Bipolar Transistor

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that can act as
either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistors ability to
change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: switching (digital electronics) or
amplification (analogue electronics). Then Bipolar Transistors have the ability to operate within three
different regions:
Active Region the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = .Ib
Saturation the transistor is Fully-ON operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)
Cut-off the transistor is Fully-OFF operating as a switch and Ic = 0

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting
terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three
terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C )
respectively.

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing through
them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting like a
current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is
exactly the same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for
each type.

Bipolar Transistor Construction

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to connect it
within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output. Each method of
connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the
transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.
Common Base Configuration has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
Common Emitter Configuration has both Current and Voltage Gain.
Common Collector Configuration has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

The Common Base Transistor Circuit

Common Base Voltage Gain

The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

By combining the expressions for both Alpha, and Beta, the mathematical relationship between these
parameters and therefore the current gain of the transistor can be given as:

The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The Common Collector Current Gain

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

with the characteristics of the different transistor configurations given in the following table:
Common
Common
Common
Characteristic
Base
Emitter
Collector
Input Impedance

Low

Medium

High

Output Impedance

Very High

High

Low

Phase Angle

0o

180o

0o

Voltage Gain

High

Medium

Low

Current Gain

Low

Medium

High

Power Gain
Low
Very High
We can summarise this transistors tutorial section as follows:

Medium

The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three layer device constructed form two semiconductor
diode junctions joined together, one forward biased and one reverse biased.
There are two main types of bipolar junction transistors, the NPN and the PNP transistor.
Transistors are Current Operated Devices where a much smaller Base current causes a larger
Emitter to Collector current, which themselves are nearly equal, to flow.
The arrow in a transistor symbol represents conventional current flow.
The most common transistor connection is the Common-emitter configuration.
Requires a Biasing voltage for AC amplifier operation.
The Base-Emitter junction is always forward biased whereas the Collector-Base junction is always
reverse biased.
The standard equation for currents flowing in a transistor is given as: IE = IB + IC
The Collector or output characteristics curves can be used to find either Ib, Ic or to which a load
line can be constructed to determine a suitable operating point, Q with variations in base current
determining the operating range.
A transistor can also be used as an electronic switch to control devices such as lamps, motors and
solenoids etc.
Inductive loads such as DC motors, relays and solenoids require a reverse biased Flywheel diode
placed across the load. This helps prevent any induced back emfs generated when the load is
switched OFF from damaging the transistor.

The NPN transistor requires the Base to be more positive than the Emitter while the PNP type
requires that the Emitter is more positive than the Base.

Field Effect Transistor Tutorial

Field Effect Transistors, or FETs are Voltage Operated Devices and can be divided into two
main types: Junction-gate devices called JFETs and Insulated-gate devices called IGFETs or more
commonly known as MOSFETs.
Insulated-gate devices can also be sub-divided into Enhancement types and Depletion types. All
forms are available in both N-channel and P-channel versions.
FETs have very high input resistances so very little or no current (MOSFET types) flows into the
input terminal making them ideal for use as electronic switches.
The input impedance of the MOSFET is even higher than that of the JFET due to the insulating oxide
layer and therefore static electricity can easily damage MOSFET devices so care needs to be taken
when handling them.
When no voltage is applied to the gate of an enhancement FET the transistor is in the OFF state
similar to an open switch.
The depletion FET is inherently conductive and in the ON state when no voltage is applied to the
gate similar to a closed switch.
FETs have very large current gain compared to junction transistors.
They can be used as ideal switches due to their very high channel OFF resistance, low ON
resistance.
To turn the N-channel JFET transistor OFF, a negative voltage must be applied to the gate.
To turn the P-channel JFET transistor OFF, a positive voltage must be applied to the gate.
N-channel depletion MOSFETs are in the OFF state when a negative voltage is applied to the gate
to create the depletion region.
P-channel depletion MOSFETs, are in the OFF state when a positive voltage is applied to the gate
to create the depletion region.
N-channel enhancement MOSFETs are in the ON state when a +ve (positive) voltage is applied
to the gate.
P-channel enhancement MOSFETs are in the ON state when -ve (negative) voltage is applied to
the gate.

The Field Effect Transistor Chart

Biasing of the Gate for both the junction field effect transistor, (JFET) and the metal oxide semiconductor
field effect transistor, (MOSFET) configurations are given as:
Junction FET
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET
Type
Depletion Mode
Depletion Mode
Enhancement Mode
Bias

ON

OFF

ON

OFF

ON

OFF

N-channel

0v

-ve

0v

-ve

+ve

0v

P-channel

0v

+ve

0v

+ve

-ve

0v

Differences between a FET and a Bipolar Transistor

Field Effect Transistors can be used to replace normal Bipolar Junction Transistors in electronic circuits and
a simple comparison between FETs and transistors stating both their advantages and their disadvantages is
given below.
Field Effect Transistor (FET)
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
1

Low voltage gain

High voltage gain

High current gain

Low current gain

Very input impedance

Low input impedance

High output impedance

Low output impedance

Low noise generation

Medium noise generation

Fast switching time

Medium switching time

Easily damaged by static

Robust

Some require an input to turn it OFF

Requires zero input to turn it OFF

Voltage controlled device

Current controlled device

10

Exhibits the properties of a Resistor

11

More expensive than bipolar

Cheap

12

Difficult to bias

Easy to bias

The MOSFET
The IGFET or MOSFET is a voltage controlled field effect transistor that differs from a JFET in
that it has a Metal Oxide Gate electrode which is electrically insulated from the main
semiconductor N-channel or P-channel by a very thin layer of insulating material usually
silicon dioxide, commonly known as glass.

MOSFETs are three terminal devices with a Gate, Drain and Source and both P-channel (PMOS) and Nchannel (NMOS) MOSFETs are available. The main difference this time is that MOSFETs are available in
two basic forms:
1. Depletion Type the transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to switch the device
OFF. The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a Normally Closed switch.
2. Enhancement Type the transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to switch the device
ON. The enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to a Normally Open switch.
The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of MOSFETs are shown below.

The line between the drain and source connections represents the semiconductive channel. If this is a solid
unbroken line then this represents a Depletion (normally closed) type MOSFET and if the channel line is
shown dotted or broken it is an Enhancement (normally open) type MOSFET. The direction of the arrow
indicates either a P-channel or an N-channel device.
Basic MOSFET Structure and Symbol

Operational Amplifier
Operational amplifiers are linear devices that have all the properties required for
nearly ideal DC amplification and are therefore used extensively in signal
conditioning, filtering or to perform mathematical operations such as add,
subtract, integration and differentiation.

In a linear operational amplifier, the output signal is the amplification factor, known as the amplifiers gain
( A ) multiplied by the value of the input signal and depending on the nature of these input and output
signals, there can be four different classifications of operational amplifier gain.
Voltage Voltage in and Voltage out
Current Current in and Current out
Transconductance Voltage in and Current out
Transresistance Current in and Voltage out

The amplified output signal of an Operational Amplifier is the difference between the two
signals being applied to the two inputs. In other words the output signal is a differential signal

between the two inputs and the input stage of an Operational Amplifier is in fact a differential
amplifier.

Op-amp Parameter and Idealised Characteristic

Open Loop Gain, (Avo)
o

Infinite The main function of an operational amplifier is to amplify the input signal and the more
open loop gain it has the better. Open-loop gain is the gain of the op-amp without positive or negative
feedback and for such an amplifier the gain will be infinite but typical real values range from about
20,000 to 200,000.

Input impedance, (Zin)

o

Infinite Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and is assumed to be infinite
to prevent any current flowing from the source supply into the amplifiers input circuitry ( Iin = 0 ).
Real op-amps have input leakage currents from a few pico-amps to a few milli-amps.

Output impedance, (Zout)

Zero The output impedance of the ideal operational amplifier is assumed to be zero acting as a perfect
internal voltage source with no internal resistance so that it can supply as much current as necessary to the
load. This internal resistance is effectively in series with the load thereby reducing the output voltage available
to the load. Real op-amps have output impedances in the 100-20k range.

Bandwidth, (BW)

Infinite An ideal operational amplifier has an infinite frequency response and can amplify any frequency
signal from DC to the highest AC frequencies so it is therefore assumed to have an infinite bandwidth. With
real op-amps, the bandwidth is limited by the Gain-Bandwidth product (GB), which is equal to the frequency
where the amplifiers gain becomes unity.

Offset Voltage, (Vio)

Zero The amplifiers output will be zero when the voltage difference between the inverting and the
non-inverting inputs is zero, the same or when both inputs are grounded. Real op-amps have some
amount of output offset voltage.

From these idealized characteristics above, we can see that the input resistance is infinite,
so no current flows into either input terminal (the current rule) and that the
differential input offset voltage is zero (the voltage rule). It is important to remember
these two properties as they will help us understand the workings of the Operational
Amplifier with regards to the analysis and design of op-amp circuits.
The Voltage Follower

The Voltage Follower, also called a buffer dose not amplify or invert the input signal but instead provides isolation
between two circuits. The input impedance is very high while the output impedance is low avoiding any loading
effects within the circuit. The gain of the buffer is +1 and Vout = Vin.

The Voltage Follower Op-amp Circuit

The Op-amp Inverter

The Inverter, also called an inverting buffer is the opposite to that of the previous voltage follower. The inverter does
not amplify if both resistances are equal but does invert the input signal. The input impedance is equal to R and the
gain is -1 giving Vout = -Vin.

The Op-amp Inverter Circuit

The Non-inverting Amplifier

The Non-inverting Amplifier does not invert the input signal or produce an inverting signal but instead amplifies it by
the ratio of: (RA + RB)/RB or commonly 1+(RA/RB). The input signal is connected to the non-inverting (+) input.

The Non-inverting Op-amp Circuit

The Inverting Amplifier

The Inverting Amplifier both inverts and amplifies the input signal by the ratio of -RA/RB. The gain of the amplifier is
controlled by negative feedback using the feedback resistor RA and the input signal is fed to the inverting (-) input.

The Inverting Op-amp Circuit

The Bridge Amplifier

The inverting and non-inverting amplifier circuits from above can be connected together to form a bridge amplifier
configuration. The input signal is common to both op-amps with the output voltage signal taken across the load
resistor, RL. If the magnitudes of the two gains, A1 and A2 are equal to each other then the output signal will be
doubled as it is effectively the combination of the two individual amplifier gains.

The Bridge Op-amp Circuit

The Voltage Adder

The Adder, also called a summing amplifier, produces an inverted output voltage which is proportional to the sum of
the input voltages V1 and V2. More inputs can be summed. If the input resistors are equal in value (R1 = R2 = R) then
the summed output voltage is as given and the gain is +1. If the input resistors are unequal then the output voltage is a
weighted sum and becomes:
Vout = -(V1(RA/R1) + V2(RA/R2) + etc.)

The Voltage Adder Op-amp Circuit

The Voltage Subtractor

The Subtractor also called a difference amplifier, uses both the inverting and non-inverting inputs to produce an output
signal which is proportional to the difference between the two input voltages V1 and V2. More inputs can be
subtracted. Resistances are equal (R = R and RA = RA) then the output voltage is as given and the gain is +1. If the
input resistance are unequal the circuit becomes a differential amplifier.

The Voltage Follower Op-amp Circuit

The Op-amp Comparator

The Comparator has many uses but the most common is to compare the input voltage to a reference voltage and
switch the output if the input voltage is above the reference voltage. If the input goes more positive than the reference
voltage set by the voltage divider, Vin > Vref, the output changes state. When the input voltage drops below the preset
reference voltage and Vin < Vref, the output switches back. By using negative feedback the comparator can be
converted into a Schmitt Trigger circuit.

The Comparator Op-amp Circuit

Here are just some of the more common and basic operational amplifier building block configurations discussed in
this section that we can use in electronic circuits. All the above circuits can be constructed using a variety of different
op-amps including the famous 741 op-amp. I hope that this short tutorial about basic op-amp building blocks will help
you to understand the different basic op-amp circuit configurations.

Op-amp Schmitt Comparator

The op-amp comparator circuit above is configured as a Schmitt trigger that uses positive feedback provided by
resistors R1 and R2 to generate hysteresis. As this resistive network is connected between the amplifiers output and
non-inverting (+) input, when Vout is saturated at the positive supply rail, a positive voltage is applied to the op-amps
non-inverting input. Likewise, when Vout is saturated to the negative supply rail, a negative voltage is applied to the
op-amps non-inverting input.
As the two resistors are configured across the op-amps output as a voltage divider network, the reference voltage, Vref
will therefore be dependant upon the fraction of output voltage fed back to the non-inverting input. This feedback
fraction, is given as:

Where +V(sat) is the positive op-amp DC saturation voltage and -V(sat) is the negative op-amp DC saturation voltage.
Then we can see that the positive or upper reference voltage, +Vref (i.e. the maximum positive value for the voltage at
the inverting input) is given as: +Vref = +V(sat) while the negative or lower reference voltage (i.e. the maximum
negative value for the voltage at the inverting input) is given as: -Vref = -V(sat).
So if Vin exceeds +Vref, the op-amp switches state and the output voltage drops to its negative DC saturation voltage.
Likewise when the input voltage falls below -Vref, the op-amp switches state once again and the output voltage will
switch from the negative saturation voltage back to the positive DC saturation voltage. The amount of built-in
hysteresis given by the Schmitt comparator as it switches between the two saturation voltages is defined by the
difference between the two trigger reference voltages as: VHYSTERESIS = +Vref - (-Vref).

Sinusoidal to Rectangular Converter

As the input waveform will be periodical and have an amplitude sufficiently greater than its reference voltage, Vref,
the output rectangular waveform will always have the same period, T and therefore frequency, as the input
waveform.
By replacing either resistor R1 or R2 with a potentiometer we could adjust the feedback fraction, and therefore the
reference voltage value at the non-inverting input to cause the op-amp to change state anywhere from zero to 90 o of
each half cycle so long as the reference voltage, Vref remained below the maximum amplitude of the input signal.

Op-amp Multivibrator Circuit

So how does it work. Firstly lets assume that the capacitor is fully discharged and the output of the op-amp is saturated
at the positive supply rail. The capacitor, C starts to charge up from the output voltage, Vout through resistor, R at a
rate determined by their RC time constant.
We know from our tutorials about RC circuits that the capacitor wants to charge up fully to the value of Vout (which is
+V(sat)) within five time constants. However, as soon as the capacitors charging voltage at the op-amps inverting (-)
terminal is equal to or greater than the voltage at the non-inverting terminal (the op-amps output voltage fraction
divided between resistors R1 and R2), the output will change state and be driven to the opposing negative supply rail.
But the capacitor, which has been happily charging towards the positive supply rail (+V(sat)), now sees a negative
voltage, -V(sat) across its plates. This sudden reversal of the output voltage causes the capacitor to discharge toward
the new value of Vout at a rate dictated again by their RC time constant.

Op-amp Multivibrator Voltages

Once the op-amps inverting terminal reaches the new negative reference voltage, -Vref at the non-inverting terminal,
the op-amp once again changes state and the output is driven to the opposing supply rail voltage, +V(sat). The
capacitor now sees a positive voltage across its plates and the charging cycle begins again. Thus, the capacitor is
constantly charging and discharging creating an astable op-amp multivibrator output.
The period of the output waveform is determined by the RC time constant of the two timing components and the
feedback ratio established by the R1, R2 voltage divider network which sets the reference voltage level. If the positive
and negative values of the amplifiers saturation voltage have the same magnitude, then t1 = t2 and the expression to
give the period of oscillation becomes:

Then we can see from the above equation that the frequency of oscillation for an Op-amp Multivibrator circuit not
only depends upon the RC time constant but also upon the feedback fraction. However, if we used resistor values that
gave a feedback fraction of 0.462, ( = 0.462), then the frequency of oscillation of the circuit would be equal to just
1/2RC as shown because the linear log term becomes equal to one.

Transformer Basics

The reason for transforming the voltage is that a higher distribution voltage implies lower
currents and therefore lower losses along the grid.
The Voltage Transformer can be thought of as an electrical component rather than an
electronic component. A transformer basically is very simple static (or stationary) electromagnetic passive electrical device that works on the principle of Faradays law of
induction by converting electrical energy from one value to another.

(Faradays law of induction The induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the negative
of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit. Faraday's law states that the EMF is also
given by the rate of change of the magnetic flux:

where is the electromotive force (EMF) and B is the magnetic flux. The direction of the electromotive
force is given by Lenz's law (An induced electromotive force (emf) always gives rise to a current whose
magnetic field opposes the original change in magnetic flux.). For a tightly wound coil of wire, composed of
N identical turns, each with the same B, Faraday's law of induction states that

Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage into
another coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that transformers work in the
magnetic domain, and transformers get their name from the fact that they transform one
voltage or current level into another.
The two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked magnetically.
The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is achieved by
changing the number of coil turns in the primary winding ( NP ) compared to the number
of coil turns on the secondary winding ( NS ).

A Transformers Turns Ratio

Transformer Action
A transformer basically consists of two coils wound around a common soft iron core. When an
alternating voltage ( VP ) is applied to the primary coil, current flows through the coil which in
turn sets up a magnetic field around itself, called mutual inductance, by this current flow
according to Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction. The strength of the magnetic field
builds up as the current flow rises from zero to its maximum value which is given as d/dt.
As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from the coil the soft iron core forms a
path for and concentrates the magnetic flux. This magnetic flux links the turns of both windings as it increases and
decreases in opposite directions under the influence of the AC supply.

However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core depends upon the amount of current and
the number of turns in the winding. When current is reduced, the magnetic field strength reduces.

When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the turns of the secondary winding,
causing a voltage to be induced into the secondary coil. The amount of voltage induced will be determined by:
N.d/dt (Faradays Law), where N is the number of coil turns. Also this induced voltage has the same frequency as
the primary winding voltage.

The total induced voltage in each winding is directly proportional to the number of turns in that winding.

However, the peak amplitude of the output voltage available on the secondary winding will be reduced if
the magnetic losses of the core are high.
As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, = max sint, then the basic relationship between induced emf,
( E ) in a coil winding of N turns is given by:

emf = turns x rate of change

Where:

- is the flux frequency in

Hertz, = /2

- is the number of coil

windings.

- is the flux density in

webers

This is known as the Transformer

EMF Equation. For the primary
winding emf, N will be the number of
primary turns, ( NP ) and for the secondary winding emf, N will be the number of secondary
turns, ( NS ).

**** Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic flux to operate correctly,
transformers cannot therefore be used to transform or supply DC voltages or currents, since the magnetic
field must be changing to induce a voltage in the secondary winding. In other words, Transformers DO
NOT Operate on DC Voltages, ONLY AC.
If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC supply, the inductive reactance of the winding
would be zero as DC has no frequency, so the effective impedance of the winding will therefore be very low
and equal only to the resistance of the copper used. Thus the winding will draw a very high current from the
DC supply causing it to overheat and eventually burn out, because as we know I = V/R.

Transformer Basics Example No3

A single phase transformer has 480 turns on the primary winding and 90 turns on the secondary winding.
The maximum value of the magnetic flux density is 1.1T when 2200 volts, 50Hz is applied to the
transformer primary winding. Calculate:
a). The maximum flux in the core.

b). The cross-sectional area of the core.

c). The secondary induced emf.