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The overall existence of the cell

Life of cell is divided into two major events


1. Resting phase
2. Mitotic phase
Phases in the entire life cycle
G1 (First gap phase)
S (Synthesis phase)
G2 (Second gap phase)
M phase (Mitotic Phase)

Cell division, two major events


1. Nuclear division (Mitosis)
2. Cytoplasmic division - cytokinesis
The different stages during Mitosis
-each has corresponding remarkable events
-the most important structure that is the focus of cell
division are the chromosomes
-chromatids and chromosomes are not different
-chromatid - resting phase
-chromosomes - cell division - chromatid becomes
visible under the microscope

G1,S,G2 are the resting phases a.k.a. interphase - the


time when the cell is not actually dividing
Types of chromosomes
M phase - cell division - only occupies small portion of
the pie chart. The cell does not allocate much of its time
dividing. The rates of division the cell must perform
must be directly proportional to the rate of cell death.
Division rate higher than cell death -> tumor (abnormal
tissue growth)
Cell death higher than division rate -> tissue destruction
G1 phase - the first event of the resting stage.
-the cell performs all the necessary metabolic
processes needed for the existence of the cell.
S phase - DNA structure is being replicated
- why is DNA replicated at the S phase?
- answer: the daughter cells should receive equal
number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Before

1. Metacentric
- The type of chromosomes in which the centromere is
located at the central part giving two equal arm of the
chromosome.
- Centromere - constriction found in a particular
chromosome. It is due to a special segment in the DNA
structure called the CEN sequence. This sequence will
be patched combined with protein and then becomes
constricted to allow chromatin materials to condense.
2. Submetacentric - the centromere is displaced from
the center giving a short arm and a long arm.
3. Acrocentric - the centromere is more displaced from
the center which gives a very short and a very long arm.
4. Telocentric - the chromosomes split into half.
(centromere and arm)

The cell divides, the DNA structure is copied (DNA


replication)
G2 phase - the final preparatory stage. The cell
replicative organelle has replicated itself in order to have
their copies so that the cells will be produced will have
the same number of organelles as the parent cells.
These organelles have to produce a copy of itself during
G2 phase.
As the cell enters mitotic stage (Mitosis), this event only
happens in Somatic cells. Meiosis happens in the
gametes.

Prophase
- The assumption of the normal form of the
chromosomes.
- disappearance of the nuclear envelope - they form
small vesicles within the cytoplasm.
- The self replicative organelle which is the centriole
(9+2 pairs of microtubules) and centrosome (the space
that surrounds it) move towards the opposite pole
leaving spindle fibers as footprints.
3 Types of Spindle fibers
1. Kinetochore microtubules
- the kind of microtubule that is attached to the
centromere of the chromosomes.

2. Spindle microtubules
- arising from the opposing centrioles. Meet with another
spindle fiber at the center and then joined by motor
proteins.
- the centriole is not responsible for the assembly of
spindle fibers.
- the function of the centriole is only to serve as baseline
for the construction of cilia and flagella.
- only in plant cells can the centriole take part in the
assembly of spindle fibers.
3. Astral microtubules
- does not radiate towards the center but rather it just
radiate from the centrosome and attach to the plasma
membrane. It anchors to the plasma membrane to secure
the cetriole in place.
Spindle fibers - has inherent polarity, the end of the
microtuble away from the centriole is considered to be
the addition unit of the tubulin protein hence it is the
positive end. The ones located nearest to the vicinity is
the negative end.
Once the spindle fibers are taken a particular segment, it
will become tight. As it adds, the addition unit grows
long. The addition and subtraction units allow the
microtubule to lengthen and shorten.It is the reason why
the chromosomes move in opposite directions.
Equatorial plane - chromosomes align at a region equal
in distance from the opposite pole as all of the
Spindle fibers have tightened.
- Signal of another phase (Taking place
of metaphase)
Metaphase
- Spindle fibers will exert pulling forces tearing the
chromosomes into half particularly at the centromere.
- Tug of war
Anaphase
- splitting of chromosomes forming sister chromatids.
- as the chromatids continue to move towards the
opposite pole, the sister chromatids will arrive at the
opposite pole - cytoskeleton (specifically intermediate
filament) will help reconstruct two new nuclear envelope
which were the vesicles left behind in the cytoplasm.

There is an overlapping stage. This stage will initiate the


infolding of the cell membrane in order to subsequently
perform the second phase of cell division after Mitosis cytokinesis. Will happen as early as anaphase or as late
as telophase depending upon the type of cell.
Cytokinesis
- form around the cell a protein ring called contractile
ring that forms a belt around the cell membrane of the
cell at the region where the chromosomes align during
metaphase plate. When these contractile proteins are
being tightened, the cell membrane will pucker (forming
invagination). These puckering of the cell membrane
form a structure called the cleavage furrow. As cleavage
furrow extends deep into the cell, it will meet with
another cleavage furrow of the opposite side they
separate into two new daughter cells containing two new
nuclei. After cytokinesis, produce two daughter cells
with equal number of chromosomes.
Somatic cell division is considered as equational cell
division.

Gametes (sperm and egg cells)


-specialized cells (only for organismal reproduction)
-these are the cells needed to create a new organism
through the process of fertilization.
-there should be two opposing gametes for fertilization
to occur.
Meiosis
-a special type of cell division that help to maintain the
normal chromsome number of a normal organism. For
humans - a normal human being has 46 number of
chromosomes. 2 sets, 1 from sperm, and 1 from egg.
-Meiosis is longer than Mitosis
- involves two rounds of division which are designated
as Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2
Prophase 1
Metaphase 1
Anaphase 1
Telophase 1
Daughter cells then undergo

Telophase
- arrival of sister chromatids on the opposite pole with
the formation of subsequent nuclear envelope.
- during these stage the chromosome will regress back
into fine structure called chromatin materials.

Prophase 2
Metaphase 2
Anaphase 2
Telophase 2

4 daughter cells with reduced number of chromosomes


as the daughter cells.
Meiosis 1 is longer than Meiosis 2 because Prophase 1
has 5 specific stages performed by the cell.
5 substages that happen during Prophase 1 (Meiosis 1)
1. Leptotene
- pairing of the homologous chromosomes. 46
chromosomes, the cell originally came from a diploid
cell.
Bouquet formation - chromosomes hanging limply
2. Zygotene
- chromosomes become 1, formation of Bivalent or
tetrad. Two homologous chromosomes will be joined
together by a protein called synaptonemal complex in a
process called synapsis. Allow two chromosomes to
behave as one.

- disappearance of nuclear envelope


- things that happen in prophase 1 similar to mitosis.
Metaphase 1
- same process as Metaphase
Anaphase 1
- the chromosomes itself split into two and continue to
move towards the opposite pole.
Telophase 1
-similar process in Mitosis.
2 daughter cells

Meiosis 2 is known as reductional division.


Meiosis 2 produces 4 haploid daughter cells.

3. Pachytene
- crossing over of the telomere happen during this
stage.Exchange of portion of the telomere. Resemble the
small letter x (chiasma/chiasmata - derived from the latin
word letter x 'chi').
- It is significant since traits and characteristics are
inside the chromosomes and exchanged.
- responsible for varied lineage
4. Diplotene
- the synaptonemal complex protein disappear, but the
chromosomes are not completely separated because the
two homologous chromosomes are still joined together
by the chiasmata.
5. Diakinesis
- elongation of chromosomes

Males: all of the product becomes fully functional


Females: only 1 becomes functional and the 3 will
degenerate as polar bodies that support the ovum.
Summary
Stem cell -> mitosis -> 2 daughter cells (1 remain as
stem cell, the other 1 undergo meiosis) -> meiosis 1 -> 2
daughter cells -> meiosis 2 -> 4 haploid daughter cells.

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