A

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
LABORATORY M I U A L

A Project
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Education
The University of Southern California

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Education

by
Marshall E . Treat
January 1958

UMI Number: EP49349

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UMI EP49349
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Ed St 7~7tH
T h is p r o je c t r e p o r t , w r it t e n u n d e r the d ir e c t io n
o f the c a n d id a te s a d v is e r a n d a p p r o v e d by h im ,
has been p resen ted to a n d accep ted by the f a c u lt y
o f the S c h o o l o f E d u c a t io n in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
o f the re q u ire m e n ts f o r the degree o f M a s t e r o f
Science in E d u c a tio n .

Date.

A dviser

Dean

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER

PAGE
PART I

I . THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONSOF TERMS USED . . .

Introduction

...........................

The problem

.................

Statement of the problem

Method of solution

2
2

. . . . . . . . .

..........

. . . . . .

Limitations of m e t h o d ...................

Limitations of the s t u d y .................. 3

Significance of the p r o b l e m ................ 4
Definition of terms .

...........

Physical g e o l o g y

. 5

Physical geology laboratory ...........

. 5

Laboratory manual .......................

Junior college

.........................

Organization of remainder of the study

...

Summary .................................

II. 'THE EDUCATIONAL S E T T I N G ........................ 8

S u m m a r y .........................

12

III. REVIEW OF THE L I T E R A T U R E ..................... 13

Library r e s e a r c h .........................13
Published workbooks andmanuals ........... 13
S u m m a r y .........

14

IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS....................... 15

CHAPTER

PAGE
Summary.................................... 15
Conclusions.................................1?

SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

|

. .

18

PART II
INT RODUCTION...........
I.

S3

M I N E R A L O G Y .................................. 24
Common physical p r o p e r t i e s

.. . S5

C o l o r ...................................... 25
L u s t e r ...........

25

H a r d n e s s .................................26
S t r e a k .................................. 27
.......................

27

...........................

27

Specific gravity
Transparency

Crystal f o r m .............................28
C l e a v a g e .................................28
Fracture

...........

28

Other physical properties .................. 29

Magnetism.................................29
M a l l e a b i l i t y ................... - . . . .

29

Sectility.................................29
T a s t e .................................... 29
O d o r ...............

29

Radioactivity ...........................

29

Fluorescence

29

...........................

CHAPTER

PAGE
Mineral identification

II.

PETROLOGY.................
Classes or groups

...................

33
................. 33

Description and classification

J
I

29

34

Igneous r o c k s .............................. 34
Size of c r y s t a l s ......................... 34
Shape of crystals......................... 35
T e x t u r e .......................

35

Sedimentary r o c k s ...........................36
M e c h a n i c a l ...............................36
C h e m i c a l .................................36
Organic

.............

36

Features of sedimentary rocks ............ 39

Metamorphic rocks . . .

.................... 40

S t r u c t u r e s .................

43

T e x t u r e s .........

43

Size of g r a i n s ...........................44
Shape of g r a i n s ........................... 44
Degree of structure....................... 44
III.

GEOMORPHOLOGY- P H Y S I O G R A P H Y ................... 48
Topographic m a p s ......................... 48
Contour lines ...........................

48

United States Geological Survey .......... 49

Location and direction

........... .4 9

Laboratory m a p s ...........................49

i CHAPTER

PAGE
Laboratory exercises

IV.

...................

50

STRUCTURAL-HISTORICAL GE O L O G Y ................. 54
Structural geology

...................... 54

Historical geology

............. . 54

Laboratory exercises

.................... 54

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
I.
*
|

PAGE
A Tabular Form Used for the Physical
Identification of Minerals ................ 31

II. Illustrating Mineral Determination Tables

. . 32

III. A Tabular Form Used for the Determination

of Igneous R o c k s ......................... -37

IV.

Illustrating Igneous Rocks Determination

Tables . . .

V.

.............................38

A Tabular Form Used for the Identification

of Sedimentary R o c k s .............

VI.

41

Illustrating Sedimentary Rocks Determination

T a b l e s .................

VII.

42

A Tabular Form Used for the Determination

of Metamorphie R o c k s .......................46

VIII.

Illustrating Metamorphie Rocks

Determination T a b l e s .................

IX.
X.
XI.

47

Illustrating Lithilogic Symbols..............

55

Illustrating Geologic Structures

56

..........

Illustrating Laboratory Exercises inBlock

Diagrams.................................. 57

XII.

Illustrating Laboratory Exercises in

Geologic M a p s .............................59

XIII.

Illustrating Laboratory Exercises in

Historical Geology Cross-Sections

........ 60

PART I
THE PROBLEM

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
Introduction. The teaching of a laboratory course
i in physical geology necessitates the use of many explanaj tory and visual devices. The study of rocks and minerals
i

! calls for the use of expository materials, not found in

j
; the ordinary textbook, and charts designed for the
1 determination of rocks and minerals. Many different
kinds of maps, profiles, cross-sections, and explanatory
1 materials are needed for learning the use of topographic
j maps.

In the field of structural geology several sketches,*

block diagrams, profiles, and interpretative techniques

t

j
j

! are necessary for the understanding of this area.

I . THE PROBLEM
Statement of the problem. The present study is
, concerned with the task of preparing a suitable manual
for use in laboratory courses in physical geology.

It

has two main purposes:

1. To provide the information necessary for the
unit under study,
2 . To provide the student with problems and
materials needed in order to put into practice
the theoretical concepts involved.
It is intended that each student be furnished with

;
j
j
!
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I

a laboratory manual*

From it, outside study assignments

are made and exercises are done in the laboratory.

Method of solution. The main sources of informa
tion used in the development of a suitable manual were
obtained from a study of the literature available in the
libraries, other similar manuals published, and the
author's materials now in use in laboratory situations.
|

Limitations of method. An investigation of

| library materials uncovered very little helpful informaj tion necessary or applicable to the preparation of a
i

I laboratory manual in

:
| dealt
i

primarily

geology.

All material examined

with the lecture type

| of the subject.Some useful material

of presentation

was gleaned from

i
I

j
j
!

: other manuals and workbooks in the field.

Most of the

: material contained in the workbook or manual was derived

1 from, and more or less limited to, the author's previous
1
work and familiarity with geology laboratory courses as
; taught in various junior colleges and universities in the
: southern California area.

1
*
I
!
i

Limitations of the study. There are several

:

: limitations to this project:

j
i

(1) amount of content to be

covered in the course; (3) amount of time to be devoted

to each unit of study; (3) type of physical facilities;

(4) number of students per laboratory; (5) amount of

4
money available for the purchase of materials and equip
ment; and (6) amount of materials and equipment on hand.
I

Significance of the -problem. In any laboratory

I course in geology, the above-mentioned limitations play

I a large role in controlling the type of course given.
There are several manuals and workbooks published, but
j these are usually designed with a certain school or
, physical situation in mind.

At Cerritos Junior College,

! Norwalk, California, a newly created junior college

i
| operating during its first year or so on a high school
;
campus, the laboratory course in geology is and will be
i
j

, faced with minimum physical facilities, practically no

; material on hand, a limited budget, and maximum number of

students.

Thus, a laboratory manual was devised

encompassing the most essential portions of i^he fields

of geology, working within these limitations.

The most

important phases in a geology laboratory course are:

! (1) the study and identification of minerals; (2) the
study and identification of rocks; (3) the study and use
; of topographic maps, including types of landforms; (4)
the study of structural geology; and (5) interpretation
of geological history. Other phases of the science can
i
' probably be covered more adequately in the lecture part
1 of the course

II.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

To clarify terms that will be used throughout the

j project, it is well to define them.

Physical geology. A science dealing with the
j
j earth:

its composition; its physical make-up; and its

! surface features and the geological laws governing their

origin and development.
i
i

Physical geology laboratory. A class meeting, of

: three hours1 duration, during which time various problems

I of a geologic nature are investigated i.e., minerals,
! rocks, maps, structural and historical geology.

j
Laboratory manual. A book of materials including
the necessary sketches, diagrams, problems, and illustra: tive devices for use by the students in a physical geology
i

laboratory.
j

Junior college. A public school of the secondary

! grade comprised of students in the thirteenth and four-

teenth grades. These grades are comparable to the freshman

and sophomore years at the universities.
i

III.

ORGANIZATION OF REMAINDER OF THE STUDY

I
I
I

;
The problem,itsimportance, the related investiga- I
!
tions, and method ofprocedure

are stated inChapter

I.

I
j

Chapter II relates the educational area and objectives

relative to the study and problem.

Chapter III presents

an analysis of the pertinent literature covered by the

investigation.

Chapter IV summarizes and concludes Part I.

The remaining chapters in Part II comprise the

manual itself and the order in which the various units of
study were covered.

Chapter I deals with the study and

the identification of minerals by the investigation of

their physical and crystallographie properties.

Chapter

II relates the study of igneous, metamorphie, and sedi

mentary rocks by analyzing their minerals, textures,
structures, and composition.

Topographic maps and

various kinds of landforms are contained in the unit

i
covered by Chapter III.

Chapter IV handles the portion

of the course concerned with structural relationships of

the earth's crust and the interpretation of geologic
history.

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!

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i

Summary. The problem of this investigation was to

emerge with a suitable geology laboratory manual to be
used by the students of Cerritos Junior College, a newly

created school in its first year of operation on a high

school campus.

The manual was devised to meet the needs

of the students and controlled by the limitations inherent

in such a situation.

The author's personal experiences

and devices were the predominant source of material for

7
the manual.

However, several ideas were developed from

other manuals and workbooks.

CHAPTER II

THE EDUCATIONAL SETTING

Many meanings of secondary education have been
brought forth in recent years, but most imply the faith
that our nation has in education since the founding of
our country.

Before the first world war, a group of

distinguished schoolmen defined the goals of secondary

! education, and the United States Bureau of Education
i
! published this definition in 1918:
j
i
3

:
(
'

Consequently, education in a democracy, both

within and without the school, should develop in each
individual the knowledge, interest, ideals, habits
and powers whereby he will find his place and use
that place to shane both himself and society toward
ever nobler ends. 1
The junior college has been in continuous operationi

! inthe state of California since 1910.

In 1907, a

; permissive law permitted various kinds of high school

*
. districts through "upward extension to offer postgraduate

i
t
i
j
j

studies approximating the first two years of the univer' sity. Fresno Junior College began its first session in
!

! 1910 with twenty-eight students.

maintained at local expense.

These colleges were

The Ballard Act was passed

j
i

in 1917, providing for state and county support.

The

1
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary
. Education, Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education,
i
; Bulletin No. 35 (Washington, D, C.: United States Bureau !
I of Education, 1918).

district junior college law of 1931 did not supersede the

Ballard Act.

As a result, junior colleges in California

operate under two different laws.

Junior colleges in California are considered as'
part of the secondary educational structure. The aims,
goals, and objectives of junior college education do not
differ from those in other phases of secondary education.
Recently, the California Association of Junior Colleges
was called upon to state what they conceived their
purposes and objectives to be.

In response to this

request, these statements were adopted and presented by

the Association:
1.

The junior college is committed to the

democratic way of life.

8.

The junior college recognizes the individual

man as the highest value of the world and
universe.

3.

The junior college is committed to the policy

of granting to the individual man the maximum
amount of freedom, personal initiative, and
adventure consistent with equal opportunities
on the part of his fellows.

4.

The junior college is committed to the policy

of providing for all the children of all the
people, post-high school education which will
meet their needs. This includes the training
of adults as well as youth.

In accordance with this statement of basic prin

ciples, junior colleges have six specific purposes or
objectives. They are as follows:
1.

Terminal Education--A complete training should

be given to those students who will finish
their period of education in the junior
college. This training which is commonly

referred to as terminal education should be

designed to achieve occupational competence,
civic competence, and personal adequacy.
2.

General Education Every Junior college student

should be given that training which will pre
pare him to function effectively as a member
of a family, a community, a state, a nation,
and a world.

3.

Orientation and Guidance It is the specific

responsibility of every Junior college to
assist its students to "find themselves. A
program of training and guidance should be
provided so that every student may discover
his aptitudes, choose a life work, and prepare
for the successful pursuit of such work.

4.

Lower Division Training Each Junior college

should provide lower division or the first two
years of senior college work for the limited
number of students who plan to transfer to a
university after completing two years in Junior
college. This training should be broad enough
to include the lower division requirements in
the liberal arts, scientific, engineering, and
professional fields.

5.

6.

i
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S
!
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Adult Education Every Junior college should

!
cooperate with other public educational institu-J
tions in providing instruction to meet the
i
needs of adults living in the region. The
I
program of training should include cultural
I
and vocational education.
j
t
Removal of Matriculation Deficiencies--Junior
;
colleges should provide opportunity for
students who failed to meet entrance require
ments to some university to remove such defi
ciencies and thus to qualify for admission to
:
the higher institutions of their choice.2

A college course in geology has many objectives

2George D. Strayer, A Report of a Survey of the

Needs of California in Higher Education (Sacramento:
California State Department of Education, 1948), pp. 5-6.

!
j

which serve as a part of the specific purposes of the

junior college. The objectives of a geology course would

I
'
| be part of: (1) the general educational phase, (S) the
I lower division training for transfer students, and (3)
adult education.
An understanding of the world, its physical
make-up, its distribution of land masses and landforms,
and, particularly, its natural resources is often a help-

ful bit of information in understanding the ways in which

; countriesbehavetoward oneanother.
This type of
!
j knowledge, to the author, makes one a more effective
i
citizen, not only in his own country, but of the world.

j
j
j
*

An appreciation of mother earth and an understanding of

her quirks also enhances the students1 everyday lives.

|
Geology courses as given by the junior colleges are J
s
j
! accepted, without exception, byall of the universities
I

j
\ in the state,
!j students take

as equivalent totheir courses.

Many

'

these courses as science requirements,

!
i
ij

'However, there are many majors in the science field who,

i

;upon transferring to a university, find that their junior

|college training, for the most part, equals and, in many

,
*
t
jcases, is superior to the lower division training inthe
i
j
!
|universities.
i

ii
i
In many of the junior colleges in the southern
!
:
i
.California area, geology courses are offered as an extended!

jtday

course. These courses areextremely

popular with

!
1

12
adults and are generally filled to capacity.

Many of the

night students are non-matriculating and may take several

sequence courses because of interest.
The laboratory manual devised for these geology
courses was intended to aid the student in many phases of
science in which visual material is almost a necessity
for the understanding of the concepts involved.
Summary. Junior college education is a part of
secondary education in the state of California.
colleges operate under two different laws:

Junior

(1) as an

extension of the high school; and (2) as a separate

i
i

j
j

j junior college district. The objectives of junior college j

Ij

education are designed for the democratic processes, the

I
i
| individual person, and for all the children of all the
i
; people. Junior colleges have six specific objectives

ij

or purposes:

'

(1) terminal education; (2) general educa-

>
<

i
j

*|

I
; tion; (3) orientation and guidance; (4) lower division

I training; (5) adult education; and (6) removal of

i
I
matriculation deficiencies. A college course in geology

;
I
!
i

j should fit in with these objectives, particularly general

| education, lower division training, and adult education.

j The laboratory manual devised in this study was intended

j
I
j

| to serve as an aid in certain phases of the course and,

j thus, be used as an instrument in achieving these

objectives.

CHAPTER III
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Library research* Many books, periodicals, etc.,
were found in the investigation of library resources.

However, these invariably dealt with the subject of

geology itself or f,how to teach various units in the
subject.

These were all slanted toward the lecture

presentation of the subject, and none was found to be

pertinent for use in a laboratory manual.
i
!
Published workbooks and manuals. Three manual!
| workbooks were available to the author for study. The
I
,
I publication by Putnam and Webb was very well organized

j
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|
1
1
j
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!
!
j

I in that it contained only material pertinent to the

|
i
;
laboratory and considered other material as more properly
i
; belonging to the lecture portion of the course. This
i
i manual had four phases: (1) mineralogy; (2) petrology
|
: (rocks); (3) structural geology; and (4) geomorphology
! (landforms).

Clements2 mimeographed manual, used by

!
!
|
\

i students at The University of Southern California, had

'

i ________ __
'
1
-MWilliam C . Putnam and Robert W . Webb, Laboratory
Exercises in Physical Geology (Stanford, California:
Stanford University Press, 1945),

I
\
;
j

i
^Thomas Clements, A Physical Geology Laboratory
! Manual (Los Angeles: University of Southern California.
!
1 1942).

I
i
*

' ----

---

essentially the same hind of organization, hut with

different emphases on various units. The units on rocks,
minerals, and geomorphology were stressed adequately,
hut the unit on structural geology was not emphasised very
strongly.

Lugn's

workbook is designed primarily as a

study aid for a year-course in geology, which includes

historical geology as well as physical geology.

Part I

of this publication is devoted to the geologic processes

responsible for the evolution of the landscape.

Part II

deals with geologic maps, structural geology, and a unit

j
i
j

j on fossils which is usually considered in the second

| semester of geology.

Part III contains problems dealing

| with the interpretation of the geology of the United Statesj

j through the study of geologic folios.

|
Summary. Published material in the form of books,
I
; periodicals, etc., was practically non-existent. Many
|
|resources were available insofar as the academic presenta-

j
\

i
!

j tion of the subject and technical knowledge were concerned.j

jNothing was found through the library investigation
j pertinent to the preparation of a suitable manual.
;manual-workbooks were studied

from the viewpoint

|
Three

of

!
i

;organization of the material.These were found to be

j
I

!very satisfactory and were generally very helpful.

i
i
|--------

!
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j

i
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rv

;
A. L. Lugn, Workbook in GeneralGeoloKv
Iowa: William C. Brown Company,"155ST.'

(Dubucrae,

I
j

CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This chapter is the summary of Part I and will
include the conclusions derived from this investigation.

After reviewing the literature available on the subject,

including library materials, other manuals, and personal

j
j

work, the results were used in the formation of a

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|

laboratory manual for use by students in geology.

i
I
'
)

I.

SUMMARY

*!

I
!
Many books have been written on the subject of
;
i
i
j geology in general, but none was found to be very helpful !
<
'
i
i in the designing of a laboratory manual. Other manuals
;

j were found to be much better sources of information,

: particularly in the sequence of the presentation of the

!
Most of the material contained i

j subject in the laboratory.

I
*
i
j in the derived manual came from previous work done by the !
S
; author.
j
The problem of this investigation was not to be a
i

finished product to be used in all laboratory courses,

! but designed to fit a specific set of conditions.

;
j

Cerritos

j Junior College, in which the manual will be used, is a

; new institution operating for the first year or two oh a

i
j high school campus. The high school, not having been

i
i

| designed to accommodate college laboratory courses,

j
j

16
particularly of this type, had many limitations. The
| junior college district also had its limits of operation.
| Physical facilities are rather poor in that students must
i
i

| work in arm chairs rather than at tables. No original

material or equipment was on hand.
to be observed.

A limited budget had

Thus, a manual was devised encompassing

the essential fields of geology and working within these

!
i limitations.
!
Any course given in the junior college should
implement and enhance the goals andobjectives of second-

ary education and, specifically, junior college education.

Junior colleges are in operation under two different laws
t

I in the stateof California, but the purposesand objec!

I tives of all juniorcolleges are the same. Junior
i

*
!
i
j
|

; colleges are committed to democracy, the worth of the

j

individual, and free public education to all the children ,

{

I of allthe people. Junior colleges

i

poses and objectives.

s to a geology course.

have six basic pur-

Three of these are very pertinent

The laboratory manual was designed

to aid the student in the phases of the course in which

l
: visual material is necessary, and serving as an imple-

| mentation toward achieving the objectives, particularly

| in the general educational, university transferral, and

i
! adult educational phases of the goals of a junior college.

17
II. CONCLUSIONS
1.

There was a need for a laboratory manual in

the geology courses at Cerritos Junior College.

2.

The laboratory manual was devised taking into

account the limitations imposed upon the class
room situation.
t

3.

4.

The laboratory manual was geared to beginning

students of geology.

J
!
J

The laboratory manual was designed in the

j
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l

following order:

(1) explanatory material

|
i
needed for the identification of minerals,
!
i
t
and mineral identification charts; (2) explana- \
i
i
tory material needed for the identification
j
!
of rocks, and rock identification charts;
j
i
(3) explanatory material needed for the
i
understanding of topographic maps and the

understanding of the geologic processes

responsible for the evolution of the landscape, ;
and problems designed for the interpretation of i
i
the foregoing (topographic maps are too large
to be included in the manual); and (4) explana
tory material, sketches, diagrams, and problems j
involving geologic structure and an historical
interpretation.

I
;

SELECTED ANHOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.

BOOKS

Bateman, A. M. The Formation of Mineral Deposits. New

York: John Wiley and Sons, 1951.
A rather technical hook used often in economic
geology classes as a textbook.
Bogue, Jesse Parker. The Community College. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1950.
A comprehensive publication covering all aspects
of the functions, history, and future of the community
(junior) college in the United States. Used as a
textbook in the course of junior college education
at The University of Southern California.
Daly, R. A. Our Mobile Earth. New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1936.
|
A comprehensive discussion of the movements of the
I
earth*s crust.
I

|
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j
j

|Hills, E .S .Outlines
of StructuralGeology. London:
j
Metheun and Company; New York:
John Wiley and Sons,
|
1953.
j
A concise, well-illustrated treatment of the
|
structural features of the earth's crust.

j
j
j

| Lahee, F. H. Field Geology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book 1

I
Company, 1952.
i
I
A "classic" in the science of geology. Gives
!
excellent descriptions of folds and faults, with

!
emphasis on types of structure that affect economic
j
|
geologic work.
s
I
I
I Longwell, ChesterR . ,and Richard F.Flint. Introduction j
I
Geology. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1955.
\
!
An excellent textbook in the field of physical
1
|
geology. Used in many of the junior colleges and
|
i
universities
in
the
southern
California
area.
i
i
j
|Lovering, T. S. Minerals in World Affairs. New York:
i
I
Prentice-Hall, 1944.
|
|
A well-presented dissertation, if somewhat out
I
dated, illustrating the impact natural resources have j
|
in international relations.
j
Pirsson, L. V., and Adolph Knopf. Rocks and Rock Minerals.!
New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1947.
I

20

A good academic discussion of the origin, occurence,

structures, textures, and associations of rocks and
minerals.
Raisz, Erwin. General Cartography. New York: McGrawHill Book Company, 1948.
A discussion covering the different kinds of maps,
their uses and cons time tion.
' Rohinson, A. H. Elements of Cartography. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1953.
A well-illustrated hook thoroughly covering all
the fundamentals of maps.
l

Williams, Howel, E. J. Turner, and C. M. Gilbert,

Petrography. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and
Company, 1954.
A very fine textbook encompassing all the fields
of rocks and minerals.
B.

PAMPHLETS

| Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education.

I
Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, Bulletin
|
No. 35. Washington, D. 0.: United States Bureau of
|
Education, 1918.
Goals of secondary education as determined by the
!
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Educa
tion.
C.

PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS

McConnell, T. R., T. C. Holy, and H. H. Semans.

A
Restudy of the Needs of California in Higher Education.!
Sacramento: California State Department of Education,
]
1955.
|
|
A publication by the California State Department of i
;
Education, listing the needs
ofhighereducation in
j
|
California.

i
j

HThe Public Junior College,'1 The Fifty-Fifth Yearbook of

j
I
the National Society for the Study ofEducation,
i
!
Part I. Washington, D. C., 1956.
!
|
A complete survey of all phases
of junior college j
I
operations.
i
Strayer, George D. A Report of a Survey of the Needs of
:

SI
California in Higher Education. Sacramento:
California State Department of Education, 1948.
A publication by the California State Department of
Education, listing the needs of higher education in
CaliforniaD.

PUBLISHED LABORATORY MANUALS

Clements, Thomas. A Physical Geology Laboratory Manual. i

Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1948.
Mimeographed geology manual used by students at
I
the University of Southern California.
!
Lugn, A. L. Workbook in General Geology. Dubuque, Iowa:
William C. Brown Company, 1950.
Study aid for a year-course in geology, including
historical geology as well as physical geology.

I
!
j
:

Putnam, William C., and Robert W. Webb. Laboratory

I
Exercises in Physical Geology. Stanford, California: j
Stanford University Press, 1945.
j
Very well organized laboratory manual, containing
1
only material pertinent to the laboratory and consider
ing other material as more properly belonging to the
!
lecture portion of the course.
j

PART II
A PHYSICAL GEOLOGY LABORATORY MANUAL

INTRODUCTION
This laboratory manual is intended to include only
those matters that are properly the concern of the
laboratory.

For convenience, however, it presents a

systematic discussion of the physical properties of

minerals, rocks, characteristics and uses of topographic
maps, and structural geology.
The arrangement of subjects covered in these
exercises does not follow that of any particular textbook.

Moreover, the order need not be followed but may

be readily varied to suit the needs of the students,

instructor, and textbook.
|

Tabular forms to be filled in by the student are

I used in the determination of unknown specimens of rocks

| and minerals. Interpretative exercises are used in the
i deciphering of geologic history and structure. The
i
i
j question and answer method is used in the study of maps.

CHAPTER I
MINERALOGY
(The Study of Minerals)
Minerals may be identified by their distinctive
physical properties, optical properties under a polarizing
microscope, X-ray analysis, and chemical analysis.
Physical properties are those shown by minerals
when they are tested by physical means.

Common physical

| properties include the following:

Color

Transparency

Luster

Crystal form

Hardness

Cleavage/fracture

|
Streak
Specific gravity
i
I
Additional physical properties which may be
!

| diagnostic, but which are not common, include:

|

Magnetism

Odor

Malleability

Radioactivity

Sectility

Fluorescence

I
i
j

Taste
Mineral determination by physical properties

is a

| convenient method because little equipment is needed for

i
| testing, and because the properties of each mineral
| usually are distinctive.
i

The nature of the common physical properties

shown

Iby minerals, and which are used in their identification,

25
are outlined below.

Carefully read and clearly understand

these properties before attempting to determine the

minerals in the laboratory trays.
COMMON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
i
Color.

The wave length of light reflected from a

mineral causes its color.

Color may be the most distinc

tive property of a mineral.

Some minerals are colorless

(calcite, var. ieelandspar), blue (azurite), green

Always remember that different specimens of the same

j
j
!
j

mineral may have different colors.

(malachite), yellow (sulphur),, or black (magnetite).

Luster.

The luster of a mineral is determined by

;
j
i

| its appearance in reflected light. Luster is not a

:

i
I
; function of color, but of transparency, refractivity, and .
I
!
j atomic structure. Important kinds of luster include:
:

j (1) metallic, and (2) nonmetallic.

Metallic luster:

This luster is shown by allv

| metals. A mineral is not considered to have a metallic

i
luster unless it is also opaque, transmitting no light

!
j
!

through the edges of thin splinters.

Nonmetallic luster:
j

Included here are all other

kinds of luster, such as:

I
I
j

Adamantine:

brilliant surface (diamond)

Resinous:

surface like resin (sphalerite)

26
Greasy:

oily or greasy surface (talc)

Vitreous

like a pane of glass (quartz)

Pearly:

mother of pearl luster (gypsum)

Silky:

asbestos

Icy or watery:

cryolite

Waxy:

serpentine

Dull:

absence of luster (magnesite)

Hardness. Hardness, or the resistance of a

mineral to scratching, is determined with comparison to
a standard set of hardness minerals (termed Moh's Hardness
Scale). To make sure that a mineral has actually been
scratched, rub the thumb over the presumed scratch.

If

the object believed to be the harder of the two has

actually made a scratch, it will be visible after the
powder has been rubbed away.

Approximate hardness may be

determined by the use of a knife-, the fingernail, a piece

of glass, and a copper coin, as indicated below.
Moh*s Scale

Approximate Means

1.

Talc:

fingernail scratches easily

2.

Gypsum:

fingernail barely scratches

3.

Calcite:

copper coin barely scratches

4.

Fluorite:

knife easily scratches

5.

Apatite:

barely scratched by knife

6 . Orthoclase:

easily scratches glass

7.

much harder than above

Quartz:

27

8.

Topaz:

9.

Corundum:

11

11

1 0 . Diamond:

11

*'

**

much harder than above

Streak.

The streak of a mineral refers to the

i

color of the powder formed by the mineral when it is

scratched on unglazed porcelain.

The color of a mineral

| may have no relation to its streak.

For example, black

hematite gives a red streak; black limonite gives a

yellow streak; and yellow pyrite gives a greenish-black
streak. For minerals less than six in hardness, the
!
j powder obtained with a knife scratch can be usedagainst

j
!
i

!
I

a white background.

iI

I
Specific gravity. The ratio of a mineral to an
I
: equal volume ofwater determines its specific gravity.
I
! This becomes an important physical property when
a

1
i
;
i
!

| mineral is much heavier or lighter than ordinaryminerals, j

i
I
; The average specific gravity of minerals is about 2.6,
j
| although it ranges from 1.0 (ice) to 19.3 (gold).

ii
|

Transparency. Transparency refers to the amount

j of light transmitted through a mineral.

If an object can

i
|
;

j be seen distinctly through a mineral, it is transparent.

i
| When light is transmitted and also refracted, sothat an
i
!
t
j object cannot be seen through the mineral, then it is

j
!
]
I
i
j

| translucent. A mineral which transmits no light

is

I
i

28

opaque.
Crystal form. The external form displayed by
I minerals is termed a crystal.

Each crystal is a solid

| bounded by plane faces and sharp angles. The crystal

faces always meet in characteristic angles, and these are
an external experssion of the atomic arrangement of the
particles.

Crystal forms may be isometric, tetragonal,

hexagonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, or triclinic.

Cleavage. Some minerals break along definite,
smooth planes, called cleavage planes.

i
j
1

These planes are

j generally parallel to the atomic lattice of the mineral.

Cleavage surfaces must be distinguished from plane faces

! of crystals. The former result when a mineral is broken;

i
!
; the latter are because of the growth of the crystal.
I
Cleavage may be described with respect to (a) its crystal
i
i
j direction, or (b) the ease with which it is obtained and
I
|
the smoothness ofits surface.
Such terms as perfect,
!
i distinct,imperfect, and difficultare used in reference
i
! to cleavage.
;
i

!
I
!
!

I
i
!
'

Fracture . Minerals which have no cleavage are said

j to fracture.

Since it is not controlled by the planes of

I atoms, it differs from cleavage inthat ithas no

controlling direction. Such terms as rough, uneven,

|
| splintery,conchoidal,and irregular are used in referring!
i

|
j

to fracture.
OTHER PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Magnetism. Magnetism is the property of being
attracted by a magnet. Some minerals are natural magnets.
i

Malleability. Minerals that can be hammered into

i
I

thin sheets are malleable.

Sectility. This applies to minerals that can be

j cut with a knife but do not powder when cut.

j

Taste. Some minerals are water soluble and have

j
(

| more or less a distinct taste.

Some tastes are;

acid,

| alkaline, bitter, pungent, and salty.

|
Odor. Minerals have no odor, but rubbing, moisten- '
!
j
! ing, crushing, or heating may causedistinctive
odors.
!
i
t
_
!
j Somecommon odors are; argillaceous (clayey),bituminous ,
i

I (coal), fetid (rotten eggs), arsenous (garlic), selenius

I
| (horseradish), and sulphurous.
Radioactivity. Not used in the laboratory.
Fluorescence. Not used in the laboratory.
MINERAL IDENTIFICATION
j
i
Using the chart, illustrated by Table I, and the
Mineral Determination Table, illustrated by Table II,

30
catalogue the physical properties of the mineral specimens.
The table is so arranged that from two readily determinable
properties (luster and hardness) the minerals which the
unknown may represent are quickly limited to only a few.
The mineral is determined then by studying the other
properties listed in the table, keeping in mind that each
mineral has a distinctive set of properties possessed by
that mineral only, and by none other.

In those cases

where more than one color or luster is shown in the table

as characteristics for a mineral, the first one listed is

j
j

generally regarded as more typical,

j
The following procedure is recommended for using
i
! the tables for the determination of unknown minerals:
!
J
I
1. Determine the luster of the unknown mineral,

j
i
!
i
I
j

I
;
1
|
i
i
!
!
;
I

classifying it first as metallic or nonmetallic.;

2. Determine the hardness of the specimen.

j
|
3. Turn to that part of the table giving the
1
i
i
luster (metallic or nonmetallic) and hardness
!
j
corresponding to the values determined above.
!
I
Some minerals may be found in both categories. !
i

i
|
i

4.

Compare the other properties of the unknown

with those in the table until a mineral is

|
i

found having comparable properties with those

\
'

|
t
!

of the specimen.

5. All listed properties of the specimen should

agree with those in the table.

I
1

-TABLE
A

TABULAR

FORM

USED

FOR

THE

PHYSICAL

DETERMINATION

OF

MINERALS
\

DETERMINATION

1
2

3
4
5
6
7

MINERALS

Lab . Sec. No.

Student
Mineral
No.

OF

Color

Luster

Streak

Hardness

Specific
gravity

Set No.
Other diagnostic
properties

Name

TABLE
ILLUSTRATING

MINERAL

MINERALS
H
1.5-2.5

WITH

Color

Luster

Streak

Yellow

Greasy

Lemon

Resinous

Yellow

II
DETERMINATION

NONMETALLIC

TABLES

LUSTER

S.G.

Remarks

1.9-2.1

Massive, burns.

Name
SULPHUR

(s)

White

MINERALS
H
2.5-3.0

WITH

METALLIC

LUSTER

Color

Luster

Streak

S.G.

Golden

Metal.

Golden

15.6-

Malleable and

yellow

19.3

sectile. Never

yellow

Remarks

tarnishes.

Name
GOLD

CHAPTER II
PETROLOGY
(The Study of Rocks)
The laboratory exercises in petrology are divided
into three parts, each corresponding to one of the three
major groups or classes of rocks.

Before working on

these exercises, the student should review carefully

and understand clearly all material presented in lecture
and reading assignments.
From the standpoint of petrology, a rock may be
!.defined as an aggregate of minerals.

Rocks generally are

'

composed of more than one mineral.

Some rocks may con

sist of only one mineral, while in others, such as

i
| volcanic glass, there may be no discernable minerals
| present.
i
I
ji
Classes or groups. According to their modes of
.j origin, there are three principal classes of rocks, termed
I
Igneous, sedimentary, and me tamorphic. These are further
divided into subclasses.
i
Glass

Subclass

Igneous
I

Plutonic
Volcanic
Hypabyssal

,
Class

34
Subclass

Sedimentary
Mechanical
Chemical
Organic
Metamorphic
Foliated
Non-foliated

Description and classification. The data needed

for the description and classification of each class of
rocks are summarized in the following pages.

i
j

This

information will serve as a guide to the exercises on

| each rock class; additional data with respect to the terms I

I
j
! will he found in the textbook and lecture notes.
|
I
i
I
i
|
IGNEOUS ROCKS
*
I
I
;i
<1
!

Igneous rocks are formed by the crystallization of j

| a magma.

Such rocks m y be intrusive into pre-existing

: sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic rocks, or they may

i be extrusive on the surface of the earth as lava flows

!
i
i
!

or volcanic ejecta.

These rocks are characterized by

j
i
j
i

interlocking crystals; they are massive, unstratified

! (except for thin flows), and unfossiliferous.
1

t
j

'
Size of crystals. Only approximate determinations

| are necessary on the basis of the average grain size.

If

i the average grain size is over five millimeters, it is

| termed coarse-grained; if between one millimeter and five

35
millimeters, it is medium-grained; and if less than one
millimeter, it is fine-grained.

Shape of crystals. Shape refers to the degree to

which a mineral grain possesses crystal faces.

If

entirely bounded by crystal faces, the grain is called

euhedral; if only partially bounded, it is subhedral; and
if no crystal faces are seen, it is anhedral.
j

Texture. Texture is determined by the size, shape,

S and interrelations of the mineral grains.

I
j include:
Granitic:

Texture terms

equi-dimensional, subhedral to euhedral

grains readily determined with a hand lens or the naked

eye.

j!

Porphyritic:

phenocrysts (large euhedral crystals) ;

;
! in a distinctly finer (aphanitic)groundmass ormatrix.
;
!
I
i
Aphanitic: grains of the groundmass too small to
!
! be determined with a hand lens; of microscopic or subt
i
| microscopic size. Ifphenocrysts are present, it is
j
porphyriticor a porphyry.

;
i
j
'

j
Pegmatitie:
euhedral to subhedral crystals with an
|
I
Iextreme variation in grain size; normally some of the

)crystals will be extremely large.

!
i
j
i

Glassy:

rock made up entirely of glass.

Pyroclastic:

!volcanic vents.

rocks composed of material blown from

The following procedure is recommended for using

the table in the determination of unknown igneous rocks
(Table III).
i

1.

Determine the texture of the rock.

Z.

Determine the types of essential minerals in

the rock, and the proportion of the minerals.

3.

Determine which accessory minerals are present,

4.

and the dominant one.

Compare the characteristics of the unknown

I
j

rock with those on the table and name the

rock (illustrated by Table IV).

!
!

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Mechanical.

!
! sedimentary
;

(Detrical or clastic rocks). Many

rocks are formed by the accumulation of

!
i
|

j
j
i

I fragmental materials which have been deposited in basins

j of deposition by such agents of erosion as running water,

s
;

I
i

; wind, Ice, and the oceans.

Following deposition, these

: materials are converted into solid rock by compaction or

! by cementation. The important cementing materials are

i
! silica, calcium carbonate, and iron oxide.

\
1

I
Chemical. These sedimentary rocks are largely
|
| made up of chemical materials which accumulated by

j
!
j

I precipitation or by evaporation.

Organic.

Some sedimentary rocks represent the

TABLE-

TABULAR

FORM

USED

FOR

DETERMINATION
Student

Rock Shape of
No* crystals
1

THE

OF

III

DETERMINATION

IGNEOUS

OF

IGNEOUS

ROCKS

Lab. Sec. No.

Size of
crystals

Texture

Structure

ROCKS

Essential
minerals

Set No.

Accessory
minerals

Name

TABLE

ILLUSTRATING

IGNEOUS

IGNEOUS
Essential
minerals

IV

ROCKS

DETERMINATION

ROCKS

Orthoclase dominantt ortho/plagioQuartz

No Quartz

TABLES

Quartz

Plagioclase dominant

No Qtz.

No Olivine

Olivine

Usual
Accessory
Occurence

Muscovite
Biotite
Hornblende

Biotite
Hornblende
Pyroxene

Pyrroxene
Hornblende
!

minerals
Usual
texture
Deep
Granitic:

Granite

Syenite

seated

Shallow
Aphanitic Rhyolite
flows

Trachyte

Quartz
Monzon- Monzonite
ite

Quartz
Latite

Latite

Gabbro

Basalt

Olivine
Gabbro

Olivine
Basalt

accumulation of the bodies of organisms (corals, diatoms,

peat, etc.) that lived in fresh or salt water.
Features of sedimentary rocks.
Structures:
Stratification:

This is the characteristic

layered structure of sedimentary rocks.

Each layer (bed, stratum) is a tabular
or lenticular unit distinctive from
!

adjacent beds.
Lamination:
|
!

|
j
|

Stratification very well developed,;

with individual beds or laminae very thin.

Massive:

Stratification poorly developed or

absent.
Other structures:

See lecture notes and text-

i
'

book for details of:

graded bedding,

cross-bedding, ripple

marks, concretions,

oolitic, etc.

Textures:

Interrelations of the size and shape of

|
;the mineral grains.
j

Mechanical sediments:

The size of the grains

determines the coarseness or

fineness of

!
the rock, while the grains are also
described according to their degree of
roundness.
Chemical sediments:

Some chemical sediments

have a crystalline texture.

Cementing materials:

Quartz and calcite

usually give a white color to the rocks,

while limonite gives brown, tan, or buff
colors, and hematite ordinarily yields a
reddish tone.
The following procedure is recommended for using
the chart (Table V) and table (Table VI) in the determina
tion of unknown sedimentary rocks.
1.

Determine

3. Determine

the structure of the rock.

the texture of the rock.

3.

Determine the size and shape of the grains.

4.

Determine the color and cementing material.

5.

Identify the mineral and rock fragments.

6.

Compare the characteristics of the unknown

specimen with

'

i
!

those on the table and name the

rock.

METAMOBFEIC ROCKS

!
,

i
i
i

Metamorphic rocks are formed in the solid state by

j
j

the recrystallization of pre-existing rocks which have

I been subjected to various combinations of

pressure, heat,

j and chemical fluids existing below the surface of the

| earth.

They are characterized by interlocking crystals,

and traces ofthe

preserved.

original textures andstructures may

be

TABLE'

A TABULAR FORM USED FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

DETERMINATION
Stud ent

Lab

()F

SI3DIMENTARI ROCKS

Sec, No.

Rock Shape o; Size of Texture i Struct Color Identifiable Cement

grains
ure
minerals
No. grains

Set No.

Name of rock

TABLE VI
ILLUSTRATING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

MECHANICAL

Name of particle

(OR

CLASTIC)

Grain size in mm.

Boulder

Over 256

Cobble

64 - 256

DETERMINATION

SEDIMENTARY

Texture

TABLES

ROCKS

Name of rock
Boulder conglomerate
Cobble

11

Pebble

11

Granule

Coarse
Pebble

Granule

- F -

4-64

i
1

(All breccia if angular)

Course sand

0.5 - 2.0

Medium

11

.25 - 0.5

Fine

"

.06 - .25

Fine
n
(All grit if angular)

Silt

.06 - .004

Siltstone or shale

Clay

.004 or less

Coarse sandstone
Medium

Medium

11

Fine
Claystone or shale

43
Structures.
Foliation:

A structure known as foliation, which

is brought about by the reorientation of

minerals at right angles to the stress, may
form at the time of metamorphism.

Foliation

gives to these rocks the property of splitting

along parallel or sub-parallel planes.

These

rocks are called "foliates.

Non-foliation:

Metaxnorphic rocks that do not have

foliation.

This feature indicates a different

origin than pressure for the rock.

Meta:

The prefix "meta" is often used in geologic

literature for rocks that have been subjected

to only slight degrees of metamorphism.

Such

terms as meta-sediments or meta-volcanics are

used.
Textures.

Textural terms refer to the relations

of the mineral grains.

The suffix blastic is used to

designate all metamorphic textures brought about by

recrystallization.
Crystals having no orientation:
Granoblastie: Analogous to granitic. Granulose, with large-to-medium-grained,
equidimensional crystals.
Hornfels:

Granulose with a very fine-grained

44

'{

texture.
Crystals with orientation:
Lipidoblastic: Tabular or leafy minerals
grouped into parallel or sub-parallel
planes.

Nematoblastic: Needle or rod-like crystals

forming sub-parallel planes.
!

Crystals with or without orientation:

Porphyroblastie:

Analogous to porphyritic.

Large euhedral-to-subhedral crystals in a

|
I
!
i
!
!
|

finer-grained groundmass.
Size of grains. Same as for igneous rocks.
Shape of grains.

Same as for igneous rocks.

j
j
!

I
;
1
[

Degree of structure. The technical structures are

| determined and defined in terms of foliation.

j
I

I
|

Foliated:
Slaty:

Slaty structure depends upon the

!
|

parallel orientation of micaceous minerals

in fine-grained rocks.

i
!
!
;
|

Schistose: Like the slaty structure, except

that it occurs in coarser-grained rocks.
Gneissose: A composite structure consisting

i
I
I

i
I
j
j
I
|

of alternating bands of schistose and

granulose structures.

j
j
;

45
Maculose:

Porphyroblasts in slaty or schistose

structures.
Non-foliated:
Granulose:

Granular appearance, more or less

even-grained, and without any orientation

of the minerals.
Hornfelsie:
Cataclastic:

Very fine-grained granulose,

Broken, fragmental, and sheared rocks.

Tables VII and VIII are to be used in the determina

tion of metamorphic rocks.

TABLE

VII

A TABULAR FORM USED FOR HIE DETERMINATION OF METAMOREHIC ROCKS

METMOEPHIO
Student

Hock Shape of Size of

No. crystals crystals

ROCKS

Lah. Sec* No.

Texture

Structure

Essential Accessory
minerals minerals

Set No.

Name of rock

TABLE.

YIII

ILLUSTRATING METAMORFHIC ROCKS DETERMINATION TABLES

METAMORPHIC

Structure
Slaty
Schistose
Gneissose

ROCKS

FOLIATED ROCKS

NONFOLIATED ROCKS

j
slates, greenstones
schists
gneisses
granulite s
hornfels

Granulese

quartzites
marbles

|
i

CHAPTER III
GEOMORPHOLOGY- PHYSIOGRAPHY
(The Study of the Landscape-Topographic Maps)

The topographic configuration of the earthfs sur-

| face is generally shown with great accuracy on topographic

i

maps by means of contour lines.

The land forms so

represented lend themselves to explanation and interpreta

tion; and they reveal many details of the underlying
bedrock structures, and also the processes and agents which
have shaped and developed them to their present state and
condition.
Geologic history and physiographic history are best
studied in the field, where the land forms and geologic
outcrops can actually be seen and examined.

It is

obviously impossible to do this in a course of study with

limited time.

Therefore, land forms or the topography

of the surface of the earth can best be brought into the

laboratory by means of detailed topographic maps.
Topographic maps. A topographic map shows the
topography or configuration of the land surface by means
of contour lines.
Contour lines.

Lines of equal elevation indicating

shapes of mountains and valleys, differences in elevation,

and steepness of slope are contour lines.

tJnited States Geological Survey. The maps

described in this manual are published by the United States
Geological Survey, The various features of the earth1s
surface are represented on them by standard symbols
i

usually explained on the back of the map. For example,

I
\
|
I contours are printed in brown; water bodies, lakes, rivers,
and canals are blue; and buildings, roads, boundaries, and
other works of man are black.
Location and direction* The boundaries of these
maps are parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.
A common area covered by many of these maps is fifteen
minutes of longitude and latitude.

Any point on the map

may be determined by giving its longitude and latitude

in degrees, minutes, and seconds.

The top margin of the

map is north; the lower one is south.

All lines parallel

to the east and west margins are true north and south
lines. The amount of magnetic declination is commonly
shown on the map.
Laboratory mans. The list of United States
Geological Survey Topographic Quadrangle Sheets which are
used in this study of the landscape is below (sets of
these maps are available in the laboratory):
Arredondo, Florida
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Lake Providence, Mississippi

'

" "

"

"

"

'

"

........................

"

"

"50

Loveland, Colorado
Mt. Whitney, California
San Bernardino, California
Sun Prairie, Kansas

Yosemite, California

Laboratory exercises. The following exercises are

designed to promote an understanding of the use of topo
graphic maps, the landscape and its evolution, and the

' forces and activities responsible for shaping the surface

i
of the earth. The questions are to be answered on a
separate sheet of paper.
Mt. Whitney Quadrangle:
1.

Using 1000 feet equaling one inch, draw

a profile through Mt. Whitney.

2.

What is the contour interval?

3.

How many miles per inch are represented?

4.

What is the scale of the map?

5.

What is the latitude and longitude of the

southwest corner of the map?

Loveland Quadrangle:
1.

What is the scale, contour interval,

latitude, and longitude of the southwest
corner?

2.

Name the break in Green Ridge (Sec. 3, T5N,

R70W) .

3. What type of stream is Buckhorn Creek?

4.

What distinguishes the irrigation ditches

from the rivers?

5.

What kind of breaks are in the high ridges

of Sec. 22, T4N, R70W?

6. What is the origin of the lakes with the

black lines across one end?
San Bernardino Quadrangle:
1. What are the stipled brown areas at the
base of the mountain and extending toward
San Bernardino?
*2. Explain what they are forming.
3. Explain the origin of the stream north of
Colton.
4.

What are the branches of the stipled areas?

Harrisburg Quadrangle:
1. What is so peculiar about the ridges?
2. What type of topography do they suggest?
3. 'Why are the cruves of the Conodoquinit so
deep if it is a meandering stream?
4.

Give examples of:

a.

Superposed river.

b . Subsequent river.
c.
5.

Rejuvenated river.

What is the reason for the ridges being

parallel?

Sun Prairie Quadrangle:

1.

What gave this terrain its unusual topo

graphy?

8.

What are these hills called?

Yosemite Quadrangle:
1.

List:

(a) title, (b) scale, (c) contour

interval, (d) lowest elevation, (e) eleva

tion of the highest pinnacle, (f) latitude
and longitude of bench mark at Yosemite
Point.
8.

Draw a cross-section from Sentinal Dome to

Yosemite Point.

3.

How was Yosemite formed?

4.

Name four hanging valleys.

5.

How thick were the glaciers that cut

through Yosemite Valley?

6.

How many times was Yosemite Valley invaded

by the ice?

7.

What is the predominant rock found here?

8.

What type of structure is Half Dome?

Arredondo Quadrangle:
1.

What type of topography is represented

here?

S. - What formed the lakes?

Lake Providence Quadrangle:
1.

What is Lake Providence?

What age does this region represent?

CHAPTER IV
STEQCTURAL-H 1ST OKI CAL GEOLOGY
Tables IX and X are used as reference materials
t
j

for this unit.

Structural geology. Structural geology is con
cerned with the arrangement of rock masses in the earths
crust.

When stratified rocks are subjected to compression

they are folded into such structures as anticlines, and

synelines.

When sufficient stress or tension is applied

they may actually break or fracture to produce faults.

Historical geology. Historical geology is con
cerned with the interpretation of geologic sequences,
including sedimentary and structural events.

The object

of historical geology is to place these events in a

chronological order.
Laboratory exercises The following laboratory
exercises are based upon illustrations appearing in the
laboratory manual:
Exercise A::
block diagrams.

The illustrations on Table XI are

This type of geologic illustration

makes it possible for the surface of the ground and

a cross-section of the geologic structure to be
shown on the same diagram.

Draw a map of each area

TABLE

TK

ILLUSTRATING LITEOLOGIC SYMBOLS

LITHOLOGIC

SYMBOLS

Conglomerate

Shallow flows

Massive sandstone

Volcanic flows

Bedded sandstone

Granite

Sandy shale

Intrusive rocks

Shale

Intrusive rocks

Limestone

Metamorphics

56

TABLE

ILLUSTRATING GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES

STRUCTURES

Normal fault

Reverse fault

Anticline

Homo cline

Monocline

TABLE . XI
ILLUSTRATING LABORATORY EXERCISES IN BLOCK DIAGRAMS

BLOCK

DIAGRAMS

as it will appear after movement has taken place

on the faults, in the direction indicated.
Exercise B:

The illustrations on Table XII

are geologic maps. In these exercises

you

draw geologic cross-sections along the

lines

|
are to|
I
i

indicated on the maps. Your instructor will give

you the relative ages of the rocks and instructions

for drawing the sections.

Indicate on

the

maps

the proper symbols for the attitude of

the

rocks.j

Exercise C:

The illustrations on Table XIII

are geologic cross-sections.

Following your

instructor1s directions, give a brief outline of

the geologic history of the areas illustrated,

.'TABLE' XII
ILLUSTRATING LABORATORY EXERCISES IN GEOLOGIC MAPS

GEOLOGIC

i
-X

MAPS

//J<; i,

, v
^ A,'*

.t a b l e ;

xiii

ILLUSTRATING LABORATORY EXERCISES IN HISTORICAL GEOLOGY-CROSS SECTIONS

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY-CROSS SECTIONS

ft