in2 (psi))

Young's modulus can be used to predict the elongation or compression of an object.

Example - Stress and Change of Length

The rod in the example above is 2 m long and made of steel with Modulus of Elasticity 200 GPa. The
change of length can be calculated by transforming (3) as
dl = lo / E
= (127 106 Pa) (2 m) / (200 109 Pa)
= 0.00127 (m)
= 1.27 (mm)

Young's Modulus - Modulus of Elasticity (or Tensile Modulus) - Hooke's

Law
Most metals deforms proportional to imposed load over a range of loads. Stress is proportional to
load and strain is proportional to deformation as expressed with Hooke's law
E = stress / strain
=/
= (Fn / A) / (dl / lo)

(4)

where
E = Young's modulus (N/m2) (lb/in2, psi)
Modulus of Elasticity, or Young's Modulus, is commonly used for metals and metal alloys and
expressed in terms106 lbf/in2, N/m2 or Pa. Tensile modulus is often used for plastics and is expressed
in terms 105 lbf/in2 or GPa.

Shear Modulus
S = stress / strain
=/
= (Fp / A) / (s / d)

(5)

where
S = shear modulus (N/m2) (lb/in2, psi)

 = shear stress ((Pa) N/m2, psi)

= unit less measure of shear strain
Fp = force parallel to the faces which they act
A = area (m2, in2)
s = displacement of the faces (m, in)
d = distance between the faces displaced (m, in)

Elastic Moduli
Elastic moduli for some common materials:

Young's Modulus

Shear Modulus

Bulk Modulus

Material
1010 N/m2

106 lb/in2

1010 N/m2

106 lb/in2

1010 N/m2

106 lb/in2

Aluminum

7.0

10

2.4

3.4

7.0

10

Brass

9.1

13

3.6

5.1

6.1

8.5

Copper

11

16

4.2

6.0

14

20

Glass

5.5

7.8

2.3

3.3

3.7

5.2

Iron

9.1

13

7.0

10

10

14

Lead

1.6

2.3

0.56

0.8

0.77

1.1

Steel

20

29

8.4

12

16

23

Shear strength
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please

help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (December 2007)

In engineering, shear strength is the strength of a material or component against the type
of yield or structural failure where the material or component fails inshear. A shear load is a force
that tends to produce a sliding failure on a material along a plane that is parallel to the direction of
the force. When a paper is cut with scissors, the paper fails in shear.
In structural and mechanical engineering the shear strength of a component is important for
designing the dimensions and materials to be used for the manufacture/construction of the
component (e.g. beams, plates, or bolts) In a reinforced concrete beam, the main purpose
of stirrups are to increase the shear strength.
For shear stress

applies

where
is major principal stress
is minor principal stress
In general: ductile materials (e.g. aluminium) fail in shear, whereas brittle materials (e.g.
cast iron) fail in tension. See tensile strength.
To calculate:
Given total force at failure (F) and the force-resisting area (e.g. the cross-section of a
bolt loaded in shear), Ultimate Shear Strength ( ) is:

As a very rough guide:[1]

Material

Ultimate Strength Relationship

Yield Strength Relationship

Steels

USS = approx. 0.6*UTS

SYS = approx. 0.58*TYS

Ductile Iron

USS = approx. 0.9*UTS

SYS = approx. 0.75*TYS

Malleable Iron

USS = approx. 1.0*UTS

Wrought Iron

USS = approx. 0.83*UTS

Cast Iron

USS = approx. 1.3*UTS

Aluminiums

USS = approx. 0.65*UTS

SYS = approx. 0.55*TYS

USS: Ultimate Shear Strength, UTS: Ultimate Tensile Strength, SYS: Shear Yield Stress, TYS: Tensile Yield Stress

Material

Fiberglass/epoxy (23 o C)[2]

Ultimate stress (Ksi)

7.82

Ultimate stress (MPa)

2.6

When values measured from physical samples are desired, a number of testing
standards are available, covering different material categories and testing
conditions. In the US, ASTM standards for measuring shear strength include ASTM
B831, D732, D4255, D5379, and D7078. Internationally, ISO testing standards for
shear strength include ISO 3597, 12579, and 14130. [3]

Shear modulus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Shear modulus
Common symbols

SI unit

pascal

Derivations from

G=/

other quantities

Shear strain

In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or sometimes S or , is defined as

the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain:[1]

where
= shear stress;
is the force which acts
is the area on which the force acts
in engineering,
is the transverse displacement
is the initial length

= shear strain. Elsewhere,

Shear modulus' derived SI unit is the pascal (Pa), although it is usually

expressed in gigapascals (GPa) or in thousands of pounds per square inch (ksi).
Its dimensional form is M1L1T2.
The shear modulus is always positive.
Contents
[hide]

1 Explanation

2 Waves

3 Shear modulus of metals

o

3.1 MTS shear modulus model

3.2 SCG shear modulus model

3.3 NP shear modulus model

4 See also

5 References

Typical values for

shear modulus (GPa)

Material

(at room temperature)

Diamond[2]

478.0

Steel[3]

79.3

Copper[4]

44.7

Titanium[3]

41.4

Glass[3]

26.2

Aluminium[3]

25.5

Polyethylene[3]

0.117

Rubber[5]

0.0006

Explanation[edit]
The shear modulus is one of several quantities for measuring the stiffness of materials. All of them arise in the
generalizedHooke's law:

Young's modulus describes the material's response to linear stress (like pulling on
the ends of a wire or putting a weight on top of a column),

the bulk modulus describes the material's response to

uniform pressure (like the pressure at the bottom of the
ocean or a deep swimming pool)

the shear modulus describes the material's response to

shear stress (like cutting it with dull scissors).

The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when it

experiences a force parallel to one of its surfaces while its opposite face
experiences an opposing force (such as friction). In the case of an object that's
shaped like a rectangular prism, it will deform into
a parallelepiped. Anisotropic materials such as wood, paper and also
essentially all single crystals exhibit differing material response to stress or
strain when tested in different directions. In this case one may need to use the
full tensor-expression of the elastic constants, rather than a single scalar value.
One possible definition of a fluid would be a material with zero shear modulus.

Waves[edit]

Influences of selected glass component additions on the shear modulus

of a specific base glass.[6]

In homogeneous and isotropic solids, there are two kinds of waves, pressure
waves and shear waves. The velocity of a shear wave,
the shear modulus,

where
G is the shear modulus
is the solid's density.

is controlled by

Shear modulus of metals[edit]

Shear modulus of copper as a function of temperature. The

experimental data[7][8] are shown with colored symbols.

The shear modulus of metals is usually observed to decrease with

increasing temperature. At high pressures, the shear modulus also
appears to increase with the applied pressure. Correlations
between the melting temperature, vacancy formation energy, and
the shear modulus have been observed in many metals.[9]
Several models exist that attempt to predict the shear modulus of
metals (and possibly that of alloys). Shear modulus models that
have been used in plastic flow computations include:
1. the MTS shear modulus model developed
by[10] and used in conjunction with the
Mechanical Threshold Stress (MTS) plastic
flow stress model.[11][12]
2. the Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan (SCG) shear
modulus model developed by[13] and used in
conjunction with the Steinberg-CochranGuinan-Lund (SCGL) flow stress model.
3. the Nadal and LePoac (NP) shear modulus
model[8] that uses Lindemann theory to
determine the temperature dependence and
the SCG model for pressure dependence of
the shear modulus.

MTS shear modulus model[edit]

The MTS shear modulus model has the form:

where 0 is the shear modulus at 0 K, and D and T0 are

material constants.

SCG shear modulus model[edit]

The Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan (SCG) shear modulus model
is pressure dependent and has the form

where, 0 is the shear modulus at the reference state

(T = 300 K, p = 0, = 1), p is the pressure, and T is the
temperature.

NP shear modulus model[edit]

The Nadal-Le Poac (NP) shear modulus model is a
modified version of the SCG model. The empirical
temperature dependence of the shear modulus in the
SCG model is replaced with an equation based
on Lindemann melting theory. The NP shear modulus
model has the form:

where

and 0 is the shear modulus at 0 K and ambient

pressure, is a material parameter, kb is

the Boltzmann constant, m is the atomic mass,

and f is the Lindemann constant.

See also[edit]

Shear strength

Dynamic modulus

Impulse excitation technique

References[edit]
1.

Jump
up^ IUPAC, Compendium of
Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed.
(the "Gold Book") (1997).
Online corrected version:
(2006) "shear modulus, G".

2. Jump up^ McSkimin, H.J.;

Andreatch, P. (1972). "Elastic
Moduli of Diamond as a
Function of Pressure and
Temperature". J. Appl.
Phys. 43 (7): 2944
2948.Bibcode:1972JAP....43.294
4M. doi:10.1063/1.1661636.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Crandall,
Dahl, Lardner (1959). An
Introduction to the Mechanics
of Solids. Boston: McGrawHill. ISBN 0-07-013441-3.
4. Jump up^ Material properties
5. Jump up^ Spanos, Pete
(2003). "Cure system effect on
low temperature dynamic shear
modulus of natural
rubber". Rubber World.
6. Jump up^ Shear modulus
calculation of glasses
7. Jump up^ Overton, W.;
Gaffney, John (1955).
"Temperature Variation of the
Elastic Constants of Cubic

Elements. I. Copper". Physical

Review 98 (4):
969.Bibcode:1955PhRv...98..96
9O. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.98.96
9.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Nadal, MarieHlne; Le Poac, Philippe
(2003). "Continuous model for
the shear modulus as a
function of pressure and
temperature up to the melting
point: Analysis and ultrasonic
validation". Journal of Applied
Physics 93 (5):
2472.Bibcode:2003JAP....93.247
2N. doi:10.1063/1.1539913.
9. Jump up^ March, N. H.,
(1996), Electron Correlation in
Molecules and Condensed
Phases, Springer, ISBN 0-30644844-0 p. 363
10. Jump up^ Varshni, Y. (1970).
"Temperature Dependence of
the Elastic Constants". Physical
Review B 2 (10):
3952. Bibcode:1970PhRvB...2.3
952V.doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.2.3
952.
11. Jump up^ Chen, Shuh Rong;
Gray, George T. (1996).
"Constitutive behavior of
tantalum and tantalumtungsten alloys". Metallurgical
and Materials Transactions
A 27 (10):
2994. Bibcode:1996MMTA...27.
2994C. doi:10.1007/BF0266384
9.
12. Jump up^ Goto, D. M.; Garrett,
R. K.; Bingert, J. F.; Chen, S. R.;
Gray, G. T. (2000). "The
mechanical threshold stress
constitutive-strength model
description of HY-100
steel". Metallurgical and
Materials Transactions A 31 (8):
1985
1996.doi:10.1007/s11661-0000226-8.

13. Jump up^ Guinan, M;

Steinberg, D (1974). "Pressure
and temperature derivatives of
the isotropic polycrystalline
shear modulus for 65
elements". Journal of Physics
and Chemistry of
Solids 35 (11):
1501. Bibcode:1974JPCS...35.1
501G.doi:10.1016/S00223697(74)80278-7.

Elastic

Bulk modulus ( )
Young's modulus ( )
Lam's first parameter ( )
Shear modulus ( )
Poisson's ratio ( )
P-wave modulus (
)

[hide]Conversion formulas
Homogeneous isotropic linear elastic materials have their elastic properties uniquely
determined by any two moduli among these; thus, given any two, any other of the elastic
moduli can be calculated according to these formulas.
Notes

There are two valid solutions.

The plus sign leads to
The minus sign leads to

Cannot be used
when

.
.

ample science note from CES EduPack

note: links to other science notes will not function.
Databases in CES EduPack hold Science Notestextbook-style explanations of the science that
underlies the properties stored in the database. Clicking on any property name while exploring the
database brings up the relevant science note. This allows students to 'drill down' from exercises based on
the property data to explore fundamental principles.
Every Science Note has a 'Further Reading' section with references to a range of standard materials
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Youngs modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus, Poissons ratio

Definition and measurement.
Drilling down: the origins of moduli.

Definition and measurement. Figure 1 shows a typical tensile stress-strain curve. The initial part, up
to the yield strength

or elastic limit

, defined under Yield strength (elastic limit), is linear

(Hookes law), and it is elastic, meaning that the strain is recoverable the material returns to its original
shape when the stress is removed. Stresses above the elastic limit cause permanent deformation or
fracture (see notes for Yield strength (elastic limit) and Fracture toughness).

Within the linear elastic regime, strain is

proportional to stress, but stress can be applied in more
than one way (Figure 2). The tensile stress
produces a proportional tensile strain :

and the same is true in compression. The constant of

proportionality, E, is called Youngs modulus. Similarly,
a shear stress

causes a proportional shear strain

and a pressure p results in a proportional fractional

volume change (or dilatation)

where G is the shear modulus and K the bulk modulus. All three of these moduli have the same
dimensions as stress, that of force per unit area (N/m 2 or Pa). It is convenient to use a larger unit, that of
109 Pa, Giga-Pascals, or GPa.

Youngs modulus, the shear modulus, and the bulk modulus are related, but to relate them we need
one more quantity, Poissons ratio. When stretched in one direction, a material generally contracts in the
other two directions. Poissons ratio, , is the negative of the ratio of the lateral or transverse strain,
to the axial strain, , in tensile loading:

You might think that the way to measure the elastic modulus of a material would be to apply a small
stress (to be sure to remain in the linear-elastic region of the stress-strain curve), measure the strain, and
divide one by the other. In reality, moduli measured as slopes of stress-strain curves are inaccurate,
often by a factor of 2 or more, because of contributions to the strain from material creep or deflection of
the test machine. Accurate moduli are measured dynamically: by exciting the natural vibrations of a
beam or wire, or by measuring the velocity of longitudinal or shear sound waves in the material.
Top
Drilling down: the origins of moduli. Atoms bond together, some weakly, some strongly. If they bind
strongly enough they form solids; the stronger the bond, the higher is the melting point of the solid. Think
of the bonds as little springs (Figure 3). The atoms have an equilibrium spacing

; a force

pulls

them apart a little, to

, but when it is released they jump back to their original spacing. The same
happens in compression because the energy of the bond increases no matter in which direction the force
is applied, as the lower part of the figure suggests. The bond energy is a minimum at the equilibrium
spacing. A spring that stretches by
under a
force F has a stiffness, S, defined by

and this is the same in compression as in tension.

Table 1 lists the stiffnesses of the different bond
types; these stiffnesseslargely determine the value of
the modulus,
. The covalent bond is particularly stiff
(S = 20200 N/m); diamond, for instance, has a very
high modulus because the carbon atom is small (giving
a high bond density) and its atoms are linked by the
stiffest springs (S = 200 N/m). The metallic bond is a
little less stiff (S =15100 N/m) and metal atoms are
often close-packed, giving metals high moduli too,
though not as high as that of diamond. Ionic bonds,
found in many ceramics, have stiffnesses comparable
with those of metals, giving them, also, high moduli. Polymers contain both strong diamond-like covalent
bonds along the polymer chain and weak hydrogen or Van-der-Waals bonds (S = 0.52 N/m) between the
chains; it is the weak bonds that stretch when the polymer is deformed, giving them low moduli.

When a force

is applied to a pair of atoms, they stretch apart by

atom corresponds to a stress

atoms separated by
gives

where

. A force

is the atom spacing. A stretch

corresponds to a strain

applied to an
between two

. Substituting these into the last equation

Table 1 Bond stiffnesses, S

Bond type

Covalent
Metallic
Ionic

Examples

Carbon-carbon
bond

Hydrogen
bond

All metals

Van der
Walls

Alumina, Al203

Bond
Stiffness S
(N/m)

Youngs Modulus E
(GPa)

50 180

200 1000

15 75

60 300

8 24

32 96

63

2 12

0.5 1

1 4

Polyethylene
Waxes

Comparing this with the definition of Youngs modulus reveals that E is roughly

The largest atoms (

= 4 x 10-10 m) bonded with the weakest bonds (S = 0.5 N/m) will have a modulus

of roughly

This is the lower limit for true solids and many polymers do have moduli of about this
value; metals and ceramics have values 501000 times larger because, as Table 1
shows, their bonds are stiffer.

One class of materials elastomers (rubber) have moduli that are much less than 1 GPa. An
elastomer is a tangle of long-chain molecules with occasional cross-links, as in Figure 4 (a), as explained
in Density and atom packing. The bonds between the molecules, apart from the cross-links, are weak
so weak that, at room temperature, they have melted. We describe this by saying that the glass
temperature
of the elastomer the temperature at which the bonds first start to melt is below room
temperature. Segments are free to slide over each other, and were it not for the cross-links, the material
would have no stiffness at all.
Temperature favors randomness. That is why crystals melt into disordered fluids at their melting
point. The tangle of Figure 4 (a) has high randomness, or expressed in the terms of thermodynamics,
its entropy is high. Stretching it, as at (b), aligns the molecules some parts of it now begin to resemble
the crystallites shown in the notes on Density and atom packing. Crystals are ordered, the opposite of
randomness; their entropy is low. The effect of temperature is to try to restore disorder, making the
material try to revert to a random tangle, and the cross-links give it a memory of the disordered shape it
had to start with. So there is a resistance to stretching a stiffness that has nothing to do with bondstretching, but with strain-induced ordering. A full theory is complicated it involves the statistical
mechanics of long-chain tangles so it is not easy to calculate the value of the modulus. The main thing
to know is that the moduli of elastomers are low because they have this strange origin and that they
increase with temperature (because of the increasing tendency to randomness), whereas those of true
solids decrease (because of thermal expansion).
Top
Further reading.
Author

Title

Chapter

Ashby et al

Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and

Design

4, 5

Ashby & Jones

Engineering Materials Vol 1& 2

Vol. 1, Chap.
3, 6, 7

Askeland

The Science and Engineering of Materials

2, 6

Budinski

Engineering Materials: Properties and Selection

Callister

Materials Science and Engineering: An

Introduction

Callister & RethwischFundamentals of Materials Science and

Engineering: An Integrated Approach

Shackelford

Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers

Young's modulus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article may be too technical for most readers to

understand. Please help improve this article to make it understandable to
non-experts, without removing the technical details. The talk page may
contain suggestions. (May 2014)

Rubber, a material with an extremely low Young's modulus

Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus or elastic modulus, is a measure of
the stiffness of an elasticmaterial and is a quantity used to characterize materials. It is defined as the
ratio of the stress (force per unit area) along anaxis to the strain (ratio of deformation over initial
length) along that axis in the range of stress in which Hooke's law holds.[1]
Young's modulus is the most common elastic modulus, sometimes called the modulus of elasticity,
but there are other elastic moduli measured, too, such as the bulk modulus and the shear modulus.
It is named after the 19th-century British scientist Thomas Young. However, the concept was
developed in 1727 byLeonhard Euler, and the first experiments that used the concept of Young's
modulus in its current form were performed by the Italian scientist Giordano Riccati in 1782, predating Young's work by 25 years.[2]
A material whose Young's modulus is very high is rigid. Do not confuse:

rigidity and strength: the strength of material is characterized by its yield strength and / or
its tensile strength;

rigidity and stiffness: the beam stiffness (for example) depends on its Young's modulus but
also on the ratio of its section to its length. The rigidity characterises the materials (it is
an intensive property) while the stiffness regards products and constructions (it is an extensive
property): a massive mechanical plastic part can be much stiffer than a steel spring;

rigidity and hardness: the hardness of a material defines its relative resistance that its
surface opposes to the penetration of a harder body.

rigidity and toughness: toughness is the amount of energy that a material can absorb before
fracturing when subjected to strain.
Contents
[hide]

1 Units

2 Usage
o

2.1 Linear versus non-linear

2.2 Directional materials

3 Calculation
o

3.1 Force exerted by stretched or contracted material

3.2 Elastic potential energy

3.3 Relation among elastic constants

4 Approximate values

5 See also

6 References

7 Further reading

8 External links

Units[edit]
Young's modulus is the ratio of stress (which has units of pressure) to strain (which
is dimensionless), and so Young's modulus has units of pressure. Its SI unit is therefore
the pascal (Pa or N/m2 or m1kgs2). The practical units used are megapascals (MPa or N/mm2) or

gigapascals (GPa or kN/mm2). In United States customary units, it is expressed as pounds (force)
per square inch (psi). The abbreviation ksi refers to "kips per square inch", or thousands of psi.

Usage[edit]
The Young's modulus enables the calculation of the change in the dimension of a bar made of
an isotropic elastic material under tensile or compressive loads. For instance, it predicts how much a
material sample extends under tension or shortens under compression. The Young's modulus
directly applies to cases uniaxial stress, that is tensile or compressive stress in one direction and no
stress in the other directions. Young's modulus is also used in order to predict the deflection that will
occur in a statically determinate beam when a load is applied at a point in between the beam's
supports. Other elastic calculations usually require the use of one additional elastic property, such as
the shear modulus, bulk modulus or Poisson's ratio. Any two of these parameters are sufficient to
fully describe elasticity in an isotropic material.

Linear versus non-linear[edit]

The Young's modulus represents the factor of proportionality in Hooke's law, which relates the stress
and the strain. However, Hook's law is only valid under the assumption of
an elastic and linear response. Any real material will eventually fail and break when stretched over a
very large distance or with a very large force; however all materials exhibit Hookean behavior for
small enough strains or stresses. If the range over which Hooke's law is valid is large enough
compared to the typical stress that one expects to apply to the material, the material is said to be
linear. Otherwise (if the typical stress one would apply is outside the linear range) the material is said
to be non-linear.
Steel, carbon fiber and glass among others are usually considered linear materials, while other
materials such as rubber and soils are non-linear. However, this is not an absolute classification: if
very small stresses or strains are applied to a non-linear material, the response will be linear, but if
very high stress or strain is applied to a linear material, the linear theory will not be enough. For
example, as the linear theory implies reversibility, it would be absurd to use the linear theory to
describe the failure of a steel bridge under a high load; although steel is a linear material for most
applications, it is not in such a case of catastrophic failure.
In solid mechanics, the slope of the stressstrain curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. It
can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stressstrain curve created during tensile
tests conducted on a sample of the material. The tangent modulus of the initial, linear portion of a
stressstrain curve is calledYoung's modulus.

Directional materials[edit]
Young's modulus is not always the same in all orientations of a material. Most metals and ceramics,
along with many other materials, are isotropic, and their mechanical properties are the same in all
orientations. However, metals and ceramics can be treated with certain impurities, and metals can
be mechanically worked to make their grain structures directional. These materials then

become anisotropic, and Young's modulus will change depending on the direction of the force vector.
Anisotropy can be seen in many composites as well. For example, carbon fiber has much higher
Young's modulus (is much stiffer) when force is loaded parallel to the fibers (along the grain). Other
such materials include wood and reinforced concrete. Engineers can use this directional
phenomenon to their advantage in creating structures.

Calculation[edit]
Young's modulus, E, can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the extensional strain in the
elastic (initial, linear) portion of the stressstrain curve:

where
E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity)
F is the force exerted on an object under tension;
A0 is the original cross-sectional area through which the force is applied;
L is the amount by which the length of the object changes;
L0 is the original length of the object.

Force exerted by stretched or contracted material [edit]

The Young's modulus of a material can be used to calculate the force it
exerts under specific strain.

where F is the force exerted by the material when contracted or

stretched by L.
Hooke's law can be derived from this formula, which describes the
stiffness of an ideal spring:

where it comes in saturation

and

Elastic potential energy[edit]

The elastic potential energy stored is given by the integral of
this expression with respect to L:

where Ue is the elastic potential energy.

The elastic potential energy per unit volume is given by:

, where

is the strain in the material.M

This formula can also be expressed as the integral of

Hooke's law:

Relation among elastic constants[edit]

For homogeneous isotropic materials simple
relations exist between elastic constants (Young's
modulus E, shear modulus G, bulk modulus K,
and Poisson's ratio ) that allow calculating them
all as long as two are known:

Approximate values[edit]

Influences of selected glass component additions on

Young's modulus of a specific base glass

Young's modulus can vary somewhat due to

differences in sample composition and test
method. The rate of deformation has the
greatest impact on the data collected,
especially in polymers. The values here are
approximate and only meant for relative
comparison.

Approximate Young's modulus for va

Material

Rubber (small strain)

PTFE (Teflon)

Low density polyethylene[4]

HDPE

Polypropylene

Bacteriophage capsids[5]

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

Polystyrene

Nylon

Diatom frustules (largely silicic acid)[6]

Medium-density fiberboard (MDF)[7]

Oak wood (along grain)

Human Cortical Bone[8]

Aromatic peptide nanotubes

High-strength concrete

Hemp fiber

[11]

Magnesium metal (Mg)

Flax fiber

[12]

Aluminum

[9][10]

Stinging nettle fiber

[13]

Glass (see chart)

Aramid[14]

Mother-of-pearl (nacre, largely calcium

carbonate) [15]

Tooth enamel (largely calcium phosphate)[16]

Brass

Bronze

Titanium (Ti)

Titanium alloys

Copper (Cu)

Glass-reinforced polyester matrix

[17]

Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (50/50 fibre/matrix,

biaxial fabric)

Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (70/30 fibre/matrix,

unidirectional, along grain)[19]

Silicon Single crystal, different directions

[20][21]

Wrought iron

Steel (ASTM-A36)

polycrystalline Yttrium iron garnet (YIG)[22]

single-crystal Yttrium iron garnet (YIG)[23]

Aromatic peptide nanospheres

[24]

Beryllium (Be)[citation needed]

Molybdenum (Mo)[citation needed]

Tungsten (W)

Silicon carbide (SiC)

Osmium (Os)[25]

Tungsten carbide (WC)

Single-walled carbon nanotube[26][27]

Graphene

Diamond (C)[29]

Carbyne (C)[30]

In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or sometimes S or , is

defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain:[1]

where
= shear stress;
is the force which acts
is the area on which the force acts
in engineering,

= shear strain. Elsewhere,

is the transverse displacement

is the initial length
Shear modulus' derived SI unit is the pascal (Pa), although it is usually
expressed in gigapascals (GPa) or in thousands of pounds per square
inch (ksi). Its dimensional form is M1L1T2.
The shear modulus is always positive.
Contents
[hide]

1 Explanation

2 Waves

3 Shear modulus of metals

o

3.1 MTS shear modulus model

3.2 SCG shear modulus model

3.3 NP shear modulus model

4 See also

5 References

Typical values for

Material

shear modulus (GPa)

(at room temperature)

Diamond[2]

478.0

Steel[3]

79.3

Copper[4]

44.7

Titanium[3]

41.4

Glass[3]

26.2

Aluminium[3]

25.5

Polyethylene[3]

0.117

Rubber[5]

0.0006

Explanation[edit]
The shear modulus is one of several quantities for measuring the stiffness of materials. All of them
arise in the generalizedHooke's law:

Young's modulus describes the material's response to linear stress (like pulling on the ends
of a wire or putting a weight on top of a column),

the bulk modulus describes the material's response to

uniform pressure (like the pressure at the bottom of the ocean or a
deep swimming pool)

the shear modulus describes the material's response to shear

stress (like cutting it with dull scissors).

The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when it

experiences a force parallel to one of its surfaces while its opposite
face experiences an opposing force (such as friction). In the case of an
object that's shaped like a rectangular prism, it will deform into
a parallelepiped. Anisotropic materials such as wood, paper and also
essentially all single crystals exhibit differing material response to
stress or strain when tested in different directions. In this case one may

need to use the full tensor-expression of the elastic constants, rather

than a single scalar value.
One possible definition of a fluid would be a material with zero shear
modulus.

Waves[edit]

Influences of selected glass component additions on the shear modulus of a

specific base glass.[6]

In homogeneous and isotropic solids, there are two kinds of

waves, pressure waves and shear waves. The velocity of a shear
wave,

where
G is the shear modulus
is the solid's density.

is controlled by the shear modulus,

Shear modulus of metals[edit]

Shear modulus of copper as a function of temperature. The

experimental data[7][8] are shown with colored symbols.

The shear modulus of metals is usually observed to

decrease with increasing temperature. At high pressures,
the shear modulus also appears to increase with the
applied pressure. Correlations between the melting
temperature, vacancy formation energy, and the shear
modulus have been observed in many metals.[9]
Several models exist that attempt to predict the shear
modulus of metals (and possibly that of alloys). Shear
modulus models that have been used in plastic flow
computations include:
1. the MTS shear modulus model developed by[10] and
used in conjunction with the Mechanical Threshold
Stress (MTS) plastic flow stress model.[11][12]
2. the Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan (SCG) shear
modulus model developed by[13] and used in
conjunction with the Steinberg-Cochran-GuinanLund (SCGL) flow stress model.

3. the Nadal and LePoac (NP) shear modulus

model[8] that uses Lindemann theory to determine
the temperature dependence and the SCG model
for pressure dependence of the shear modulus.

MTS shear modulus model[edit]

The MTS shear modulus model has the form:

where 0 is the shear modulus at 0 K, and D and T0 are

material constants.

SCG shear modulus model[edit]

The Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan (SCG) shear modulus
model is pressure dependent and has the form

where, 0 is the shear modulus at the reference

state (T = 300 K, p = 0, = 1), p is the pressure,
and T is the temperature.

NP shear modulus model[edit]

The Nadal-Le Poac (NP) shear modulus model is a
modified version of the SCG model. The empirical
temperature dependence of the shear modulus in
the SCG model is replaced with an equation based
on Lindemann melting theory. The NP shear
modulus model has the form:

where

and 0 is the shear modulus at 0 K and

ambient pressure, is a material
parameter, kb is the Boltzmann
constant, m is the atomic mass, and f is
the Lindemann constant.

Relation between young modulus, shear modulus

and bulk modulus?

can some one please give the derivation of this relationship with explanation and if
you could draw some diagrams or find some on net please provide me the links.

Best Answer Asker's Choice

arman.post answered 8 years ago

E= young's modulus or modulus of elasticity;
= poisson' s ratio
G= shear modulus or modulus of rigidity
K = bulk modulus;
as you should know:
x = Ex;
when there are a tensile stress along x axis it also produces
a contraction in the transverse y and z directions. the transverse strain has benn
found by experience to be a constant fraction of the strain in longitudinal direction.
this is known as poisson's ratio ();
y = z = -x = - x/E;
suppose the the stresses in three dimentions, by superposition the overall relations
would be
x = 1/E [ x - (y + z)];
z = 1/E [ z - (y + x)];
y = 1/E [ y - (x + z)];
adding up both sides of above three equations:we get
x +z+ y= (1-2)/E [ x + y + z];
x +z+ y is called volume strain and x + y + z = 3m where m is mean
stress;
volume strain = (1-2)/E [3m];
K = bulk modulus = m/volume strain = E/3(1-2)

also
xy = G xy , zy = G zy ,xz = G xz ,
G = E/2(1+)
Asker's rating & comment

not exactly wht i was looking for, but nice done

1

Comment
Other Answers (2)
Relevance

nishit answered 8 years ago

Equation 1

G=
E/2(1 + v)

Equation 2

K=
E/(1 - 2v)

where:
G = shear modulus,
K = bulk modulus,

E = Young's modulus, and

v = Poisson's ratio.
1

0
o

Comment

ag_iitkgp answered 8 years ago

Y = G(1+n)
The analytical derivation can be obtained in books on Solid Mechanics.