CSC1706 Chapter02 Lecture01

Dr.
Raini Hassan
Office: C2 - 14, Level 2, KICT Building
Department: Computer Science, Level 4, KICT Building
Email: hrai@iium.edu.my Phone no: 03-61965655
Semester I 2016/2017
Dua for Study
Chapter 02/Lecture 01
Frequency Distributions
and Graphs
Frequency Distributions
and Graphs
CHAPTER
Outline
2-1 Organizing Data
2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives
2-3 Other Types of Graphs
Copyright 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Learning Objectives
1
2
3
Organize data using a frequency distribution.

Represent data in frequency distributions graphically
using histograms, frequency polygons, and ogives.
Represent data using bar graphs, Pareto charts, time
series graphs, pie graphs, and dotplots.
Draw and interpret a stem and leaf plot.
Copyright 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Introduction
When conducting a statistical study, the researcher
must gather data for the particular variable under
study.
To describe situations, draw conclusions, or make
inferences about events, the researcher must organize
the data in some meaningful way frequency
distribution.
After organizing the data, the researcher must present
them so they can be understood by those who will
benefit the study statistical charts and graphs.
2-1 Organizing Data

Data collected in original form is called raw
data.
A frequency distribution is the organization

of raw data in table form, using classes and
frequencies.
Nominal- or ordinal-level data that can be
placed in categories is organized in categorical
frequency distributions.
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions and
Graphs
Section 2-1
Example 2-1
Page #43
Categorical Frequency Distribution

Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood test to
determine their blood type.
Raw Data:
A,B,B,AB,O
O,O,B,AB,B
B,B,O,A,O
A,O,O,O,AB
AB,A,O,B,A
Construct a frequency distribution for the data.


Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood test to
determine their blood type.
Raw Data: A,B,B,AB,O O,O,B,AB,B
A,O,O,O,AB
AB,A,O,B,A
B,B,O,A,O
Grouped Frequency Distribution

Grouped frequency distributions are used
when the range of the data is large.
The smallest and largest possible data values in
a class are the lower and upper class limits.
Class boundaries separate the classes.
To find a class boundary, subtract 0.5 from
the lower class limit and adding 0.5 to the
upper class limit.

Example: for a class of 31 (lower class limit)
37 (upper class limit)

The class width can be calculated by
subtracting
a. The lower (or upper) class limit of one class from
the lower (or upper) class limit of the next class.
Class width is 7;
found from 31
24 = 7

The class width can be calculated by
subtracting
b. The lower boundary from the upper boundary for
any given class.
Class width is 7;
found from 30.5
23.5 = 7

Important: Do not subtract the limits of a
single class. It will result in an incorrect answer.
Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

Distributions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
There should be 5-20 classes.

The class width should be an odd number.
The classes must be mutually exclusive.
The classes must be continuous.
The classes must be exhaustive.
The classes must be equal in width (except in
open-ended distributions).

Distributions
1. There should be 5-20 classes.
Although there is no hard-and-fast rule for the
number of classes contained in a frequency
distribution, it is of the utmost importance to
have enough classes to present a clear

description of the collected data.

Distributions
2. The class width should be an odd number.
This ensures that the midpoint of each class
has the same place value as the data.
The class midpoint Xm is obtained by (first
formula) adding the lower and upper
boundaries and dividing by 2, or (second
formula) adding the lower and upper limits
and dividing by 2.

Distributions
2. The class width should be an odd number.
First formula:
Second formula:

Distributions
3. The classes must be mutually exclusive.
Mutually exclusive classes have non-overlapping
class limits so that data cannot be placed into two
classes.
Example of overlapping frequency distribution is:

Distributions
3. The classes must be mutually exclusive.
A better way to construct a
distribution is to use classes such as:
frequency

Distributions
4. The classes must be continuous.
Even if there are no values in a class, the class
must be included in the frequency distribution.
There should be no gaps in a frequency
distribution.
The only exception occurs when the class with a
zero frequency is the first or last class.
A class with a zero frequency at either end can be
omitted without affecting the distribution.

Distributions
5. The classes must be exhaustive.
enough
accommodate all the data.
There
should
be
classes
to

Distributions
6. The classes must be equal in width (except in
This avoids a distorted view of the data.
One exception occurs when a distribution has a
class that is open-ended.
That is, the class has no specific beginning
value or no specific ending value.
A frequency distribution with an open-ended class
is called an open-ended distribution.

Distributions
6. The classes must be equal in width (except in
Examples:
Chapter 2
Graphs
Section 2-1
Example 2-2
Page #47
Constructing a Grouped Frequency

Distribution

Distribution
The following data represent the record high
temperatures for each of the 50 states.
Construct a grouped frequency distribution for
the data using 7 classes.
112
110
107
116
120
100
118
112
108
113
127
117
114
110
120
120
116
115
121
117
134
118
118
113
105
118
122
117
120
110
105
114
118
119
118
110
114
122
111
112
109
105
106
104
114
112
109
110
111
114

Distribution
STEP 1 Determine the classes.
Find the class width by dividing the range by the
number of classes 7.
Range = High Low
= 134 100 = 34
Width = Range/7 = 34/7 = 4.9 = 5
Rounding Rule: Always round up if a remainder.

Distribution
For convenience sake, we will choose the lowest data
value, 100, for the first lower class limit.
The subsequent lower class limits are found by adding the
width to the previous lower class limits.
Class Limits
100 - 104
105 - 109
110 - 114
115 - 119
120 - 124
125 - 129
130 - 134
The
first upper class limit is one less than

the next lower class limit.
The
subsequent upper class limits are

found by adding the width to the previous
upper class limits.

Distribution
The class boundary is midway between an upper class
limit and a subsequent lower class limit. 104,104.5,105
Class
Limits
100 - 104
105 - 109
110 - 114
115 - 119
120 - 124
125 - 129
130 - 134
Class
Boundaries
Frequency
99.5 - 104.5
104.5 - 109.5
109.5 - 114.5
114.5 - 119.5
119.5 - 124.5
124.5 - 129.5
129.5 - 134.5
Cumulative
Frequency

Distribution
STEP 2 Tally the data.
STEP 3 Find the frequencies.
Class
Limits
100 - 104
105 - 109
110 - 114
115 - 119
120 - 124
125 - 129
130 - 134
Class
Boundaries
Frequency
99.5 - 104.5
104.5 - 109.5
109.5 - 114.5
114.5 - 119.5
119.5 - 124.5
124.5 - 129.5
129.5 - 134.5
2
8
18
13
7
1
1
Cumulative
Frequency

Distribution
STEP 4 Find the cumulative frequencies by
keeping a running total of the frequencies.
Class
Limits
100 - 104
105 - 109
110 - 114
115 - 119
120 - 124
125 - 129
130 - 134
Class
Boundaries
Frequency
Cumulative
Frequency
99.5 - 104.5
104.5 - 109.5
109.5 - 114.5
114.5 - 119.5
119.5 - 124.5
124.5 - 129.5
129.5 - 134.5
2
8
18
13
7
1
1
2
10
28
41
48
49
50
Chapter 2
Graphs
Section 2-1
Example 2-3
Page #49
Constructing an Ungrouped Frequency

Distribution
When the range of the data values is relatively
small, a frequency distribution can be
constructed using single data values for each
class.
This type of distribution is called an
ungrouped frequency distribution.

Distribution

Distribution

Distribution

Distribution
Summary of 2-1
3 different types of frequency distributions were
shown:
The first type, shown in Example 21, is used when

the data are categorical (nominal), such as blood
type or political affiliation. This type is called a
categorical frequency distribution.
The second type of distribution is used when the
range is large and classes several units in width are
needed. This type is called a grouped frequency
distribution and is shown in Example 22.
Summary of 2-1
The third type of distribution is used for numerical
data and when the range of data is small, as shown
in Example 23. Since each class is only one unit,
this distribution is called an ungrouped frequency
distribution.
Summary of 2-1
The reasons for constructing a frequency distribution are as
follows:
To organize the data in a meaningful, intelligible way.
To enable the reader to determine the nature or shape of
the distribution.
To facilitate computational procedures for measures of
average and spread (shown in Sections 31 and 32).
To enable the researcher to draw charts and graphs for the
presentation of data (shown in Section 22).
To enable the reader to make comparisons among different
data sets.
Exercises 2 -1
Exercises 2 -1
Exercises 2 -1
Exercises 2 -1
Limits
54 - 62
63 - 71
72 - 80
81 - 89
90 - 98
99 - 107
108 - 116
Boundaries
53.5 - 62.5
62.5 - 71.5
71.5 - 80.5
80.5 - 89.5
89.5 - 98.5
98.5 - 107.5
107.5 - 116.5
cf
Less than 53.5 0
Less than 62.5 7
Less than 71.5 13
Less than 80.5 21
Less than 89.5 25
Less than 98.5 26
Less than 107.5 29
Less than 116.5 30
f
7
6
8
4
1
3
1
30
2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons,

and Ogives
3 Most Common Graphs in Research
1. Histogram
2. Frequency Polygon
3. Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive
pronounced o-jive)
2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons,

and Ogives
The histogram is a graph that displays the data
by using vertical bars of various heights to
represent the frequencies of the classes.
The class boundaries are represented on the

horizontal axis.
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions and Graphs
Section 2-2
Example 2-4
Page #57
Histograms
Construct a histogram to represent the data for
the record high temperatures for each of the 50
states (see Example 22 for the data).
112
110
107
116
120
100
118
112
108
113
127
117
114
110
120
120
116
115
121
117
134
118
118
113
105
118
122
117
120
110
105
114
118
119
118
110
114
122
111
112
109
105
106
104
114
112
109
110
111
114
Histograms
Histograms use class boundaries and
frequencies of the classes.
Class
Limits
100 - 104
105 - 109
110 - 114
115 - 119
120 - 124
125 - 129
130 - 134
Class
Boundaries
99.5 - 104.5
104.5 - 109.5
109.5 - 114.5
114.5 - 119.5
119.5 - 124.5
124.5 - 129.5
129.5 - 134.5
Frequency
2
8
18
13
7
1
1
Histograms
Histograms use class boundaries and
2.2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons,

and Ogives
The frequency polygon is a graph that
displays the data by using lines that connect
points plotted for the frequencies at the class
midpoints. The frequencies are represented
by the heights of the points.
The class midpoints are represented on the
horizontal axis.
Chapter 2
Section 2-2
Example 2-5
Page #58
Frequency Polygons
Construct a frequency polygon to represent the
data for the record high temperatures for each
of the 50 states (see Example 22 for the data).
112
110
107
116
120
100
118
112
108
113
127
117
114
110
120
120
116
115
121
117
134
118
118
113
105
118
122
117
120
110
105
114
118
119
118
110
114
122
111
112
109
105
106
104
114
112
109
110
111
114
Frequency Polygons
Frequency polygons use class midpoints and
Class Limits
100 - 104
105 - 109
110 - 114
115 - 119
120 - 124
125 - 129
130 - 134
Class
Midpoints
102
107
112
117
122
127
132
Frequency
2
8
18
13
7
1
1
Frequency Polygons
Frequency polygons use class midpoints and
A frequency polygon
is anchored on the
x-axis before the first
class and after the
last class.

and Ogives
The Ogive is a graph that represents the
cumulative frequencies for the classes in a
frequency distribution.
The upper class boundaries are represented
on the horizontal axis.
Chapter 2
Section 2-2
Example 2-6
Page #59
Ogives
Construct an ogive to represent the data for
the record high temperatures for each of the
50 states (see Example 22 for the data).
112
110
107
116
120
100
118
112
108
113
127
117
114
110
120
120
116
115
121
117
134
118
118
113
105
118
122
117
120
110
105
114
118
119
118
110
114
122
111
112
109
105
106
104
114
112
109
110
111
114
Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.
Class
Limits
100 - 104
105 - 109
110 - 114
115 - 119
120 - 124
125 - 129
130 - 134
Class
Boundaries
99.5 - 104.5
104.5 - 109.5
109.5 - 114.5
114.5 - 119.5
119.5 - 124.5
124.5 - 129.5
129.5 - 134.5
Cumulative
Frequency
Frequency
2
8
18
13
7
1
1
2
10
28
41
48
49
50
Ogives
Class Boundaries
Less than 104.5

Less than 109.5
Less than 114.5
Less than 119.5
Less than 124.5
Less than 129.5
Less than 134.5
Cumulative
Frequency
2
10
28
41
48
49
50
Ogives
Constructing Statistical Graphs
Step 1
Draw and label the x and y axes.
Step 2
Choose a suitable scale for the

frequencies or cumulative frequencies,
and label it on the y axis.
(Do not label the y axis with numbers in the
cumulative frequency)
Step 3
Represent the class boundaries for the

histogram or ogive, or the midpoint for
the frequency polygon, on the x axis.
Step 4
Plot the points and then draw the bars

or lines.

and Ogives
If proportions are used instead of
frequencies, the graphs are called relative
frequency graphs.
Relative frequency graphs are used when the
proportion of data values that fall into a given
class is more important than the actual
number of data values that fall into that class.
Chapter 2
Graphs
Section 2-2
Example 2-7
Page #61
Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and

ogive using relative frequencies for the
distribution (shown here) of the miles that 20
randomly selected runners ran during a
given week.
Class
Frequency
Boundaries
5.5 - 10.5
1
10.5 - 15.5
2
15.5 - 20.5
3
20.5 - 25.5
5
25.5 - 30.5
4
30.5 - 35.5
3
35.5 - 40.5
2
Histograms
The following is a frequency distribution of miles
run per week by 20 selected runners.
Class
Frequency
Boundaries
5.5 - 10.5
1
10.5 - 15.5
2
15.5 - 20.5
3
20.5 - 25.5
5
25.5 - 30.5
4
30.5 - 35.5
3
35.5 - 40.5
2
f = 20
Relative
Frequency
1/20 = 0.05
2/20 = 0.10
3/20 = 0.15
5/20 = 0.25
4/20 = 0.20
3/20 = 0.15
2/20 = 0.10
rf = 1.00
Divide each
frequency by
the total
frequency to
get the
relative
frequency.
Histograms
Use the class boundaries and the relative
Frequency Polygons
Class
Boundaries
5.5 - 10.5
10.5 - 15.5
15.5 - 20.5
20.5 - 25.5
25.5 - 30.5
30.5 - 35.5
35.5 - 40.5
Class
Midpoints
8
13
18
23
28
33
38
Relative
Frequency
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
Frequency Polygons
Use the class midpoints and the relative
Ogives
Class
Frequency
Boundaries
5.5 - 10.5
1
10.5 - 15.5
2
15.5 - 20.5
3
20.5 - 25.5
5
25.5 - 30.5
4
30.5 - 35.5
3
35.5 - 40.5
2
f = 20
Cumulative
Frequency
1
3
6
11
15
18
20
Cum. Rel.
Frequency
1/20 = 0.05
3/20 = 0.15
6/20 = 0.30
11/20 = 0.55
15/20 = 0.75
18/20 = 0.90
20/20 = 1.00
Ogives
Class Boundaries
Less than 10.5

Less than 15.5
Less than 20.5
Less than 25.5
Less than 30.5
Less than 35.5
Less than 40.5
Cum. Rel.
Frequency
0.05
0.15
0.30
0.55
0.75
0.90
1.00
Ogives
Use the upper class boundaries and the
cumulative relative frequencies.

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Dr.

Dua for Study

Organize data using a frequency distribution.

2-1 Organizing Data

A frequency distribution is the organization

Categorical Frequency Distribution

Construct a frequency distribution for the data.

Categorical Frequency Distribution

Categorical Frequency Distribution

Grouped Frequency Distribution

Grouped Frequency Distribution

Grouped Frequency Distribution

Grouped Frequency Distribution

Grouped Frequency Distribution

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

There should be 5-20 classes.

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

have enough classes to present a clear

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency

Constructing a Grouped Frequency

Constructing a Grouped Frequency

Constructing a Grouped Frequency

Constructing a Grouped Frequency

first upper class limit is one less than

subsequent upper class limits are

Constructing a Grouped Frequency

Constructing a Grouped Frequency

Constructing a Grouped Frequency

Constructing an Ungrouped Frequency

ungrouped frequency distribution.

Constructing an Ungrouped Frequency

Constructing an Ungrouped Frequency

Constructing an Ungrouped Frequency

Constructing an Ungrouped Frequency

The first type, shown in Example 21, is used when

2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons,

2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons,

The class boundaries are represented on the

2.2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons,

2.2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons,

Less than 104.5

Constructing Statistical Graphs

Draw and label the x and y axes.

Choose a suitable scale for the

Represent the class boundaries for the

Plot the points and then draw the bars

2.2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons,

Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and

Less than 10.5

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