Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Engineering
Properties of Soils
Water content
W
w W 100
WS
WW = Weight of power
WS = Weight of solids
Void ratio
V
e v
Vs
Vv = Volume of voids
V = Total volume of soil
Degree of Saturation
V
S w 100
Vv
Vw = Volume of water
Vv = Volume of voids
0 S 100
for perfectly dry soil : S = O
for Fully saturated soil : S = 100%
Air Content
V
ac a 1 s
Vv
Va = Volume of air
Sr + ac = 1
% Air Void
%na
V
Volume of air
100 a 100
Total volume
V
Unit Weight
Ws Ww
W
V Vs Vw Va
Ws
V
sat
sat
Wsat
V
' sat w
Ws
Vs
Specific Gravity
True/Absolute Special Gravity, G
Specific gravity of soil solids (G) is the ratio of the weight of a given
volume of solids to the weight of an equivalent volume of water at 4.
Gm
where,
Ws
s
Vs . w w
sat
or d or sat
W
V . w
w
I D Shear strength
%ID
emax e
100
emax emin
1
%ID
1
Compressibility
d min
1
d min
1
d
100
1
d max
Relative Compaction
Rc
D
Dmax
Relative Density
Relation between
d
Vs
(ii)
V
1 e
Ws
W
1 w
(iii)
Relation between e and n
e
1 e
( )
G w (1 w)
(1 e)
( d )
( sat.)
Sr = 1
{Srxe = wG}
in terms of G, e &
, G, e, Sr,
G e
sat
. w
1 e
in terms of G, e and
Sr = 0
G w
G w
(1 a )G w
1 e 1 wG
1 wG
S
( ')
in terms of G, e and
sat w
(G eS r ) w
1 e
n
1 n
in terms of G, e, w and
or
Relation between e, w, G and S:
Se = w. G
1 w
G 1
. w
1 e
'
w
1
(1 W )
Calibration of Hydrometer
1
V
H e H1 h H
2
A j
Soil Description
Non plastic
Slight plastic
Low plastic
Medium plastic
Highly plastic
Very highly
plastic
For WN WP I C 1
IL
WN WP
IP
Semisolid
Solid
Descripti
on
Liquid
Very soft
soft
medium
stiff
stiff
Very stiff
OR Hard
IC
IL
<0
0-0.25
0.25-0.5
0.500.75
0.751.00
>1
0.751.00
0.500.75
0.250.50
0.0-0.25
Hard OR
very
hard
>1
<0
>1
<0
If
W1 W2
log10( N 2 / N1 )
IT
IP
IF
V1 V2
100
Vd
SR
w1 w2
SR
V1 Vd
100
Vd
(W1 Ws )
SR
(V1 V2 ) / Vd
(V V ) / w
But , w1 w2 1 2
W1 W2
Ws
Properties
Relatio
nship
Plasticity
Better
Foundation
Material
upon
Remoulding
Compressibil
ity
Rate of loss
in shear
strength
with
increase in
water
content
Strength of
Plastic Limit
SR
Ws 1 d
.
Vd w w
Governing
Parameter
s
Plasticity
Index
Consistency
Index
Liquid Limit
Flow Index
Toughness
Index
Compaction of Soil
Optimum moisture content
( d ) max imum
( d )max imum
1 woptimum
= Density of soil
woptimum
= Optimum moisture content
Inference
G w
wG
1
S
(a na )G w
1 wG
Ratio of total energy given in heavy compaction test to that given in light
compaction test
Compaction Equipments
1.
Type of
Equipmen
t
Rammers
or
Tampers
2.
Smooth
wheeled
rollers
3.
Pneumati
c tyred
rollers
Suitability
for soil
type
All soils
Crushed
rocks,
gravels
sands
Sand,
gravels
silts,
clayey
soils
4.
5.
Sheep
foot
Rollers
Vibratory
Rollers
Clayey
soils
Sands
Nature of
project
In confined
areas such
as fills
behind
retaining
walls,
basement
walls etc.
Trench fills.
Road
constructio
n
nt for oil
storage
tanks etc.
Compaction Tests
Standard proctor
test
(Light compaction
test)
Volume of
mould 942cc
No. of layers -3
No. of blows
per layer - 25
Height of free
fall -304.8 mm
(12 inches)
Wt. of hammer
-2.495 kg
(5.5 /b)
Modified proctor
test
(Heavy
compaction test)
Volume of
mould 942 cc
No. of layers -5
No. of blows
per layer -25
Height of free
fall -457.2 mm
(18 inches)
Wt. of hammer
-4.54 kg (10
/b)
Indian standard
light compaction
V Volume of
mould 1000 cc
H Height of free
fall 310 mm
W Wt. of
hammer 2.6 kg
N No. of layers 3
N Blows per
layer 25
Indian standard
heavy compaction
Volume of
mould 1000 cc
Height of free
fall 450 mm
Wt. of hammer
4.9 kg
No. of layers 5
Blows per layer
25
3Q 1
r 2
2 z 2
1 2
( Z )
5/2
Z kB .
Q
z2
kB =
' Z '
3
0.4775
2
z 0.4775.
Westergaard's Theory
3/ 2
Q
1
2r 2
z2
1 2
z kW .
Q
Z2
k w |max 0.3183
Boussinesq's Result
Q
z |max 0.0888
r2
z |max 0.1332
Q2
22
Westergaard's Results
5/2
3 1
r2
2
1 2
kB |max
Q
Z2
where,
X 2
1 2
where,
2q X
sin 2
B
2
2q '
q
[ sin ]
Z q(1 cos3 )
cos
where,
z
r2 z2
Z 0.005qN A
1
= 0.005
Total no. of sectoral area
where,
Z1
Q
k B1 21
z
Z2
k B2 .
=
Trapezoidal Method
'z'
at depth
Q22
...
z2
q ( B L)
( B 2 z )( L 2 z )
q( B L)
( B 2 z )( L 2 z )
q( B L)
( B 4 z )( L 4 z )
where,
stress on critical plane.
= Friction angle of soil =
max.
4 2
for clay = 0
tan
C,
(iii)
C tan
1 3 tan 2 (45 )
2
1 2C ,
, for
for C-soil.
, for C- soil.
-soil.
for C- soil.
Drained
condition
Undrained
condition with
positive pole
water pressure
Undrained
condition with
negative pore
water pressure
Effective stress
analysis and post
construction
stability is
checked.
Total stress
analysis and
stability should be
checked
immediately after
construction.
Effective stress
analysis and long
term stability
should be
checked.
1 3 d
( d ) failure ( 1 3 ) failure
P
A
S C n tan
3
d
A0 (1 v )
(1 L )
v = Volumetric strain
v 0 forU U test
where,
v
V
V
forC Dtest
V
2
D L
4
= Initial Volume
= Axial strain
Here,
where,
=0
( 1 ) f 2C , forC soil.
S C
qu
,
2
Lab Size
20 mm
12 mm
0.5 to 0.1
mm
Shear Strength
Field Size
10 to 20
cm
5 to 10 cm
2 to 3 cm
T
H D
D2
2 6
T
H D
D2
2 12
St
(qu )undisturbed
(qu ) remolded
where sf = Sensitivity
c 3
o
o
o
A A.B
U d
d
U
0B1
B = 0, for dry soil.
B = 1, for saturated soil.
U d
d
U U c U d
U B[ 3 A( 1 3 )]
Deep Foundation
Bearing capacity of piles
Analytical Method
qb : 9C
qS C
,
C
C
= Adhesion factor
Qsafe
Qsafe
Qup
Fs
where,
Fs
= Factor of safety.
Qeb Qsf
F1
F2
Dynamic Approach
Qup
Qap
Qup
6
WH
S C
WH
(S C)
Qap
h .b .WH
C
S
2
Qap
Fs = Factor of safety = 3
Qup
Fs
= Efficiency of hammer
= Efficiency of blow.
h 0.75to0.85
h 0.75to0.80
h 1
W e2 P
W P
W e 2 P W e 2 P
b
W P
W P
Under-Reamed Pile
An 'under-reamed' pile is one with an enlarged base or a bulb;
As1 bL1
qs1 C
As2 bu L2 qs2 C
< 1.
=1
Qnf Perimeter.L1 C
for Cohesive soil.
Qnf
= Total negative skin frictions
Fs
Qup Qnf
Applied load
Qnf
= P x force per unit surface length of pile
1
2
Qnf 2 PDn K .tan .
where
(friction force = H)
1
P K Dn2 . tan
2
Group Efficiency (
Qug
n.Qup
g
o
o
o
where
Ab B
qs C
o
For Square Group
qb
= 9C for clays
As =4 B.L
Qug .Qup
Qug
Sr
Qug qb Ab qs As
>1
Qug
FOS
Qug
where,
Sg
Si
S g H
Cc H 0
log10 0
1 e0
0
Q
( B z )2
and
In case of Sand
Sg
4 B 2.7
Sr
Si B 3.6
Pp .
Pp d
(H d )
Pa
Fos 3
3
Pp
d
(H d )
Pa
3
3
1
k p d 2
2
Pp
1
k p ( H d ) 2
2
Pp q 2C
Pp 2C
Pp Pa 4c q
Pp Pa (4c q)
Pp Pa (4c q)
It is the total pressure at the base of the footing due to the weight of the
super structure, self weight of the footing and weight of the earth fill.
where
Fs = Factor of safety
where,
qs
qu D f tan 45
2
or
1 sin
qu D f
1 sin
Bells Theory (C - )
qu CN c D f N q
where, Nc and Nq are bearing capacity factors.
qult
W .I r CR
b.I 0
qult 5.5C
Prandtl Method: (C - )
1
qu CN c D f N q BN
2
For C-soil
N c 5.14, N q 1, N 0
Terzaghi Method (C - )
1
qu CN c D f N q BN
2
qu 1.3CN c D f N q 0.4 BN
B
qu =
1 + 0.3
CN C +
1 0.2 B
gD f N q +
gBN g
1
2
L
qu 1.3CN c D f N q 0.3 DN
Df
B
0i.e.
If
of the surface.
Then NC = 5 For strip footing
NC = 6.0 For square and circular footing.
where Df = Depth of foundation.
If
Df
B
2.5
D
NC 5 1 0.2 f ,
B
N C 6 1 0.2 f ,
B
D f
B
N C 5 1 0.2 1 0.2
L
B
Df
B
2.5
if
NC =7.5
for strip footing
NC =9.0 for circular, square and rectangular footing.
qup
Bf
Bp
quf qup
B ( B 0.3)
f p
S p B p ( B f 0.3)
Sf
S f corrected
1
1 D2
B f
Sf
B ( B 0.3)
f p
S p B p ( B f 0.3)
Sf
Sf
Sp
Sf
Sp
Housels Approach
0.5
Bf
Bp
B f
n 1
QP mAp nPp
Q f mAf nPf
QP
N1 N 0
350
( 70)
and
280
For Saturated
1
( N1 15) 15
2
N2
N q N
Pecks Equation
qa net 0.44 NS Cw kN / m 2
Dw
Cw 0.5 1
D f B
Teng's Equations
2
B 0.3
2
SCwC D kN / m
2B
qns 1.4( N 3)
CW 0.5 1 w
B
D f
CD 1 2
B
B 0.3
SCw
2B
qns 1.38( N 3)
qns =Net safe bearing pressure in kN/m2
B = Width in meter.
S = Settlement in 'mm'.
Meyer-hoffs Equation
B < 1.2 m
where,
qns
D
1
Cd 1 f 2 Cw 1 w
B
2
B
B 0.3
qns 0.32 N
.S .Cd .Cw
2B
B 1.2 m (where qns is in kN/m2.
qc
C 1.5
qc
S 2.3
where, 'S' = Settlement.
where,
qns
H0
log10 0
C
0
qns 3.6qs Rw
B > 1.2 m.
B < 1.2 m.
h K 0 . .z ,
K0
K0
K0
, K0
,
v
1
(K0 )
( K0 )
OCR
=
normally consolidation
where, OCR = Over Consolidation Ratio.
over consolidation
Hcot 45
2
H 0.2%
ka
1 sin
1 sin
ka tan 2 45
2
Length of
Hcot 45
2
Failure block
H 0.2%
kP
1 sin
1 sin
ka tan 2 45
2
or
kP = Coefficient of passive earth pressure.
K a .K P 1
Pa P0 PP
Pa
1
K a H 2
2
H
3
acts at
from base.
where, Pa = Active earth pressure force on unit length of wall.
Pa
where
1
1
K a ' H 2 w H 2
2
2
acts at
H
3
from base
Pa1
1
K a H12
2
H2
--- acts of
Pa2 K a 1 H1 H 2
Pa3
1
K a ' H 22
2
1
Pa4 w H 22
2
--- acts of
--- acts at
--- acts of
H1
H 2
H2
from base
H 2
H 2
from base
from base
from base
H1
H3
H4
1
1
K a tan 2 45
2
N
tan 2 45
2
where
Active Earth Pressure of Any Depth z
= Influence Factor.
Pa ka z 2c ka
Pa 2c ka
At
z zc Pa O
Zc
2c
tan 45
Hc
4c
tan 45
Pa
1
k a H 2 2CH k a
2
Pa
1
(ka H 2C ka )( H Z c )
2
Pa
1
2C 2
k a H 2 2CH k a
2
Pa
or
1
( ka ( H Z c ) 2
2
acts at
Pp
1
k p Hz 2C k p
2
H Z c
Pp
1
k p H 2 2C k p H
2
sin( )
sin
sin( ).sin( )
sin( )
sin( )
ka
kp
sin( )
sin
sin( ) sin( )
sin( )
sin( )
Special points:
(C tan )
Cm tan m
Cm = Mobilized Cohesion
m = Mobilized Friction Angle
Cm
C
Fs
tan m
and
tan
Fs
Fc
Hc
H
Hc = Critical depth
H = Actual depth
Hc
Fc
and
C
Cm
4C
tan 45
W z cos
W sin
Z sin cos
(b 1)
W cos
n Z cos 2
(b 1)
= Normal stress.
Fs
tan
tan
S C n tan
Fs 1
h tan '
Fs 1 w
z tan
'
avg. total unit weight of soil above the slip surface upto ground level.
Fs
' tan
.
Sat tan
Fs ;
h=z
Infinite Slope of Purely Cohesive Soil
Fs Fc
S
S
1h1 2 h2
h1 h2
1 tan
.
2 tan
C
H
Fc c
z sin .cos
H
C
C
C
sin .cos
Hc
Fc H Fc z
=Stability Number.
C- Soil in Infinite Slope
Fs
C
tan
C
sin .cos
.H c
(for C- soils)
Fellinious Method
Cr 2
we
Cr 2 1
we
FC
Cr w cos .tan
w sin
C
Cm
tan
tan
tan tan m
'
.
Sat
C
C
H c FC H