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Introduction
A. Background
The nervous system is a coordinate system (setting body) in the form
of nerve impulses delivery to the central nervous system, nerve impulses and
processing orders to give feedback stimuli. The smallest unit of work
implementation of the nervous system are nerve cells or neurons.
How it Works Nervous System
In the nervous system there are sections called :
a. Receptors : a tool to receive sensory stimuli usually a tool
b. Effectors : a tool to respond to stimuli such as muscles and glands
c. Sensory Nerve cells : nerve fibers that carry stimuli to the brain
d. Nerve cell Motor: nerve fibers that carry stimuli from the brain
e. Nerve cells Connectors : motor nerve cells or nerve cells one with
another nerve cell .
Scheme of the motion conscious
Excitatory receptors sensory nerve cells brain motor nerve cell
effector responses
Hormone system
Chapter 2
Contents
A. Definition
The nervous system is one of the most complicated systems of the body. It
controls many bodily activities through a variety of methods. It senses changes
in both the internal and external environments, interprets these changes, and
then coordinates appropriate responses in order to maintain homeostasis.
The nervous system, as described in Taber's Cyclopedic Dictionary, is a
system of extremely delicate nerve cells, elaborately interlaced with each
other. More specifically, it functions to regulate and coordinate body activities,
as well as to adjust to both external and internal environment changes. It is
made up collectively of the brain, cranial nerves, spinal cord, spinal nerves,
and other areas that help maintain reception and response to stimuli.
B. Anatomy & Physiology
1. Based form
a. Dendrites
Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron that act to
propagate the electrochemical stimulation received from other
neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the
dendrites project. Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto
dendrites by upstream neurons (usually their axons) via synapses
which are located at various points throughout the dendritic tree.
Dendrites play a critical role in integrating these synaptic inputs
and in determining the extent to which action potentials are
produced by the neuron.
Dendrites are one of two types of protoplasmic protrusions that
extrude from the cell body of a neuron, the other type being an
axon. Axons can be distinguished from dendrites by several
features including shape, length, and function. Dendrites often
taper off in shape and are shorter, while axons tend to maintain a
constant radius and be relatively long. Typically, axons transmit
electrochemical signals and dendrites receive the electrochemical
signals. Although, some types of neurons in certain species lack
axons and simply transmit signals via their dendrites. Dendrites
provide an enlarged surface area to receive signals from the
terminal buttons of other axons allowing for a chemical signal to
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or
dendrodendritic,
involving
signaling
between
dendrites.
The morphology of dendrites such as branch density and grouping
patterns are highly correlated to the function of the neuron.
Malformation of dendrites is also tightly correlated to impaired
nervous system function.
b. Nucleus
Nucleusis a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryoticcells.
Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types have
no nuclei, and a few others have many.
Cell nuclei contain most of the cell's genetic material, organized as
multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large
variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The
genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome. The
function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes
and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene
expressionthe nucleus is, therefore, the control center of the cell.
The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear
envelope, a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and
isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm, and the
nucleoskeleton (which includes nuclear lamina), a network within
the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the
cytoskeleton, which supports the cell as a whole.
c. Soma or Nerve Cell Body
Is the bulbous end of a neuron, containing the cell nucleus. The
word "soma" comes has meaning "body". There are many different
specialized types of neurons, and their sizes vary from as small as
about 5 micrometres to over 10 millimetre for some of the smallest
and largest neurons of invertebrates, respectively.
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2) Cerebellum
The major functions of the cerebellum are maintenance of
movement, balance and posture. The word "cerebellum" comes
from the Latin word for "little brain." It is divided into two
parts or hemispheres and has a cortex that covers the
hemispheres.
3) Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus regulates the body temperatures, emotions
and hunger, thirst and controls the circadian rhythms.
This pea sized organ is in control of body temperature. It acts
like a "thermostat" by sensing changes in body temperature
and sends out signals to adjust the temperature.
4) Brain stem or Medulla oblongata
This area is vital for life as it controls breathing, heart rate and
blood pressure. The brain stem comprises of the medulla, pons,
tectum, reticular formation and tegmentum.
5) Thalamus
Works by integrating sensory information and motor
information. The thalamus receives sensory information and
relays this information to the cerebral cortex.
The cerebral cortex also sends information to the thalamus
which then transmits this information to other areas of the
brain and spinal cord.
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6) Limbic System
This part of the brain includes amygdala, the hippocampus,
mammillary bodies and cingulate gyrus. These help in
controlling the emotional response. The hippocampus is also
important for learning and memory.
7) Basal Ganglia
This part works in maintaining balance and movements. It
includes structures like the globus pallidus, caudate nucleus,
subthalamic nucleus, putamen and substantia nigra.
8) Midbrain
This part of the brain has sites controlling vision, hearing, eye
movement and general body movement. The structures that are
part of the midbrain are superior and inferior colliculi and red
nucleus.
b. Functions of the Cerebrospinal
This system has 12 pairs of cranial nerves. These are attached to
the brain and have specific functions. Each cranial nerve leaves
the skull through an opening at its base.
The nerves and their functions include:
1) Olfactory for smell
2) Optic - Sight
3) Oculomotor - Movement of the eyeball, lens, and pupils
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D. Clasification
1. Central Nervous System
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord
a. The brain plays a central role in the control of most bodily
functions, including awareness, movements, sensations, thoughts,
speech, and memory. Some reflex movements can occur via spinal
cord pathways without the participation of brain structures.
b. The spinal cord is connected to a section of the brain called the brainstem
and runs through the spinal canal. Cranial nerves exit the brainstem.
Nerve roots exit the spinal cord to both sides of the body. The spinal cord
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carries signals (messages) back and forth between the brain and the
peripheral nerves.
Cerebrospinal fluid surrounds the brain and the spinal cord and
also circulates within the cavities (called ventricles) of the central
nervous system. The leptomeninges surround the brain and the
spinal cord. The cerebrospinal fluid circulates between 2
meningeal layers called the pia matter and the arachnoid (or piaarachnoid membranes). The outer, thicker layer serves the role of a
protective shield and is called the dura matter.
The basic unit of the central nervous system is the neuron (nerve
cell). Billions of neurons allow the different parts of the body to
communicate with each other via the brain and the spinal cord. A
fatty material called myelin coats nerve cells to insulate them and
to allow nerves to communicate quickly.
1) The Brain and Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and controls
voluntary actions, speech, senses, thought, and memory.
The surface of the cerebral cortex has grooves or infoldings
(called sulci), the largest of which are termed fissures. Some
fissures separate lobes.
The convolutions of the cortex give it a wormy appearance.
Each convolution is delimited by two sulci and is also called a
gyrus (gyri in plural). The cerebrum is divided into two halves,
known as the right and left hemispheres. A mass of fibers called
the corpus callosum links the hemispheres. The right hemisphere
controls voluntary limb movements on the left side of the body,
and the left hemisphere controls voluntary limb movements on
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the right side of the body. Almost every person has one
dominant hemisphere. Each hemisphere is divided into four
lobes, or areas, which are interconnected.
a) The frontal lobes are located in the front of the brain and are responsible
for voluntary movement and, via their connections with other lobes,
participate in the execution of sequential tasks; speech output;
organizational skills; and certain aspects of behavior, mood, and memory.
b) The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes and in front of the
occipital
lobes.
They
process
sensory
information
such
as
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neuroanatomical
basis
for
multiple
brain
functions
is
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Sympathetic
2)
Parasympathetic
Blood pressure
2)
3)
Body temperature
4)
Digestion
5)
6)
7)
8)
Urination
9)
Defecation
10)
Sexual response
2)
Thus, the sympathetic division increases heart rate and the force
of heart contractions and widens (dilates) the airways to make
breathing easier. It causes the body to release stored energy.
Muscular strength is increased. This division also causes palms
to sweat, pupils to dilate, and hair to stand on end. It slows body
processes that are less important in emergencies, such as
digestion and urination.
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the
parts
of
the
somatic
nervous
resting potential. When the reversal of resting potential occurs the neuron
fires, this is called action potential.
F. Disorder of The Nervous System
Disorders of the nervous system may involve the following:
1. Vascular disorders
Such as stroke, transient ischemic attack (TIA), subarachnoid
hemorrhage, subdural hemorrhage and hematoma, and extradural
hemorrhage
a. Stroke
A stroke occurs if the flow of oxygen-rich blood to a portion of the
brain is blocked. Without oxygen, brain cells start to die after a few
minutes. Sudden bleeding in the brain also can cause a stroke if it
damages brain cells.
b. Transient Ischemic Attack(TIA)
A transient ischaemic attack (TIA) or "mini stroke" is caused by a
temporary disruption in the blood supply to part of the brain. The
disruption in blood supply results in a lack of oxygen to the brain.
This can cause sudden symptoms similar to those of a stroke, such
as speech and visual disturbance, and numbness or weakness in the
face, arms and legs.
However, a TIA does not last as long as a stroke. The effects often
only last for a few minutes or hours and fully resolve within 24
hours.
c. Brain Hemorrhage
A brain hemorrhage is a type of stroke. It's caused by an artery in
the brain bursting and causing localized bleeding in the
surrounding tissues. This bleeding kills brain cells. The Greek root
for blood is hemo. Hemorrhage literally means "blood bursting
forth." Brain hemorrhages are also called cerebral hemorrhages,
intracranial hemorrhages, or intracerebral hemorrhages. They
account for about 13% of strokes.
2. Infections
Such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess
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a. Meningitis
Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges. The meninges is the
collective name for the three membranes that envelope the brain
and spinal cord (central nervous system), called the dura mater, the
arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. The meninges' main function,
alongside the cerebrospinal fluid is to protect the central nervous
system.
b. Polio
Polio (poliomyelitis) is a highly infectious disease caused by a
virus. It invades the nervous system and can cause irreversible
paralysis in a matter of hours. Polio is a crippling and potentially
fatal infectious disease. There is no cure, but there are safe and
effective vaccines. The strategy to eradicate polio is therefore
based on preventing infection by immunizing every child until
transmission stops and the world is polio free.
c. Epidural abcess
An epidural abscess is a rare but potentially life-threatening disease
that requires early detection and prompt management. It is defined
as an inflammation that involves a collection of pus between the
dura (the outer membrane that covers the brain and spinal cord)
and the bones of the skull or spine. Spinal epidural abscess (SEA)
and intracranial epidural abscess (IEA) are the two types of
epidural abscess, and the difference is based on where they develop
within the CNS and some variations in risk factors (see
Pathophysiology) and symptoms (see History).
3. Structural disorders
Such as brain or spinal cord injury, Bell's palsy, cervical spondylosis,
carpal tunnel syndrome, brain or spinal cord tumors, peripheral
neuropathy, and Guillain-Barr syndrome
a. Bells Palsy
Bells palsy is a condition that causes a temporary weakness or
paralysis of the muscles in the face. It can occur when the nerve
that controls your facial muscles becomes inflamed, swollen, or
compressed.
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usually only diagnosed after a person has had more than one
seizure.
5. Degeneration
Degeneration,
such
as
Parkinson
disease,
multiple
sclerosis,
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The following are the most common general signs and symptoms of a
nervous system disorder. However, each individual may experience
symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:
1. Persistent or sudden onset of a headache
2. A headache that changes or is different
3. Loss of feeling or tingling
4. Weakness or loss of muscle strength
5. Sudden loss of sight or double vision
6. Memory loss
7. Impaired mental ability
8. Lack of coordination
9. Muscle rigidity
10. Tremors and seizures
11. Back pain which radiates to the feet, toes, or other parts of the body
12. Muscle wasting and slurred speech
The symptoms of a nervous system disorder may resemble other medical
conditions or problems.
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Chapter 3
Closing
A. Conclusion
The nervous system is a coordinate system (setting body) in the
form of nerve impulses delivery to the central nervous system, nerve
impulses and processing orders to give feedback stimuli. The smallest unit
of work implementation of the nervous system are nerve cells or neurons.
The nervous system is one of the most complicated systems of the
body. It controls many bodily activities through a variety of methods. It
senses changes in both the internal and external environments, interprets
these changes, and then coordinates appropriate responses in order to
maintain homeostasis.
B. Suggestion
As human beings we should maintain good health, especially to
avoid the risk that could cause injury to the brain or other nervous system.
Bibliography
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http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-the-Nervous-System.aspx
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_neuron
https://www.directessays.com/signup-responsive.html
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