Bioresource Technology 77 (2001) 237245

Review paper

The potential for short rotation energy forestry on restored landll

caps
D.J. Nixon, William Stephens, S.F. Tyrrel *, E.D.R. Brierley
Institute of Water and Environment, Craneld University at Silsoe, Bedfordshire MK45 4DT, UK
Accepted 29 May 2000

Abstract
This review examines the potential for producing biomass on restored landlls using willow and poplar species in short rotation
energy forestry. In southern England, the potential production may be about 20 t ha1 of dry stem wood annually. However, actual
yields are likely to be constrained by detrimental soil conditions, including shallow depth, compaction, low water holding capacity
and poor nutritional status. These factors will aect plant growth by causing drought, waterlogging, poor soil aeration and nutritional deciencies. Practical solutions to these problems include the correct placement and handling of the agricultural cap
material, soil amelioration using tillage and the addition of organic matter (such as sewage sludge), irrigation (possibly using landll
leachate), the installation of drainage and the application of inorganic fertilizers. The correct choice of species and clone, along with
good site management are also essential if economically viable yields are to be obtained. Further investigations are required to
determine the actual yields that can be obtained on landll sites using a range of management inputs. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved.
Keywords: Biomass production; Landll sites; Willow; Poplar; Short rotation coppice

1. Introduction
The problem of determining the most appropriate
end use for restored landll sites has been addressed by a
number of workers (Leone et al., 1979; Gilman et al.,
1985; Ettala, 1991). The establishment of vegetation is a
vital rst step in the restoration process (DoE, 1989).
For some years tree planting on restored caps in the UK
was discouraged, as it was felt that roots would penetrate the cap, leading to the uptake of heavy metals as
well as the release of landll gas (DoE, 1986). However
subsequent work has shown these fears to be unfounded
(Dobson and Moat, 1993; Bending and Moat, 1997).
Energy forestry oers the landll industry a potentially
valuable, environmentally benecial and sustainable use
of restored landll sites. The biomass produced from
short rotation coppice (SRC) trees, such as willow and
poplar, may have a number of uses: as a fuel for electricity generation plants; for the production of charcoal;
as a soil amendment for clay caps; or simply as a carbon
sink for atmospheric CO2 . Estimates have indicated that
*

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-01525-863-293; fax: +44-011525863-344.

E-mail address: s.tyrrel@craneld.ac.uk (S.F. Tyrrel).

the annual potential biomass production from SRC in

southern England could be 20 t ha1 of dry stem wood
(Cannell et al., 1987). However production may be
limited by site factors such as drought, soil compaction,
poor nutrition and the inuence of landll gas. This
article reviews the potential for short rotation energy
forestry on restored landll caps using willow and
poplar, and discusses the constraints to production on
such sites. Ways forward, to improve knowledge on the
feasibility of planting SRC at such sites, are proposed.

2. The potential for biomass production

2.1. General
The key processes controlling plant yields are the
fractional interception of incoming solar radiation by
the leaves, the eciency of conversion of the intercepted
radiation to dry matter (DM), and the proportion of
DM partitioned to the economically useful part of the
plant. Maximum yields for a site will be achieved by
plants that intercept all the incoming solar radiation,
convert it with maximum eciency and partition the

0960-8524/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
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D.J. Nixon et al. / Bioresource Technology 77 (2001) 237245

largest possible proportion to the parts of the plant that

will be harvested.
2.2. Light interception
Traditional forestry methods seek to maximise stem
height and girth over a period of many years. The time
spent developing a full canopy at the beginning of the
life cycle is therefore only a small proportion of the total
duration. By contrast, in SRC systems the period of
canopy development is a much larger proportion of the
time between planting and harvest. The most successful
management strategies therefore seek to minimise this
period whilst not jeopardising the development of the
economically important product by planting at a closer
spacing. Typical planting densities for SRC trees are
10,00020,000 ha1 , as compared to 10005000 ha1 in
the establishment of high forest. Under experimental
conditions willow plantings at much higher densities of
>100,000 ha1 have been tested (Kopp et al., 1997), and
in the system termed wood grass, hardwood trees
planted at densities of up to 440,000 ha1 are harvested
for biomass annually (Kopp et al., 1993). There is evidence to suggest that biomass production in SRC systems is relatively insensitive to planting density. For
example, in Sweden, in harvest cycles of three years or
more, planting densities within the range 10,00020,000
ha1 did not signicantly aect biomass production by
Salix viminalis (Willebrand et al., 1993). Similarly, in
northern USA the maximum annual dry biomass yields
of poplar planted over a wide range of densities (2000
25,000 ha1 ) were about 1012 t ha1 (Strong and
Hansen, 1993). Kopp et al. (1997) also found that increasing the plant density, from 15,000 to 111,000 ha1 ,
had no signicant eect on annual biomass yield. Strong
and Hansen (1993) proposed that the time to maximum
annual biomass productivity in SRC poplar is linearly
related to the time to canopy closure.
2.3. Solar radiation conversion eciency
The genotype will aect the eciency of conversion
of solar radiation into biomass. Total biomass conversion ratios for poplar and willow are generally 1.41.6 g
MJ1 , similar to a wide range of unstressed temperate
crops (Cannell et al., 1987). However, conversion ratios
are often quoted for above-ground biomass, ignoring
the roots, or for stem wood only (Monteith, 1977). In
poplar, solar radiation conversion ratios reported for
stem wood of Beaupre, a vigorous P. trichocarpa
P. deltoides hybrid, range from 0.56 (Milne et al., 1992)
to 0.75 g MJ1 (Impens et al., 1990). A mean stem wood
conversion ratio of 0.70 g MJ1 has been given for
P. trichocarpa vs. P. deltoides hybrids (often known as
Interamerican clones) grown under a wide range of
conditions in Europe and the USA (Ceulemans, 1990).

This compares favourably with 0.47 g MJ1 for Euramerican clones (P. deltoides vs. P. nigra) such as
Robusta, which has been used for traditional poplar
cultivation in the UK for many years.
2.4. Dry matter partitioning
The partitioning of assimilate to dierent parts of the
plant is dependent on genotype but is also directly affected by the environment. Trees generally maintain a
fairly constant root:shoot ratio, with about 3050% of
DM partitioned to stem wood, but the exact balance will
depend on the availability of light, water and nutrients.
In particular, water or nutrient deciencies have the
eect of increasing partitioning to the roots. These deciencies may result from low concentrations of nutrients or dry soil but can also arise because of poor soil
conditions which restrict root growth. Factors such as
soil compaction, waterlogging, high salt concentrations
and the presence of toxic chemicals all of which may
potentially occur on restored landlls can reduce the
amount and eciency of water uptake by roots.
In poplar, dierences in partitioning between clones
can be a major factor contributing towards dierences in
stem volume production. For example, in France and
Belgium Robusta (P. deltoides vs. P. nigra) has been
shown to produce a lower biomass yield than Raspalje
(P. trichocarpa vs. P. deltoides) as it partitions more DM
to roots (Barigah et al., 1990; Impens et al., 1988). In the
rst growing season the root systems represented 37%
and 25%, respectively of the total biomass produced by
Robusta and Raspalje.
2.5. Biomass production
The total production of biomass can be increased by
selecting the most suitable plant material for the location and climate, planting the trees in suitable soils, and
managing them to prevent shortages of water, nutrients
and light. Very large annual biomass gains have been
reported from some areas. In Sweden, Italy and New
Zealand, SRC willow grown under experimental conditions has been reported to produce 45 t ha1 yr1 of
oven-dry wood on a one-year cutting cycle, as compared
to a theoretical maximum of 6070 t ha1 yr1 (White
et al., 1989). At a eld scale, 3040 t ha1 yr1 is considered
possible if clones are properly matched to site and climate (White et al., 1989). In north-western Europe,
mean annual yields of dry wood from SRC grown in
research plots are normally in the range 1012 t ha1 ,
whilst in southern Europe 1520 t ha1 is more commonly achieved. In eastern USA annual biomass yields
of 2025 t ha1 have been reported for poplar hybrids
planted at 10,000 ha1 (Heilman and Stettler, 1984;
Heilman et al., 1994). In New York state, willow planted
at a density of 37,000 ha1 and harvested on a three year

D.J. Nixon et al. / Bioresource Technology 77 (2001) 237245

cycle gave an average annual yield of 24 dry t ha1

(Kopp et al., 1997). In Ireland, annual dry biomass
yields of 1215 t ha1 have been obtained from willow
grown on marginal gley soils (McElroy and Dawson,
1986). In Finland, Salix aquatica grown on a restored
landll site yielded between 7.3 and 12.5 t ha1 yr1 of
dry wood under rainfed and irrigated conditions respectively (Ettala, 1988).
3. Constraints to potential production
3.1. General
The main constraint to growth occurs when the plant
is unable to photosynthesise at the potential rate, governed by the amount of incoming solar radiation. This
will normally occur when one of the substrates for
photosynthesis (carbon, water, nitrogen) is limiting

(Agren,
1985). Restrictions in CO2 availability occur
when the plant closes its stomata in response to water
stress. Reduced assimilate production is therefore the
main result of drought. Kozlowski (1982) suggests that
up to 80% of the variation in wood growth of trees is
attributable to water stress. Nutrient deciencies will
reduce the eciency of photosynthesis, and can also
increase the proportion of DM partitioned to the roots.
In SRC, where biomass gain is the key criterion for
commercial success, the correct choice of species and
variety, and management for optimum leaf area development, photosynthetic activity and partitioning, are
crucial to the economic success of the venture.
3.2. Temperature and solar radiation
At a particular site, temperature and the incoming
solar radiation are the main climatic limitations to the
potential biomass production during the season (Cannell et al., 1987). In the absence of water or nutrient
stress, the development of leaf area and hence the interception of solar radiation will depend on the ambient
temperature, especially during the early part of the
season before full canopy cover has been achieved. The
early development of leaf area has been identied as
being particularly important; Cannell et al. (1987) found
that newly planted cuttings intercepted about 20% less
radiation during the season than regrowth from coppiced stumps. This dierence was due to stored energy in
the roots of the coppiced plants, which allowed rapid
development of a number of stems from the stump.
Despite the importance of this nding, there are few
published papers that quantify the accumulated temperature required to develop the optimum leaf area. In
Sweden, Perttu (1989) developed an empirical relationship between temperature, latitude and potential production for Salix species. Average oven-dry stem wood

239

mass gain in southern Sweden is about 11 t ha1 yr1 but

this could be as large as 20 t ha1 yr1 at a latitude of
56N and at sea level. Perttus regression model showed
a reduction in oven-dry stem wood biomass of 1 t ha1
yr1 for every degree latitude North and 1.5 t ha1 yr1
for each 100 m increase in altitude.
The simple model developed by Cannell et al. (1987)
in Scotland also suggests that the potential DM production will vary markedly in dierent parts of Britain.
In Cannells model, daily thermal time is calculated as
the dierence between the daily mean temperature and a
base value for growth which, for S. viminalis, is 5C
(Cannell et al., 1987; Perttu, 1989). Once a threshold
value has been exceeded (180C > 5C), accumulated
thermal time contributes directly to increasing leaf area
until the maximum leaf area index of about 4.5 is
reached. During autumn (SeptemberNovember) leaf
area reduces linearly at a rate of 2% per day. Using this
method, Cannell estimated that coppiced willow grown
at Long Ashton Horticultural Research Station, near
Bristol, would produce almost 21 t ha1 yr1 of stem
wood, double that recorded in Edinburgh. This estimate
agrees well with observed yields of up to 25 t ha1 yr1
from Long Ashton (Cannell et al., 1987).
In another experiment carried out in Edinburgh,
Cannell et al. (1988) ascribed the dierences in aboveground biomass production between willow and poplar
to the slower rate of cover development in poplar and
the smaller proportion of the total DM partitioned
above-ground. The poplar (P. trichocarpa) partitioned
more biomass to roots and produced only 5 t ha1 yr1
of woody biomass, half that produced by willow
(S. viminalis).
3.3. Soil conditions
In order to seal a completed landll, an engineering
cap is created using a layer of compacted clay material
about 1 m in thickness. An ``agricultural'' cap, 0.51.0 m
deep, is then placed over the engineering layer. It is often
dicult to obtain sucient soil material to create the
overlying agricultural cap, necessitating the use of soilforming material (often with a high clay content similar
to that used for the engineering layer) as a substitute.
Such materials lack structure and are low in organic
matter; they suer from waterlogging in winter but become very hard on drying; they have poor nutrient
status and low available water holding capacity. In addition, they are likely to be poorly aerated, and the soil
atmosphere may be contaminated by landll gas. The
ways in which these soil constraints inuence SRC
production are now examined.
3.3.1. Soil depth
In order to create the agricultural cap, the recommended practice in the UK is to loose-tip a 1 m layer of

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D.J. Nixon et al. / Bioresource Technology 77 (2001) 237245

soil over the engineering cap (DoE, 1986). In reality, soil

depth may vary due to the practical constraints of the
covering operation. Moat and Houston (1991) showed
that increasing the depth of soil cover from 0.5 to 1.0 m
improved the survival of willow, poplar and other tree
species by up to 50%. This improvement was attributed
to an increase in the water holding capacity of the
deeper soil, as well as a reduction in the harmful eects
of permeating landll gas on root growth.
The depth of the agricultural cap is of concern to
landll operators as they must protect the integrity of
the engineering cap. The Forestry Commission (1995)
identied dierences in root morphology between willow clones. Although their investigation was limited to
one site, it indicated that S. viminalis ``Mullatin'' had
greater proportion of structural roots in the upper soil
horizons compared to ``Dasyclados'' and ``Bowles Hybrid'' clones which had most structural roots in the
lower horizon. The selection of clones that have a
shallower rooting habit may be important, if only to
allay fears of damage to the engineering cap due to root
penetration.

of drought for the area in question. Detailed studies on

poplar clones have shown that there is a clear relationship between water use and biomass production (Souch
and Stephens, 1998). The main reason for dierences in
water use between clones subjected to dierent levels of
soil water stress was the dierential development of leaf
area during the season. Over the whole season there was
a very close relationship between the amount of water
used by the tree and the biomass production. Young
poplars (varieties Beaupre and Trichobel) gained
about 5 g DM for every 1 kg of water transpired in their
rst and second years of growth (Souch and Stephens,
1998). This is very close to the water use eciency
(WUE) of 45 g DM per kg of water transpired for
S. viminalis grown at 59N in Sweden (Lindroth et al.,
1994).

3.3.2. Compaction
Compaction is probably the biggest single factor responsible for poor tree growth on landll sites (Dobson
and Moat, 1993). Compacted soils have a reduced
water holding capacity, are more prone to waterlogging
in the winter and inhibit root penetration and development. Ruark et al. (1982) found reports of soil compaction signicantly reducing base diameter, height
and crown development in trees, although no values
were given. Pan and Bassuk (1985) found that increasing
the soil bulk density (BD) of a sandy loam from 1300 to
1640 kg m3 reduced total plant dry weight of Ailanthus
altissima (Tree-of-Heaven) seedlings by 50%. Minore
et al. (1969) found that, of a range of tree species tested,
red alder (Alnus rubra), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta)
and Douglas-r (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were able to
root into soils compacted to a BD of 1450 kg m3 but
not at 1600 kg m3 .

3.3.4. Waterlogging
Willow and poplar species are well known for their
tolerance of ooded conditions. Even so, reduced root
production is a common response to waterlogging. This,
in turn, may cause exacerbated drought eects when the
soil dries out since the root system is then unable to
expand rapidly enough to meet the transpiration demand for water. In a pot study, Liu and Dickmann
(1992) found that the responses to drought and ooding
were clone-dependent; ooding reduced biomass production of Populus euramericana more than drought,
whereas for P. tristis vs. P. balsamiferatha the eect was
reversed. Another pot study by Hallgren (1989) showed
considerable variation between poplar clones in response to ooding, with some maintaining biomass
production and increasing partitioning to the stem
whilst others accumulated less biomass. Other pot
studies have also shown the tolerance of Populus
trichocarpa to ooding (Harrington, 1987; Smit, 1988).
There are no reported estimates of reductions in biomass
production due to waterlogging at a eld scale for either
willow or poplar. However it is potentially a severe
problem on landll sites restored with a clay cap of low
permeability.

3.3.3. Soil water availability and drought

The availability of soil water to plants depends predominantly on the soil structure and texture. The organic matter content of the soil also has an eect and, as
a result, compact sub-soils with low organic matter
contents will hold considerably less water than topsoils
with the same texture. The responses of poplars and
willows to drought may be the key constraint to productivity since their natural distribution and productivity are closely related to the seasonal availability of
soil water (Braatne et al., 1992).
In order to predict the likely eects of drought on
biomass production in SRC it is necessary to identify the
responses to water stress and quantify the likely severity

3.3.5. Aeration
Observations at landll sites and experiments with
simulated landll suggest that the migration of landll
gas into the root zone of a tree plantation can have serious eects on tree health gas (Arthur et al., 1981).
Leone et al. (1983) also conclude that the majority of
cases of poor tree growth on completed landlls occurred due to the presence of high concentrations of
methane and carbon dioxide in the soil atmosphere.
Flower et al. (1981) cite three principal reasons for the
negative eect of landll gas on tree growth; a lack of
oxygen in the root zone; toxic levels of carbon dioxide in
the root zone; and the mobilisation of toxic heavy
metals due to the creation of an anaerobic root zone

D.J. Nixon et al. / Bioresource Technology 77 (2001) 237245

environment. The migration of landll gas into adjacent

woodland soils was also found to result in tree deaths.
These ndings are similar to those of Leone et al. (1977)
who established a relationship between poor tree growth
and elevated concentrations of carbon dioxide in the
root zone soil atmosphere.
3.3.6. Nutrient status
Agricultural cap materials may suer from nutrient
deciencies (Bending and Moat, 1997). In addition
large amounts of nutrient-rich biomass will be removed
from the soil as a result of short harvest cycles. Trials
conducted in Sweden, The Netherlands and UK have
indicated that when biomass yields were 715 dry tonnes
ha1 the SRC crop removed 3184 kg N ha1 (ADAS,
1995). In practice, SRC plantings are generally not fertilized as they are often grown on relatively fertile soil,
but where possible may receive applications of sewage
sludge (Moat, 1988). SRC crops will also recycle nutrients as leaf litter, which can contribute signicantly to
the nutrient balance, thereby reducing long-term fertilizer requirements (Dawson, 1988).
4. Practical solutions
4.1. Correct soil placement and handling
The most likely barriers to the achievement of potential biomass yields on restored landlls are related to
capping operations. A correctly engineered cap (combined with other gas control measures) can ensure that
toxicity problems associated with landll gas are minimised. Loose tipping is advocated as the most appropriate means of soil placement for the agricultural cap
on restored sites (Dobson and Moat, 1993). This
method is recommended in order to avoid compaction
and its deleterious eects, such as the reduction of pore
space, water holding capacity and root penetration. The
agricultural cap should be a minimum of 1 m in thickness to allow the successful establishment and growth of
SRC trees (Moat and Houston, 1991).
Other opportunities for improving the condition of
high clay content soil material used for the agricultural
cap include pre-treatment by stockpiling to allow some
initial weathering to occur. The addition and incorporation of soil conditioners such as waste organic material would also be of benet in improving soil structure
and aeration.
4.2. Soil amelioration
In cases where inferior soil material or poor placement methods have been used to create the agricultural
cap, two basic forms of soil amelioration may be required prior to tree planting, as follows.

241

4.2.1. Tillage
Soil BD may be reduced using standard agricultural
implements such as disc ploughs and rippers. However
the eective action of these implements is hindered by
the heterogeneous nature of agricultural landll cap
soils. The use of complete cultivation by a 360 excavator has been advocated to alleviate compaction
(Bending and Moat, 1997). However such a practice is
expensive, and successful results are only possible under
dry soil conditions. At many landll sites, the BD of the
recently laid clay agricultural caps can be as high as 1500
kg m3 , which is the upper limit recommended by
Moat and Bending (1992) for tree establishment. Tillage will reduce this BD, by perhaps 20%, and may
therefore assist tree establishment and improve subsequent rooting and growth. Moat and McNeill (1994)
report on the survival rate of dierent tree species at a
landll site in Bedfordshire, UK, following dierent
methods of soil preparation of the agricultural cap. In
all cases, soil amelioration using tillage was inferior to
loose tipping of the cap material. The authors conclude
that it is far better to avoid compaction in the rst place
rather than subsequently trying to nd ways of curing
the problem.
4.2.2. Addition of organic matter
Where soil-forming materials have been used for the
agricultural cap, amending deciencies of organic matter (and nutrients) will assist tree establishment and
growth. A cheap source is sewage sludge, which has
been used at some restored sites (Moat, 1988). Although there are practical and health issues associated
with the application of raw sludge, rened products
manufactured from sewage provide a safer alternative,
but at higher cost. Other forms of organic matter, such
as composted green waste, may form a cheaper option.
The biomass produced by SRC might also be used as a
soil amendment.
4.3. Irrigation
In order to meet the shortfall in the crop water requirement during the summer months, landll leachate
may be used for irrigation, and in Finland work carried
out by Ettala (1988) emphasised the potential benets of
such a practice. The mean annual dry biomass production of S. aquatica at the Lahti landll over a four-year
period was 22.6 t ha1 yr1 with leachate irrigation
compared with 10.5 t ha1 yr1 under rainfed conditions. However, the application of leachate onto foliage
damaged the leaves, possibly due to the toxic eects of
sodium or chloride.
Lysimeter studies in Canada have demonstrated that
leachate can stimulate tree growth in comparison to
water-irrigated controls (Cureton et al., 1991). The respective heights of Salix babylonica L. and Populus nigra

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D.J. Nixon et al. / Bioresource Technology 77 (2001) 237245

vs. P. maximowiczi trees irrigated with landll leachate

over a two-year period were 42% and 64% greater than
their water-irrigated counterparts. Premature leaf senescence was observed in the second year of the experiments although bud formation was not aected.
Mensar et al. (1983) found considerable variation in the
survival rate of dierent tree species irrigated with
leachate via overhead sprinklers. Suggested reasons for
the death or dieback of certain species included waterlogging, increased soil acidity and iron coating of foliage. However measurements of biomass productivity
were not made.
In Hong Kong, Wong and Leung (1989) studied the
eects of leachate irrigation on young Acacia confusa
plants. After 50 days of irrigation with leachate, they
recorded a 26% reduction in DM production in comparison to a fresh-water irrigated control. In general,
leachates with a high electrical conductivity (0.20.4 S
m1 ) should not be used for irrigation, as this will adversely aect tree growth, and may result in long-term
soil structural deterioration due to the presence of sodium (Dobson and Moat, 1993). In a short-term pot
study on cuttings of four poplar clones, Fung et al.
(1998) reported rapid reductions in leaf area development and total biomass production during the 21 day
experiment using 0.5% and 1.0% w/v NaCl. Similarly,
Stephens et al. (2000) showed reductions of 10% and
30% in stem and leaf biomass production of young
transplanted S. viminalis for each 100 mmol l1 increase
in chloride concentration.
4.4. Drainage
Where irrigation is to be applied, consideration may
need to be given to the installation of a drainage system.
In particular, if landll leachate is to be used, an eective
system of surface and sub-surface drainage will be required to ensure that contamination of natural drainage
systems does not occur. Even when irrigation is absent,
heavy clay caps may benet from drainage to assist with
soil aeration and the formation of soil structure by
wetting and drying processes. At many locations
waterlogging will generally only persist during the winter months, when the trees are dormant, and thus its
deleterious eects are much reduced. However the type
and degree of damage which may occur is dependent
upon tree species, age and phenological state (Coutts
and Armstrong, 1976; Kozlowski, 1982).
4.5. Nutrition
A number of studies have shown the benets of fertilization, particularly with nitrogen, to the biomass
yields of SRC trees. To compensate for nutrient removal
by the crop, a fertilization rate of 112168 kg N ha1
yr1 is suggested in short-rotation intensively cultured

plantations (Hansen et al., 1988). In Finland, the application of 300 kg N ha1 yr1 as urea to Populus
species planted at 15,000 ha1 increased the yield of
oven-dry woody biomass from 6.5 to 25 t ha1 over a
six-year period (Ferm et al., 1989). In North-western
USA, the application of 500 kg N ha1 yr1 increased
the annual above ground dry biomass yield of P. deltoides and P. trichocarpa from 21 to 25 t ha1 (Heilman
et al., 1993).
As has been mentioned, irrigation with leachate not
only reduces water stress, but also adds nutrients, particularly nitrogen, to the soil. Irrigation with sewage
sludge or the application of treated sewage products will
also be benecial to soil nutrient status. Although there
is limited data available on the impact of landll leachate on tree growth, there is evidence that irrigation
with sewage sludge and settled domestic wastewater
does promote tree growth due to the nutrient content of
these materials (Carlson, 1992; Kowalik and Randerson,
1994). Sewage sludge is often promoted as a cheap alternative to inorganic fertilizer, and established methods
exist for the use of sludge in UK forestry (Wolstenholme
et al., 1992). Bayes et al. (1987) measured annual tree
height increases during the rst four years of establishment of between 100% and 200% greater than that
achieved with a comparable inorganic fertilizer application (1000 kg N ha1 ) and up to 600% greater than an
unfertilized control. In general, there is evidence to
suggest that, in most circumstances, trees respond positively to irrigation with organic wastewater with a high
N content. However, over-irrigation may lead to toxic
eects which reduce biomass production.
4.6. Choice of species and clone
Selection of the most suitable species and clone for a
particular site is crucial to ensure maximum production
of biomass from SRC. As well as the climatic regime of
the location, site factors such as soil conditions (including pH) and whether irrigation with leachate is to be
applied should be taken into account.
Work has been carried out to genetically improve tree
species for SRC. For instance in Sweden, willow clones
have been bred for erect growth, resistance to pests and
diseases and high yield under SRC conditions (Larsson,
1998). Based on these criteria S. viminalis has proved to
be the most suitable clone over a range of conditions. In
Belgium, the assessment of a range of poplar clones for
SRC is currently underway (Deraedt and Ceulemans,
1998). In Finland, the clones most suited to establishment on completed sanitary landlls were S. aquatica
and Populus rasumowskyana (as well as Betula pendula)
(Ettala, 1988). Establishment was successful both with
and without irrigation using landll leachate. Leone
et al. (1983) concluded that the species that grew well on
landlls were those able to develop a shallow root

D.J. Nixon et al. / Bioresource Technology 77 (2001) 237245

system, thereby avoiding the toxic eects of landll gas.

Dobson and Moat (1993) also concluded that the
ability of a tree to withstand the eects of landll gas is
governed by its capacity to avoid anaerobic soil through
the development of a shallow root system. Unfortunately, this is not a desirable attribute in other ways, as
the susceptibility to drought and the likelihood of uprooting by strong winds are increased.
4.7. Site management
Published predictions of potential production are
often based on the results of carefully managed smallplot experiments, whilst eld scale operations rarely
achieve the same yield levels as experiments. Hansen
(1991) noted that small-plot yields of poplars were often
37 times actual eld yields. Inadequate weed control,
especially during the early stages of growth before
complete ground cover is achieved, was a major factor
contributing to lower eld yields. The choice of clone for
site compatibility and disease resistance was also found
to be important. However in small plots edge eects can
also play a part in enhancing yields (Strong and Hansen,
1993).
The correct management of energy forestry is essential if economic yields are to be obtained. Many of the
poor eld yields reported arise from neglect of trees once
planted. A key issue in deciding whether the production
of energy from wood biomass is feasible on landll sites
is the costs associated with intensive management of the
coppice woodland. Yields in intensively managed commercial systems are often up to 75% of those in experiments. Therefore, coppice grown on a well prepared site
in UK, with good soil conditions and weed control, and
with appropriate applications of nutrients and water
should be capable of producing approximately 15 t ha1
yr1 of stem wood under eld conditions. However this
does not take into account constraints to growth such as
waterlogging, drought, infertility or toxicity. Any one
constraining factor could reduce potential productivity
signicantly. For instance, it has been estimated that, in
the drier Eastern areas of UK, a lack of irrigation could,
on average, reduce biomass productivity by almost 50%
(Stephens and Tyrrel, 1995).
Timely harvesting is a key activity if SRC is to be
sustainable. Concerns have been raised about tracability and rutting (ADAS, 1995) and these issues are
likely to be even more acute on poorly structured clay
soils on landll caps. Earle (1997) identied that the
duration of tracability (travelling on the soil without
tilling) is dependent on the soil water content and the
type of soil. Clay soils that are plastic, adhesive and have
a low penetration resistance have a narrower window of
opportunity during which harvesting can be carried out.
A healthy, fast growing coppice will dry the soil out
during summer and autumn and may extend the harvest

243

period into the autumn. However, the typically unstructured clay soils that are used for many landll caps
will then be impassable until after coppice regrowth
starts in spring too late to harvest eectively. Alternative harvesting systems using compacted roadways,
similar to tramlines in arable agriculture, could well be
essential if late autumn or winter harvesting is to be
successful.
5. Conclusions
This review indicates that with correct management
short rotation energy coppice trees could be successfully
grown on restored landll sites in the UK. Despite the
poor soil conditions that are encountered on many
landll caps, there appears to be the potential to achieve
good biomass yields from species such as willow and
poplar. However there are several areas requiring further investigation before recommendations for the appropriate practices can be made with condence, as
follows.
5.1. Potential vs. actual yields
Given the harsh conditions encountered on restored
landlls, it is likely that considerable inputs may be required in order to obtain reasonable yields from SRC.
Further investigation is therefore required into the level
and type of physical and chemical soil amendments that
are required. Consideration must also be given to the
eects of drought and the consequent requirements for
irrigation. The yields obtained under a range of management scenarios should be compared with the potential yield where constraints have been minimised.
5.2. Choice of suitable species and clone
A range of poplar and willow clones should be tested
for suitability to the climatic and soil conditions encountered on landll sites in UK. The results from work
carried out in Scandinavia and at Long Ashton Horticultural Research Station should give a good indication
of the most likely clones to be included in such trials. As
well as assessing biomass yield, consideration should
also be given to factors such as resistance to pests and
diseases and ease of harvesting.
5.3. Irrigation with landll leachate
The use of leachate for irrigation may be benecial in
alleviating both water stress and nutrient deciencies.
However the long-term impact of such a practice needs
to be assessed. Studies have shown the positive eects on
biomass yields, but the negative eects, such as stunting
due to waterlogging and leaf necrosis due to direct

244

D.J. Nixon et al. / Bioresource Technology 77 (2001) 237245

contact of leachate on the foliage, require further investigation.

5.4. Eects of compaction
Further work is required to determine the responses
of willow and poplar to compaction (and its alleviation
using tillage). Such experiments would assist in predicting the likely yields obtainable at restored sites. The
associated diculties of tracability when harvesting
also require practical solutions.
The further investigations outlined here would assist
in determining whether the production of SRC on restored landlls would ultimately be protable. The
economic value of SRC will depend on the cost of
production, the yields achieved and the price obtained.
The economic break-even production for SRC has been
calculated as 1012 t ha1 yr1 of dry stem wood
(L
onner and Parikka, 1989). More recently Dawson
(1999) has shown that increasing the biomass yield of
willow SRC from 9 to 13 t ha1 yr1 of dry stem wood
would reduce production costs by about 27%. Good
management is therefore the key to protable returns
from SRC on restored landlls.
Acknowledgements
This review has been carried out as part of an ongoing project funded by EB Nationwide Ltd under the
Landll Tax Credit Scheme.
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