CHAPTER 9

INTELLIGENCE
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
I. Nature of Intelligence
A. The definition of intelligence involves the ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from
experience.
B. The focus is on individual differences and assessment. Individual differences are the stable,
consistent ways in which people differ. Intelligence tests assess individual differences on various
measures of intelligence.
II. Intelligence Testing
A. Approaches to Testing
1. The Binet Tests
a) Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence test in France in 1905. He developed the
concept of mental age (MA), which is ones level of mental development in comparison to
others.
b) In 1912 Stern developed the concept of IQ, which refers to intelligence quotient. It is the
ratio of mental age to chronological age X 100 (MA/CA X 100).
c) The Binet test has been revised and is now the Stanford-Binet.
d) The Binet test has been standardized on large numbers of persons at various ages. Scores
on the Stanford-Binet approximate a normal distribution.
e) The Binet test can be used with ages 2 through adulthood.
2. Wechsler Scales
a) David Wechsler developed tests for preschoolers, for school-age children and adolescents,
and for adults. His scales provide an overall IQ as well as scores on verbal and
performance subscales.
b) The Wechsler scales are comprised of 11 subtests (6 verbal and 5 nonverbal).
B. Group Tests of Intelligence
1. Advantages of group tests
a) Economical
b) Convenient
2. Disadvantages of group tests
a) Examiner cannot establish rapport
b) Examiner cannot determine level of anxiety
3. When used for placement of a child for special education, the decision cannot be based on a
group intelligence test.
4. SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) provides scores for verbal and math ability but not an overall IQ
score.
5. SAT is only one of several pieces of information used in college admissions.
C. Criteria of a Good Intelligence Test
1. Validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it was intended to measure. Types of
validity include those listed below.
a) Content validity refers to being able to test across a range of the content of interest.
b) Criterion validity involves the prediction of performance on other measures of the same
attribute.
2. Reliability is the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of
performance, for example when given on two occasions or when given using alternate forms.
a)
3.

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4. Standardization is achieved by having uniform procedures for the administration and scoring of
the test as well as having norms (established standards of performance) for the test.
D. Cultural Bias in Testing
1.
a)
b)
c)
2. Early intelligence tests were biased in favor of urban, middle-class white persons.
3. Culture-fair tests are designed to be not culturally biased. There are two types.
a) One type uses items that are appropriate for people from all SES and ethnic groups.
b) The second type removes all verbal questions (e.g., Raven Progressive Matrices Test).
c) The SOMPA (System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment) was designed for children
from low-income families, and it relies on information from four different areas of the
childs life: (a) an intelligence test, (b) social and economic background, (c) a questionnaire
on social adjustment to school, and (d) a physical health examination.
E. The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests
1. To be effective, such tests should be used in conjunction with other information about an
individual.
2. An IQ test alone should not determine whether a child is placed in a special class.
3. Ability tests can help group children who function at roughly the same level in a content area,
but period assessment of the groups is needed.
III. Theories of Multiple Intelligence
A. Factor Analysis, Two-Factor, and Multiple-Factor Theory
1. Spearman proposed the two-factory theory in which intelligence consisted of general ability
(g) and specific abilities (s).
2. Thurstone proposed the multiple-factor theory for which he described seven abilities (verbal
comprehension, number ability, word fluency, spatial visualization, associative memory, and
perceptual speed).
3. Howard Gardner proposed eight frames of mind. They include verbal, math, spatial, bodilykinesthetic, music, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist skills. Gardner's approach is
being applied to education in settings where activities are designed to stimulate abilities in a
variety of areas.
4. Robert Sternbergs triarchic theory purports that there are three types of intelligence and that
most tasks require a bit of all three types.
a) In analytical intelligence, the basic unit in intelligence is a component, simply defined as a
basic unit of information processing.
b) Creative intelligence involves the ability to solve problems quickly.
c) Practical intelligence is a type of intelligence for maneuvering through daily life.
5. Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide thinking and action (Salovey &
Mayer, 1990). Goleman popularized the concept of emotional intelligence.
B.

1.
a)
b)

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c)
C. Evaluation of the Multiple Intelligence(MI) Approach
1. MI stimulated thought about what comprises intelligence and competence.
2. MI led educators to develop curricula to stimulate different domains.approaches indicates that
they show promise but more research and evaluation is needed.
3. Critics say that the research base to support MI has not been developed.
D. Do Children Have a General Intelligence?
1. Some argue that individuals do have a general intelligence that predicts success.
2. Others point out that IQ tests predict less than do factors such as motivation and education.
3. Caroll (1993) found support for both the general factor and specialized abilities.
IV. Intelligence in Infancy and Developmental Transformations
A. Infant intelligence tests
1. The infant-testing movement grew out of the tradition of IQ testing with older children.
2. Arnold Gesell developed infant tests as early as the 1930s.to discriminate normal from
abnormal babies. The Gesell test has four categories: motor, language, adaptive, and personalsocial. The score is called the developmental quotient (DQ).
3. The Bayley Scales of Infant Development were created by Nancy Bayley in the late 1960s.
They are widely used today. They have three subscales: Mental Scale, Motor Scale, and the
Behavior Rating Scale. A second edition of the Bayley Scales was created recently.
4. 4. The Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence focuses on the ability to process information and is a
good predictor of intelligence in older children.
B. Stability and Change in Intelligence
1. Infant test scores are virtually unrelated to intelligence at age 5 years.
2. IQ scores at older ages (6, 8, and 9 years) are more reliably related to scores at the age of 10.
3. A study by McCall et al. found that the average range of IQ scores was more than 28 points,
suggesting that IQ scores can fluctuate dramatically and that intelligence is not as stable as
once thought.
4. Information Processing Tasks as Predictors of Intelligence: Measures of habituation and
dishabituation predict intelligence in childhood and adolescence.
V.
1.
2.
a)
VI.
VII. Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
A. Mental retardation
1. Mental retardation refers to a condition in which an individual has a low IQ (usually below
70), cannot adapt to daily activities, and displayed the condition during the developmental
years.
2. Classification of retardation based on the severity of the condition is as follows: mild (IQs of 55
to 70), moderate (IQs of 40 to 54), severe (IQs of 25 to 39), and profound (IQs below 25).
3. Classification of retardation based on cause of the condition includes:
a) Organic
b) Cultural-familial
B. Giftedness
1. Giftedness is defined as having an IQ above average (above 130) and/or as having some
special talent.
2. Lewis Terman studied 1,500 gifted children into adulthood.
3. Winner listed the following characteristics of gifted children:

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a) They are precocious.

b) They learn in a different way than do other children and solve problems in a unique way.
c) They have an intense interest, ability to focus, and self-motivation.
C. Creativity
1. Creativity is defined as the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to
come up with unique solutions to problems.
2. Guilford distinguished between convergent thinking in which one produces one correct answer
and divergent thinking in which one provides multiple answers.
3. Creativity can be encouraged through brainstorming (coming up with ideas in a group and in
an environment free of evaluation), by providing nurturing environments where creativity and
curiosity are appreciated, and by refraining from excess control. Creativity is supported in
environments that rely on intrinsic motivation rather than rewards, prizes, or grades for
motivation. Flexible and playful thinking seems to be a route to creativity. Finally, children
should be given opportunities to meet or learn about creative persons.
D. The Influence of Heredity and Environment
1. Heredity Influences
a) Jensen (1969) proposed that intelligence is partially inherited and influenced little by
environment and culture.
b) Jensen relied on studies of identical vs. fraternal twins as evidence of the contribution of
heredity to intelligence.
c) Heritability refers to the proportion of IQ that is attributed to genetics.
2. Environmental Influences
a) Researchers agree that intelligence is not heritable to the degree that Jensen believed.
b) There is much interest in manipulating the early environment of children at risk.
c) Environmental influences on intelligence have been demonstrated in studies of parenting and
in intervention programs for children at risk for having low IQs and dropping out of
school.
d) Schooling affects intelligence.
3. Group Comparisons
a) Cross-Cultural Comparisons: Cultures vary in the way they define intelligence. Hence, in a
cross-cultural context, intelligence depends largely on the environment.
b) Ethnic Comparisons: In the U. S., African American and Latino school children score lower
on intelligence tests than do white schoolchildren.
c) There are gender differences in specific intellectual abilities.

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SUGGESTIONS FOR LECTURE TOPICS

1. The Origins of Intelligence Tests
Textbooks often give a brief account of the beginning of the intelligence testing movement. Doing so is an
excellent introduction to the topic, and a good way to bring forth most of the classic concerns with the
enterprise and with the concept of intelligence.
You could begin your lecture with a brief treatment of Galton's idea of the inheritance of intellect. Briefly
summarize Galton's ideas (these are usually outlined in introductory psychology texts), and then discuss
Galton's idea that intelligence could be measured in terms of elementary cognitive functions such as
reaction time; and that intelligence represents a biological trait much like any other. You might conclude
with Galton's observations that genius seemed to run in families, the inferences he drew from that, and his
interesting recommendations about the value of eugenics. This might be a good time to let the class discuss
the ideas you are presenting.
Continue with a few examples of other early attempts to measure intelligence (you could draw on Stephen
Jay Gould's The Mismeasure of Man). The main point is to show that most early attempts foundered,
which is also an opportunity to review concepts such as reliability and validity.
Make the high point of your lecture a presentation of Binet's success. You could emphasize any of the
following points: (a) the practical basis of Binet's work (the French government's commission); (b) Binet's
empirical approach (development and norming of items that discriminated between children of different
ages); (c) the essentially developmental basis of Binet's work (something often overlooked in discussion of
the intelligence); (d) Binet's belief that intelligence was learned and remediable; and (e) Binet's concerns
with the need for an objective, reliable, and valid measure. All of these points figure in contemporary
controversies about intelligence, and presenting them allows you to cast contemporary issues in a historical
context.
You could conclude your lecture with examples of how IQ tests came to be used after Binet developed the
first successful one. For example, one of the first big users was the United States Army, who also figured
large in the development of group intelligence tests. The tests also played a role in attempts to control
immigration in the early 1920s into the United States.
2. Measuring Infant Intelligence
A problem of long-standing interest is the question of whether individual differences in infant intelligence
can be measured and whether they have predictive value. A lecture on this topic would be an opportunity to
explore how basic values influence what researchers consider to be good and important questions, a chance
to illustrate and elaborate the stability/change issue, and a further vehicle to discuss how modern
methodological advances have contributed both to our scientific and, potentially, applied knowledge of
infants.
Briefly trace the history of attempts to develop developmental scales for infants, expanding on the
textbook's coverage. In this treatment it would be important to indicate that these early tests never yielded
impressive correlations with later intelligence, yielding an opportunity to review the meaning and uses of
correlational findings. Note that recent fine-grain analyses of performance on Bayley scales have shown
that some subscales on this test predict later language ability. Finally, present the evidence that rate of
habituation in very young infants correlates with later measured intelligence.

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Finally, speculate about the meaning of this correlation. Does it mean that intelligence is basically a
biological trait? Or does it suggest that differences in information-processing capacity lead to differential
rates of learning and remembering? Is rate of habituation a cause of intellectual development or is it related
to something else? If you can, it would be valuable to interpret these findings in terms of several theories of
intelligence (e.g., Jensen's, Gardner's, Sternberg's).
Be sure to get information on the new revised (2nd edition) of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development that
is mentioned in Chapter 9 of Child Development. If possible, bring a Bayley testing kit to class so students
can see the types of materials used.
3. Product and Process in the Study of Intelligence
In recent years, theorists and researchers like Lauren Resnick and Robert Sternberg have emphasized the
important process versus product distinction in the study of intelligence. They point out that traditional
intelligence tests focus on the products of intelligence and as such are limited indices of intellectual
processes. Although Binet, the creator of the first successful intelligence test, hoped to go beyond the
product orientation, that remains the dominant legacy of the tests. Perhaps an unfortunate concomitant
(though unintended) legacy is the view that intelligence is a fixed quantity rather than a dynamic, changing
process.
Modern researchers have been dissatisfied with this state of affairs and have attempted a process-oriented
approach to the analysis of intelligence. Present a lecture that outlines this approach. A good, seminal
reference is Resnick's 1976 book, The Nature of Intelligence, or any of a number of works by Robert
Sternberg. Begin by presenting the limitations of intelligence tests as devices for revealing the nature of
intelligence. Basically, the tests permit us only to guess about the nature of the processes that underlie
intellectual performance and do nothing to outline how these processes may accrue or change with age.
Then outline what it might mean to take a process approach. This basically involves reviewing the
information processing approach, which may mean reviewing material that you have presented in previous
lectures.
The culmination of the lecture is an analysis of any standard intelligence test item. Sternberg's analysis of
analogies is an excellent example. A fun prelude to it is to have the class solve this analogy: Washington is
to 1 as Lincoln is to (5, 10, 15, 50). This is Sternberg's own example; students' correct and incorrect
guesses help to illustrate through personal experience the validity of Sternberg's componential analysis.
Sternberg also shows how his componential analysis illuminates development. It turns out that children
cannot carry out a crucial step, which uniformly results in failure; adolescents, by contrast, pass it.
Sternberg also presents data on the success of training people to perform the various mental steps needed to
solve analogies.
4. Spatial Orientations Intelligence
Children as young as age 6 can infer spatial relationships in familiar environments. Six-year-olds are as
likely as older children to use permanent, reliable environmental cues (e.g., bridges, street signs,
storefronts) instead of transient, unreliable cues (e.g., "house for sale'' sign, parked car). Six-year-olds have
some skill in providing general directions to neighborhood landmarks not visible from their own homes
(Herman et al., 1987).
However, even 11-year-olds have difficulty determining spatial environments in large, unfamiliar
environments (Herman et al., 1987). Even though older children have trouble negotiating their way in
strange environments, most airlines do not provide "child escort service'' after the age of 11. Perhaps

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schools need to provide more direct training on spatial conceptual abilities and on strategies for negotiating
one's way in unfamiliar settings.
Spatial orientation abilities are often viewed as skills in which males are better than females. However,
preschoolers and school-aged children exhibit few sex differences. The relationship between gender and
spatial development really shows up in late adolescence (Cohen, 1986). Perhaps differential treatment
toward males and females in childhood results in significant differences in abilities from late adolescence
on. Although older children are allowed to go farther from home than are younger children, at all ages boys
are permitted greater distances than are girls (Herman et al., 1987). The greater physical distance
experiences may be one aspect of improving males' spatial orientation abilities over time. Formal
instruction in a variety of spatial orientation skills, such as map reading, might be helpful in reducing
gender differences in this area.
Sources: Cohen, H. G. (1986). A longitudinal study of the development of spatial conceptual ability.
Journal of Genetic Psychology, 148, 71-78; Herman, J. F., Heins, J. A., & Cohen, D. S. (1987). Children's
spatial knowledge of their neighborhood environment. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 8,
1015.
5. Characteristics of Gifted Children
How would you describe gifted individuals? Many believe that gifted children are odd, physically inept,
glasses-wearing loners. Actually, most gifted children are above average in physical development, social
skills, and psychological adjustment. However, many gifted children are near-sighted and therefore wear
glasses.
The first longitudinal study of gifted children was begun in California in the 1920s by Lewis Terman.
Terman studied 1,500 children with IQs from 140 to 200. In middle childhood they scored well in a variety
of measures from achievement to social and physical skills. They even were 2.5 centimeters taller than their
peers. Followed throughout their lives, most of the male subjects (almost 90%) went to college; many of
them became doctors, lawyers, writers, and researchers. Because of the time period (they were born in the
1910s), most of the women became housewives. As adults they had below average rates of alcoholism,
mental health problems, physical health problems, criminal records, and divorce.
Recent studies also conclude that gifted children are average to superior to their peers on social and
emotional adjustment. They score lower on aggression and hostility and higher on perseverance and need
for achievement.
Some gifted children have problems in school because they find it boring. After all, textbooks and
curriculum are geared to the average child. School systems sometimes try enrichment programs,
acceleration programs, and other special programs to try to challenge gifted children.
Sources: Reiss, S. M. (1989). Reflections on policy affecting the education of gifted and talented students.
American Psychologist, 44, 399-408; Stamps, L. E., & Clark, C. L. C. (1987). Relations between the Type
A behavior pattern and intelligence in children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 148, 529-531; OlszewskiKubilius, P. M., Kulieke, M. J., & Krasney, N. 1988. Personality dimensions of gifted children and
adolescents, Gifted Child Quarterly, 32, 347-352; Halpern, J. J., & Luria, Z. (1989). Labels of giftedness
and gender-typicality: Effects on adults' judgments of children's traits. Psychology in the Schools, 26, 301310; Benbow, C. (1988). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability in intellectually talented
preadolescents: Their nature, effects, and possible causes. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11, 169-183.
6. Uses and Abuses of the Modern IQ Test

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Binets original intelligence test was designed to identify those who needed remediation, and IQ tests are
still used for that purpose today. However, the views on this use have changed, as have views on the special
classes created for those who were in need of remediation. For example, California has abolished the use of
IQ tests in selecting children for remedial assistance (Santrock, 1996), and the rising popularity of
inclusion, or including children with special needs in regular classrooms, attests to changes in the
perception of what method is best for remediation.
What are the problems associated with IQ tests?
a. IQ tests are used as a gatekeeper for success. Tests predict school performance, which is used to select
people for higher education, particularly the professional schools that produce doctors and lawyers. If
you correlate IQ and income or status, you get a misleading correlation; the relationship exists, but it is
due to the third variable, school success, rather than to IQ test score. In addition, we will never know
whether or not someone with a lower IQ score could be a doctor or a lawyer, as they have already been
selected out.
b. They make the biology as destiny argument easier. Various people, including Jensen (1969) and
Herrenstein and Murrays (1994) Bell Curve have used IQ test data to prove that intelligence (note
the move between IQ test scores and intelligence) is genetic and therefore unchangeable. Jensen, for
instance, claimed that intelligence was 80% genetic, so remedial programs were a waste of time and
money. Much of this research is based on data from identical twins raised apart. However, in a
reanalysis of some of the twin study data, Bronfenbrenner (1975) found significant effects for the type
of community in which the twins lived. For example, twins who lived in the same type of community
and attended similar schools had IQ scores that correlated more highly than did those who were reared
in environments that differed. This indicates that IQ is not merely the expression of some gene or genes;
it is tied to the context in which it occurs.
c. It is easy to use IQ tests inappropriately. Because of time and money constraints, IQ tests are often
used alone in selection decisions (Sattler, 1992). Ethically and legally, such decisions should be made
only after obtaining multiple sources of information. Some of the guidelines for appropriate assessment
include: tests are samples of behavior; tests do not directly reveal capacities or traits; test results must
be interpreted in relation to other behavioral, observational, and case study data; results should be
understood within the context of the childs ethnic and social class background, primary language and
any handicaps; test scores depend on the childs motivation and cooperation; and fatigue, hunger,
anxiety or other temporary conditions can and do skew test scores (Sattler, 1992).
IQ does not measure the full range of a persons capabilities in context. For instance, Ceci and Liker (1986)
studied people who bet on horses. The most effective of these racetrack bettors used sophisticated models
involving as many as seven variables, nonlinearity, and multiple interactions to predict the success of the
horses. There was no correlation with IQ; four of the best of these bettors had IQs in the mid-80s. This IQ
score is near to or within the range described as mild mental retardation (Sattler, 1992). In addition, other
cultures see intelligence as encompassing more than just IQ. In Japan, for instance, emotional control is
considered to be part of intelligence.
Finally, discuss how selection decisions would be made without reference to IQ tests. Discuss the benefits
and pitfalls associated with other indicators, such as teacher reports and grades. Also discuss the real-world
implications of these issues; for instance the need to provide assistance to those who do not do well in
traditional schools, and the stigma associated with that assistance. Finally, discuss the financial and
personal costs of such decisions. Ask students to envision themselves in various situationsthat of parent,
teacher, or the testing psychologist. Have them consider and discuss what they would do if they were thrust
into such a situation.

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Sources: Bronfenbrenner, U. (1975). Nature with nurture: A reinterpretation of the evidence. In A.

Montague (Ed.), Race and IQ, 114-144. New York: Oxford University; Ceci, S. J., & Liker, J. (1986). A
day at the races: IQ, expertise, and cognitive complexity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,
115, 255-266; Santrock, J. W. (1996). Child development (7th Ed.) Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark;
Sattler, J. M. (1992). Assessment of children (3rd Ed). San Diego: J. J. Sattler.
This Suggested Lecture Topic was written by E. Bert Fox, Ph. D., Assistant Professor, University of
Wisconsin, Stout, WI.

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7. Thurstone's Seven Primary Mental Abilities

Louis Leon Thurstone, mathematician and psychologist, was an assistant of Thomas Edison, an originator
of tests used by the U.S. Army in World War I, an engineering professor, a psychology professor, and a
president of the American Psychological Association. His wife, Thelma, was a research collaborator with
him.
Thurstone did not believe that intelligence should be measured in one general term. So he engaged in six
years of research with 56 tests that he gave to 240 students whose IQs were above average. When he
analyzed the resultant data, he concluded that intelligence was made up of seven separate mental abilities:
numbers, words, visual imagery, memory, perception, induction, (finding a rule governing a set of facts),
and verbal reasoning.
Thurstone also concluded that persons who rank high in one of the abilities are likely to have high scores in
the other abilities. However, there were frequent cases of superior individuals doing poorly on one or more
sections. Several bright persons, for example, had poor memory. He also found that the work people like to
do is likely to match their particular mental abilities. Many vocational counselors believe that matching
abilities and interests to career plans leads to the highest levels of job satisfaction.
Source: Gerow, J. Time Retrospective: Psychology 1923-1988, 18.)
8. Superbabies
Superbabies are advanced-achieving infants who are trained to perform precociously by their parents.
Every generation has taken pride in having offspring who walk or talk early, but today's parents may put a
lot of time and effort into increasing infant knowledge. Parents who are more educated, older, and
economically well-off are the most likely to work on having a superbaby. The parents themselves are often
competitive and successful. They are often aware of animal studies that show advantages of enriched
environments and the impressive results of longitudinal studies of Sesame Street and Head Start. (However,
these studies show the advantages of enrichment over deprivation and do not address the advantages of
enrichment over typical home environment.) They also know that scientists have found that fetuses can
hear, and some ambitious parents start prenatal education. Some parents create their own infant education
program; others dole out money for programs such as Glenn Doman's Better Baby Institute, which has
been around since the 1960s. Parents can take a one-week intensive training program in how to use flash
cards three times a day with infants. For example, babies may be shown a picture of an apple along with
APPLE, or a picture of Mona Lisa along with LEONARDO DA VINCI.
Critics are concerned that superbabies may learn to mimic and memorize rather than excel in curious
creativity. In other words, drilling does not equal comprehending. Infants may also adopt the notion that
learning is stressful, and may become worried that they will fail their parents' expectations. Superbaby
learning may impede other skills in the arenas of social, physical, and emotional learning. Critics also
suggest that much of the parental efforts may be a waste of time. First, brain maturation is necessary for
some learning. Second, infants learn well from everyday situations.
Sources: Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1987). Knowing your child. New York: Basic; Elkind D. (1981). The
hurried child: Growing up too fast too soon. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley; Kagan, J. (1984). The
nature of the child. New York: Basic; Langway, L. (1983, March 28). Bringing up superbaby. Newsweek,
62-68; Meyerhoff, M. K. (1988, August). Avoiding the superbaby syndrome. American Baby, 18-22.
9. Federal Initiatives to Boost Early Childhood Intellectual Development

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In the year 2003, President George Bush proposed a new Early Childhood Initiative in order to strengthen
early learning. This initiative is called Good Start, Grow Smart, and focuses on these three main areas:
(1) strengthening Head Start, (2) partnering with states to improve early childhood education, and (3)
providing information to teachers, caregivers, and parents (Bush, 2002, 1-2).
Prepare a lecture outlining initiatives by the United States government to boost intellectual development
during the critical early childhood years. Much of the information on the historically significant programs
such as Head Start and Early Start are available on the Internet. Some major initiatives and their Web sites
are listed below.
Head Start: http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/hsb/index.htm
Early Head Start: http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/hsb/programs/ehs/ehs.htm
American Indian-Alaska Native Program:
http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/hsb/programs/index.htm - migrant
No Child Left Behind: http://www.nochildleftbehind.gov/
Good Start, Grow Smart: http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/earlychildhood/toc.html
The Web sites for these initiatives contain links to descriptions of career opportunities for early childhood
specialists.
10. Testing Preschoolers
One part of President Bushs Good Start, Grow Smart initiative is to strengthen Head Start by assessing
whether they meet the standards for reading, language, and numeracy skills. In addition to assessing Head
Start programs, the individual children in these programs will be assessed three times each year (Bush,
2002). President Bushs early childhood initiative also calls for coordination of pre-k and kindergarten
learning. States that participate must create state preschool goals and accountability programs (Bush,
2003).
Implementation of President Bushs initiative on preschool assessment raises the possibility of standardized
testing for preschool. Standardized testing for young children has been discussed by several professional
organizations, including the National Association for the Education of Young Children. NAEYCs (1987)
position states that standardized testing plays a role in early childhood education, but that it should not be
the sole method for assessing young children. NAEYC states:
Standardized tests have an important role to play in ensuring that childrens achievement or special needs
are objectively and accurately assessed and that appropriate instructional services are planned and
implemented for individual children. However, standardized tests are only one of multiple sources of
assessment information that should be used when decisions are made about what is best for young
children. (NAEYC, 1987, 5)
NAEYC (1987) also suggests seven guidelines to make standardized tests useful. These seven guidelines
are as follows:

All standardized tests should be both reliable and valid.

Major decisions which impact children should be based on multiple methods.
Administrators and teachers should evaluate tests and use tests only for the purposes for which the
test measures.
Administrators and teachers should know the facts of the tests and be able to accurately interpret
results.
In order to assess programs, tests should be selected which match the programs goals, philosophy,
and objectives.

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Testing should be administered by professionals who are aware of childrens development and
needs.
Individual diversity should be taken into account.

Based on NAEYCs position, if states implement President Bushs Early Childhood Initiative, many other
methods such as authentic assessment techniques and performance based assessments are possibilities to be
considered in addition to standardized testing when thinking of assessing for accountability in preschool
children.
Sources: Bush, G. W. (2002). Good Start, Grow Smart: The Bush administrations early childhood
initiative. Retrieved March 21, 2003, from
http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/earlychildhood/earlychildhood.html; Bush, G. W. (2003). The presidents
proposal to strengthen Head Start and improve preschool programs. Retrieved March 24, 2003 from
http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/earlychildhood/hspolicybook/03.html; National Association for the
Education of Young Children (1987). Standardized testing of young children 3 through 8 years of age: A
position statement of the national association for the education of young children. Retrieved March 21,
2003 from http://www.naeyc.org/resources/position_statements/pstest98.pdf.
This Suggested Lecture Topic was contributed by Aleysha Casas, a graduate student in the Department of
Human Development, Virginia Tech.
11. Assessing Creativity
In Chapter 9, Santrock makes a distinction between intelligence and creativity. He provides information on
how intelligence is measured and the criteria for good tests of intelligence. Creativity is defined, in part,
by Guilfords concept of divergent thinking. However, little attention is given to how creativity is tested.
Consider devoting a lecture period to the measurement of creativity. Can it be operationally defined and
measured? Should creativity be measured by the quantity or quality of responses? Must the ideas be
original for society or innovative in comparison to ones peer group? Do childrens creative behaviors differ
depending on the type of test stimuli used? Is a verbal interview requesting verbal answers a good measure
or creativity? Or should children respond to pictures or photographs to generate ideas? Or should the test
stimuli be comprised of three-dimensional objects? Considerable work on this topic was conducted in the
1980s by a group of researchers in the Department of Human Development at Virginia Tech. Below is a list
of referred publications related to testing for creativity. These sources can serve as a basis for a lecture on
measuring creativity. You might want to follow the lecture with a cooperative group activity in which
students brainstorm ways to measure creativity.
Suggested Research Articles:

Milgram, R. M., Moran, J. D., Sawyers, J. K., & Fu, V. R. (1987). Original thinking in Israeli
preschool children. School Psychology International, 8, 54-58.

Moore, L. C., & Sawyers, J. K. (`1987). The stability of original thinking in young children.
Gifted Child Quarterly, 3, 126-129.

Moran, J. D., Milgram, R. M., Sawyers, J. K., & Fu, V. R. (1983). Stimulus specificity in the
measurement of original thinking in preschool children. The Journal of Psychology, 114, 9999105.

Moran, J. D., Milgram, R. M., Sawyers, J. K., & Fu, V. R. (1983). Original thinking in preschool
children. Child Development, 54, 921-926.
179

Moran, J. D., Sawyers, J. K., & Moore, A. J. (1988). Effects of structure in instruction and
materials on preschoolers creativity. Home Economics Research Journal, 17, 148-152.

Moran, J. D., Sawyers, J. K., Fu, V. R., & Milgram, R. M. Measuring creativity in preschool
children. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 22, 254-263.

Sawyers, J. K., & Moran, J. D. (1984). Locus of control and ideational fluency in preschool
children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 58, 857-858.

Sawyers, J. K., Moran, J. D., and Fu, V. R. (1983). Familiar versus unfamiliar stimulus items in
measurement of original thinking in young children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 51-55.

This suggested lecture topic was contributed by Dr. Janet Sawyers, Professor of Human Development at
Virginia Tech.

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TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE

Use the following annotated outline to determine how to best use the Total Teaching Package, including the
text features and ancillary materials, provided to you by McGraw-Hill to accompany Santrocks Child
Development 10th Edition.

Lecture Outline
Chapter9:Intelligence
I. Nature of Intelligence
A. Definition: Ability to solve problems and
to adapt and learn from experience
B. Focus: Individual differences and
assessment
II. Intelligence Testing
A. Approaches
B. Binet Tests
a) Binet developed first
intelligence test (1905)
b) Stern: Concept of IQ (MA/CA
X 100)
c) Binet test is now StanfordBinet
d) Binet test used with ages 2
through adulthood
2. Wechsler Scales
a) Provides overall IQ, verbal,
and performance IQ
b) Comprised of 11 subtests
C. Group Tests
1. Economical and convenient
2. Examiner cannot establish rapport
or determine anxiety level
3. Should not be used as sole criterion
for special education placement
4. SATs measure verbal & math
ability but do not give overall IQ
score.
D. Criteria for good test
1. Content validity
2. Criterion validity
3. Reliability
4. Standardization
E. Culltural Bias in Testing
1. Early tests biased in favor of white,
middle-class urban children
2. Culture-fair tests
a) Appropriate for all SES and
ethnic groups
b) May be non-verbal (e.g., Raven

Resources Reference
PPT: PowerPoint Presentation # 9

CAD: 3
SLT: 1: The Origins of Intelligence Tests
SRP: 1: Reviews of Intelligence Tests
OHT/IG: 76: The Normal Curve and the
Stanford-Binet IQ Scores
SLT: 10: Testing Preschoolers

SLT: 9: Federal Initiatives to Boost Early

Childhood Intellectual Development

181

Progressive Matrices)
c) SOMPA for children from lowincome families.
F. Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests
1. Should not be used without other
information
2. Should not be used alone for
special child placement
3. Can be used for ability grouping,
but groups should be re-assessed
frequently
III. Theories of Multiple Intelligences
A. Factor Analysis, Two-Factor, and
Multiple-Factor Theory
B.
1. Spearman's two-factor theory
a) General ability (g)
b) Specific abilities (s)
2. Thurstone's multiple-factor theory:
seven abilities
3. Gardners 8 frames of mind
a) Verbal
b) Math
c) Spatial
d) Movement
e) Music
f) Insight about self
g) Insight about others
h) Naturalist
4. Sternbergs triarchic theory
a) Analytical
b) Creative
c) Practical
5. Emotional intelligence
C. Evaluation of Multiple Intelligence
Approach
1. Stimulated thought about nature of
intelligence
2. Stimulated curricula development
3. Research base needed to support
MI
D. General Intelligence
IV. Intelligence in Infancy and Developmental
Transformations
A. Infant intelligence tests
1. Infant testing grew out of tradition
of IQ testing with older children.
2. Gesell developed infant tests in
1930s.
3. Bayley Scales are widely used
today.

SLT: 6: Uses and Abuses of the Modern IQ Test

SLT: 10: Testing Preschoolers
IFG: 2: Guiding Children during Testing
CAD: 3
CTQ: 7
OHT/IG: 187: Fluid and Crystallized
Intellectual Development Across the Life Span

CTQ: 3:
SLT: 7: Thurstones Seven Primary Mental
Abilities
SLT: 4: Spatial Orientations Intelligence

SLT: 3: Product and Process in the Study of

Intelligence
CM: 9.3
CLT: 2: Measuring Infant Intelligence
SLT: 8: Superbabies
SLT: 9: Federal Initiatives to Boost Early
Childhood Intellectual Development
SLT: 10: Testing Preschoolers
IFG: 1
CCD: Toosje Thyssen Van Beveren, Infant
Assessment Specialist

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4. Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence

Jarvis: 7.C: Infant Cognition Tasks

V. Stability and Change in Intelligence

A. IQ can fluctuate considerably.
B. Infants tests scores do not predict
intelligence at age 5.
C. Information-processing tasks involving
attention are related to intelligence
scores in childhood.
D. Information-processing (habituation and
dishabituation) tasks predict later
intelligence.
VI. Extremes of Intelligence
A. Mental retardation
1. Low IQ (below 70)
2. Difficulty adapting
3. Classifications (mild to profound)
4. Causes
a) Organic
b) Cultural familial
B. Giftedness
1. Definition:
a) IQ above average (above 130)
OR
b) Special talent
2. Terman's study
3. Characteristics of gifted
C. Creativity
1. Definition: Ability to think about
something in novel and unusual
ways and come up with unique
solutions to problems
2. Guilford's view
a) Convergent thinking
b) Divergent thinking
3. Encouraging creativity

Jarvis: 7.H. Visit an Infant Perception Lab

Jarvis: 7.B: Infant Attention and Habituation
OHT/IG: 149: IQ Scores Fluctuate Very Little
CTQ: 4
CTQ: 5
Jarvis: 13.H: A Comparison of Intelligence Tests
for Children and Adolescents
SLT: 9: Federal Initiatives to Boost Early
Childhood Intellectual Development
SLT: 10: Testing Preschoolers
CCD: Sterling Jones, Supervisor of Gifted and
Talent Education
Jarvis: 9.A: Panel Discussion with Parents of
Children with Special Needs

SLT: 5: Characteristics of Gifted Children

Jarvis: 9.A: Panel Discussion with Parents of
Children with Special Needs

OHT/IG: 79: The Snowflake Model of

Creativity
SRP: 3: Creativity
Jarvis: 9.A: Panel Discussion with Parents of
Children with Special Needs
SLT: 11: Assessing Creativity
CTQ: 6: Making the World a Better Place

D. The Influence of Heredity and

Environment
1. Heredity
a) Jensens view: genetic
b) Jensens method: twin studies
2. Environment
a) Intelligence not heritable to
degree Jensen believed
b) Early environment can be
manipulated to support
intellectual development

SLT: 9: Federal Initiatives to Boost Early

Childhood Intellectual Development

183

c) Schooling affects intelligence

3. Group comparisons
a) Cross-cultural: Cultures vary
in ways they define intelligence.
b) Ethnic comparisons
c) Gender

Suggested AssignmentsReview of Chapter 9: Intelligence

Review the Learning Goals for Chapter 9.

Review and Reflect exercises for Chapter 9.

TTN: Consult the on-line learning center for links to Web sites that provide additional
information on topics presented in Chapter 9.

Suggested AssignmentsPreparation for Chapter 10: Language

Preview the Learning Goals for Chapter 10.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES OR DEMONSTRATIONS

1. Discuss the critical thinking exercise. You may find it useful and beneficial to suggest to students
that the discussion of heredity-environment interactions in Chapter 2 is directly relevant to
identifying the assumption in the exercise. Review that material if students cannot recall it or
explain it. The exercise also lends itself to a discussion of the nature of the evidence that Jensen
cited to support his case, and the overall logic of behavior genetic research.
2. Discuss the students' research projects as suggested below.
3. Have the students in small groups write a letter to an imaginary sister or brother whose 5-year-old
child was just given an IQ test and received a score of 65. The parents have been told that the child
will be placed in a class for the mentally retarded. Have the students advise their sibling.
You should not accept such a decision based only on an IQ test. Some specific local problem, such
as illness, or the death of a friend or pet might cause the deficiency. The child may not have paid
much attention during the test. IQ scores at young ages do not have great predictability of IQ
scores over the years. Parents should insist on (or even obtain themselves) a more extensive
evaluation. Work with the child to encourage and promote the sorts of skills the test indicates are
missing. Remember a correlation as high as .8 only accounts for 64% of the variability, so there is
plenty of room for the score to change even in one year. Know your state laws, because your state
may not permit such an assignment on the basis of an IQ score alone.
Source: Adapted from King, M. B., & Clark, D. E. (1989). Instructor's Manual to Accompany
Santrock and Yussen's Child Development: An Introduction, 4th ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown
Publishers.
4. Have you heard of Oscar Kriesen Buros? Back in the 1930s he began Buros' Mental
Measurement Yearbook, which describes and evaluates published psychological tests. By 1936,
there were already more than 4,000 standardized tests. Buros suggested that 9 out of 10 of these
tests were unreliable. In his critique he provided the following examples of poor test items:
Do you think this school is run as if it were a prison?
With what person do you spend the most time? (The correct answer was supposedly "mother'';
there was no adjustment for age of test-taker.)

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Do you think that standardized tests are more reliable than they were in the 1930s? Why? Do you
think that most classroom tests are reliable? Can you think of examples of unreliable or invalid
tests that you have taken?
Source: Gerow, J. (1988). Time Retrospective: Psychology 1923-1988, 24.
5. Have the class discuss whether or not child prodigies or geniuses are well-adjusted or maladjusted
individuals. Do they have more mental problems? Are they odd? Do they fail to live up to their
expectations? In what ways can schools and families help bright youngsters adjust to their
circumstances? Contrast the findings of Terman's longitudinal study of William James Sidis
provided here.
William James Sidis, the son of Russian immigrants, was taught by his father to read by age 3,
type by 4, read Russian, French, and German at 5, and Hebrew, Greek, and Latin by 6. Before he
was 7, he passed out of seventh grade and passed a medical school examination on the human
body. By 10 he understood integral calculus.
At 12 he entered Harvard. By adolescence he lost his goals and dropped out of graduate school. He lost
a teaching job, was arrested at a radical demonstration, refused to attend his father's funeral, and
became a cynical and eccentric person holding clerical jobs. He was poor and unemployed when he
died at 46 from a brain hemorrhage. Rumors circulated that he committed suicide.
The Sidis example has been given many times as a reason that schools should not have acceleration
and enrichment programs. However, more case examples suggest that "burnout'' is rare and
successes are much more likely.
Have students propose alternative explanations for Sidis' decline. Have them suggest ways to help
child geniuses.
Sources: Montour, K. (1977). William James Sidis, the broken twig. American Psychologist, 32, 265279; Townsend, J. K., & Gensley, J. T. (1978). The experts react to stereotyping gifted children. The
Gifted Child Quarterly, 22, 217-219.
6. Divide into small groups Give each group one of the following to compare and contrast:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences and Sternberg' Triarchic Theory

Intelligence and creativity
Divergent and convergent thinking
Heredity and environment
Standardized tests, authentic assessments, and performance based assessments

Instructions for groups:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Using chart paper, define both concepts.

Compare and contrast the ideas, recording the similarities and differences on the chart paper.
Identify your strengths and weaknesses in relation to the ideas you are analyzing.
In thinking back over your school experiences, were your strengths respected and appreciated
in the academic environment? Were the assessments used ones that clearly supported or
nurtured your strengths or your weaknesses?

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5. In relation to the ideas you are comparing, identify gaps or weaknesses in "Bush's Good Start,
Grow Smart" plan to strengthen Head Start, to improve early childhood education, and to
provide information to teachers, caregivers, and parents.
6. What changes would you suggest in Bush's initiative to better assess the strengths and
weakness of all children with a focus on the development of the whole child being important?
7. Use the following categories on chart paper to summarize thinking.
Comparisons
Gaps/Weaknesses
Suggestions/Changes
8. Have each group share their information with the class.

CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISE

Arthur Jensen is both famous and infamous for his claim that the main causes of individual differences in
intelligence are genetic. One of his stronger arguments is based on the positive correlation between degree
of genetic relatedness and intelligence (e.g., intelligence is more highly correlated between identical twins
than it is between fraternal twins). In order to accept the evidence from studies such as twin studies as
evidence for a genetic cause of individual differences in intelligence, one might make certain assumptions,
inferences, or observations. Which of the following statements is an assumption? Which is an inference?
Which is an observation?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Identical twins have exactly the same genetic makeup.

The environments of all pairs of siblings in the studies that Jensen reviewed are identical.
Genetic differences between individuals cause intellectual differences.
Modifying environments will have little effect on intelligence.
The correlation of IQs averages .82 for identical twins, but .50 for fraternal twins.

CONSIDERATIONS TO USE IN RESPONDING TO THE CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISE

A. This statement is an observation, being a statement of "the way things are" for identical twins
(assuming no genetic accidents that may have altered one or both twins' genetic makeup).
B. This is an assumption. Jensen does not consider the possibility that one or more genetic-environment
interactions creates substantially different environments for fraternal twins from those for identical
twins, and hence the possibility for different environmental effects on intelligence. (See Chapter 2 for
the discussion of different heredity-environment interactions.)
C. The statement is an inference. The work upon which Jensen relied is essentially correlational, and
hence it is not direct evidence of a cause-effect relationship. Thus Jensen interprets the facts as such.
D. This is an inference, based on Jensen's belief that environment contributes little to individual differences
in intelligence.
E. This is an observation, being namely the result of examining various studies of the correlations between
identical and fraternal twins and averaging their results.

STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS

RESEARCH PROJECT 1: REVIEWS OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS

186

There are many intelligence tests that follow the pattern of the Binet and Wechsler scales, but not all are
equally good. For this project you will gather information from Oscar Buros's Mental Measurement
Yearbook to find out which are the best by the standards outlined in Child Development.
Consult the latest edition of the Mental Measurement Yearbook available in your college or university
library. Locate reviews on as many intelligence tests in the yearbook as you can and systematically record
information available in the review on each test's reliability and validity (remember that there are different
forms of each of these criteria). For example, you could construct a table in which you list the name of a
test, and in associated columns you could list numerical values for tests of reliability and validity.
Once you have collected all the information you can, answer the following questions in a brief write-up of
your findings.
Questions
1. Were you able to compare the tests on the same measures?
2. Which test is most reliable? Which test is most valid?
3. What other information besides measures of reliability and validity appear to have been important
to reviewers of tests? Was cultural fairness considered?
4. Which test among those that you found is the best? Justify your answer.
Use in Classroom
In large- or small-group formats, have students report their findings and state what they each have decided
about what the best intelligence test is. Make sure that students give their reasons for their decisions. Keep
track of the discussion by listing nominations for best tests on blackboard or overhead (or whatever display
you have), with notations about the reasons students give for their decisions. Use the discussion to promote
students' awareness of the several issues that may influence decisions about which test to use, how to use
test results, and how to improve measures of intelligence.

RESEARCH PROJECT 2: CREATIVITY

This exercise illustrates structured interview methods and a test of creativity. Give a creativity task to two
children, one age 10 and the other age 15. In order to test the two children, you will need to clear this
through the human subjects review board at your school and get a signed informed consent form from the
children's parents.
Evaluate the children's responses with the hypotheses that there may be both age differences and individual
differences in creativity. Two tasks are to be presented to each child. Be sure to keep a "straight face''
during the child's response period and to treat both children the same. Use the following data sheet and data
summary sheet for collecting and summarizing data. Then answer the questions that follow after completing
the interviews of the children.
Data Sheet For Creativity Tasks
Child 1:_______________ Age: _____ Sex: ____ Date/Time________
Context for Observation: _________________________________________________________
Stimulus Question
Responses

187

What are some

unusual ways to use
a spoon?
How many objects
can you name that
are red?
Child 2:_______________ Age: _____ Sex: ____ Date/Time________
Context for Observation:_________________________________________________________
What are some
unusual ways to use
a spoon?
How many objects
can you name that
are red?

Data Summary:
1. Count the number of responses for each child for each task. Enter into the following table.
TASK
1
2

Child 1

Child 2

2. Without looking at the data first, create a scale measuring the originality of the responses and score the
responses for originality.

Questions
1. Which child had the larger number of responses for task 1? For task 2?
2. Which child had more original responses for task 1? For task 2?
3. Overall, which child seemed to provide more creative responses? To what would you attribute this?
How does your finding fit with information on creativity presented in the text? Do you think your
particular tasks were appropriate for eliciting creative responses in children? Why or why not?
Use in Classroom
Have the students present their data from the research project. Analyze the data for age and individual
differences in number of responses and originality of responses. Is there as much variability within each age
as there is between ages? Is there as much variability within the 5-year-old children as there is within the

188

10-year-old children? Could some of the variability be due to differences between experimenters, rather
than due to differences in the children? Did any sex differences appear in the data? How did researchers
create the originality scale? What criteria did they use in scoring the responses? How difficult a task was
devising the scale? Was the scale objective enough to allow another individual to use it and come up with
the same scoring of the responses? What is the possible validity of the measure of creativity they used?
The older children are likely to produce more suggestions for different ways to use a spoon; possibly that
may be because the older children know more. The suggestions may not really be unusual. The older
children are likely to know more things that are red. This latter question seems to require thinking that is
more convergent than divergent.
Experimenters can inadvertently cause differences or variability in the data by not treating each subject the
same. Preferential smiling, laughing, or scowling might encourage some and discourage other responses. A
standardized procedure is essential.

ESSAY QUESTIONS
Comprehension and Application Essay Questions
We recommend that you provide students with our guidelines for Answering Essay and Critical Thinking
Questions when you have them respond to these questions. Their answers to these kinds of questions
demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter.
1. Define intelligence and individual differences, and discuss how these ideas relate to concepts of
cognition developed in earlier chapters.
2. Compare and contrast the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler Scales.
3. Explain the abbreviation IQ. How is it related to intelligence tests?
4. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of group tests of intelligence.
5.
6. What are reliability, validity, and standardization, and how are they important in the discussion of
intelligence assessment? Explain.
7. Compare and contrast one traditional approach to intelligence (e.g., Binet) with one more modern
approach (e.g., Gardner).
8. Explain triarchic theory. What are the main components of triarchic theory?
9. Describe what is meant by emotional intelligence.
10. How is infant intelligence measured? Do infant measures predict childhood intelligence?
11. Discuss the use of information-processing tasks in infancy to predict intelligence. Should it be
included in infant intelligence tests? Explain.
12. How is mental retardation defined? How is it related to intelligence? Explain.
13. Discuss classifications of mental retardation.
14. Explain how information about the causes of mental retardation might bear on the heredityenvironment controversy concerning influences on intelligence.

189

15. How is giftedness defined? How is it related to intelligence? Does any particular theory of
intelligence explain giftedness better than others? Explain.
16. What are the characteristics of gifted children?
17. How are intelligence and creativity alike, and how are they different? How can we help children
become more creative?
18. Explain how retardation, giftedness, and creativity reflect (or do not reflect) the extremes of
intelligence.Discuss the hereditary-environmental issue of intelligence, and give three examples of
environmental influences.
19. What is the nature of cultural and ethnic differences in intelligence? How can we explain these
differences?
20. What is a culture-fair test? How does cultural bias relate to culture-fair tests?
21. Explain why developmentalists attempt to create culture-fair tests, and evaluate their success at
doing so to date.
22. How have intelligence tests been used? Misused? Does the evidence warrant discontinuation of
their use, or modifying their use?
23. Based on discussions in Chapter 9, propose an intelligence test that should be developed in the
future. What components would you include in your proposed test? Why?
24.
25.
26. Discuss the hereditary-environment issue of intelligence, and give three examples of environmental
influences.

Related Content to Use in Analyzing Answers for Essay Questions

1.

2.

Intelligence involves the ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experience.
Interest in intelligence has focused on individual differences and assessment. Individual
differences are the stable, consistent ways in which people are different from each other.
The primary components of intelligence are very close to the mental processes discussed in Chapter
8.

The Stanford-Binet is given to individuals from 2 years of age through adulthood. It includes a
variety of items, some of which require verbal responses, and others nonverbal responses.
The Wechsler scales provide an overall IQ, verbal and performance IQ, and information about 11
subsets. This allows the examiner to obtain separate verbal and nonverbal IQ scores and to see
quickly the areas of mental performance in which the individual is below average or above average.

The concept of IQ (intelligence quotient) was developed by Stern.

It is the ratio of mental age to chronological age X 100 (MA/CA X 100).

3.

190

4.

5.

Group testing offers the advantage of being economical and convenient.

Group tests are disadvantageous in that the examiner cannot easily establish rapport or determine
the anxiety of individuals being assessed.
Group tests are not useful for determining the best placement for children with special needs.

Reliability refers to how consistently an individual performs on a test if it is taken more than once
or if alternate forms of the exam are offered.
Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. Two forms of
validity are content and criterion. Content validity refers to being able to test across a range of the
content of interest. Criterion validity involves the prediction of performance on other measures of
the same attribute.
Standardization involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, as
well as creating norms for the test.
Any good test must be reliable, valid, and standardized in order for the researcher or client to be
able to use the information appropriately.
an indive to others. Average mental age scores co

191

6.

7.

8.

Early view: Spearman proposed the two-factor theory, which says that people have a general
ability (g) and specific abilities (s).
Contemporary approach: Gardner argues that intelligence consists of eight frames of mind
(verbal, math, spatial, movement, music, insight about self, insight about others, and naturalist).
Triarchic theory is Sternbergs theory that intelligence consists of analytical intelligence, creative
intelligence, and practical intelligence.
In analytical intelligence, the basic unit in intelligence is a component, simply defined as a basic
unit of information processing.
Creative intelligence involves the ability to solve problems quickly.
Practical intelligence is a type of practical intelligence for maneuvering through daily life.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide thinking and action (Salovey &
Mayer, 1990). It was popularized by Goleman.

The measures that assess infants are necessarily less verbal than IQ tests that assess the
intelligence of older children. The infant developmental scales contain far more items related to
perceptual motor development.
Research findings indicate virtually no relation between infant development scales and intelligence
at 5 years of age.

9.

10.

Infant information-processing tasks that involve attentionespecially habituation and

dishabituationare related to scores on standardized tests in childhood.
Individual responses

11.

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12.

13.

Mental retardation is a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual has low IQ,
usually below 70, on a traditional intelligence test, has difficulty adapting to everyday life, and has
an onset of these characteristics during the so-called developmental periodby age 18.

About 89% of individuals with mental retardation fall into the mild category, with IQs of 55 to 70.
About 6% are classified as moderately retarded, with IQs of 40 to 54. About 3.5% of individuals
with mental retardation are in the severe category, with IQs of 25 to 39. Less than 1% have IQs
below 25, and they fall into the profoundly mentally retarded classification.

Organic retardation is mental retardation caused by a genetic disorder or by brain damage;

organic refers to the tissues or organs of the body, so there is some physical damage in organic
retardation. Most people who suffer from organic retardation have IQs that range between 0 and 50
.
Cultural-familial retardation is a mental deficit in which no evidence of organic brain damage can
be found. Individuals IQs range from 55 to 70.

14.

Children are described as gifted when they have above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or
higher), and/or a special talent for something. Children who are talented in the visual and
performing arts, athletics, or other special aptitudes tend to be overlooked, as traditional
intelligence tests do not consider these domains.
Gardner included musical intelligence in his theory, but critics point out that there are geniuses in
many domains other than music.

15.

Three characteristics of gifted children are precocity, marching to the tune of a different
drummer (individuality), and a passion to master.

Creativity is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and come up with
unique solutions to problems.
Some good strategies to encourage childrens creativity are brainstorming, providing environments
that stimulate creativity, not overcontrolling and criticizing, encouraging internal motivation,
fostering flexible and playful thinking, and introducing children to creative people.

16.

17.

Intelligence tests have been used to discover indications of mental retardation or intellectual
giftedness, the extremes of intelligence. However, we should keep in mind that an intelligence test
should not be used as the sole indicator of mental retardation and giftedness.

Controversy swirls about whether intelligence is based more on heredity or environment.

Researchers agree that intelligence is not heritable to the degree that Jensen believed.
Environmental influences on intelligence have been demonstrated in studies of parenting and in
intervention programs for children at risk for having low IQs and dropping out of school.
Schooling affects intelligence.

18.

193

Intelligence, like other complex behaviors, has a genetic loading, but environmental factors make
important contributions to childrens intelligence.

19.

Culture-fair tests are intended to not be culturally biased, and they are an alternative to
traditional tests.
Most psychologists do not believe they can completely replace traditional intelligence tests.

20.

Early intelligence tests favored white, middle-class, urban individuals. Researchers have tried to
develop tests that accurately reflect a persons intelligence.
It is so hard to create culture-fair tests because most tests tend to reflect what the dominant culture
thinks is important. Even within the same culture, different groups could have different attitudes,
values, and motivation, and this could affect their performance on intelligence tests.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

We recommend that you have students follow our guidelines for Answering Essay and Critical Thinking
Questions when you ask them to prepare responses to these questions. Their answers to these kinds of
questions reflect an ability to apply critical thinking skills to a novel problem or situation that is not
specifically discussed in the chapter. These items most appropriately may be used as homework exercises
that can be answered either by individuals or groups. Collaboratively answered questions encourage
cooperative learning by students and reduce the number of papers that must be reviewed.
1. Check your library for books written for parents about the topic of childrens intelligence and read it or
learn as much as you can about it. Then write a brief review in which you (a) characterize the book or
resource; and (b) explain how the book or resource relates to material in the chapter.
2. Santrock sets off several quotations in this chapter. Indicate your ability to think critically by selecting
one of the quotes and (a) learning about the author and indicating why this individual is eminently
quotable (i.e., what was this individuals contribution to human knowledge and understanding); (b)
interpreting and restating the quote in your own terms; and (c) explaining what concept, issue,
perspective, or term in this chapter Santrock intended this quote to illuminate. In other words, about
what aspect or issue in development does this quote make you pause and reflect?
3. How do children of high, medium, and low intelligence perform on Piagetian or information-processing
tasks? Apply your knowledge about the scientific method by designing a study to answer this question:
(a) What specific problem or question do you want to study? (b) What predictions would you make
and test in your study? (c) What measures would you use (i.e., controlled observation in a laboratory,
naturalistic observation, interviews and questionnaires, case studies, standardized tests, cross-cultural
studies, physiological research, research with animals, or multimeasure, multisource, and multicontext
approach), and how would you define each measure clearly and unambiguously? (d) What strategy
would you followcorrelational or experimentaland what would be the time span of your inquiry
cross-sectional or longitudinal? (e) What ethical considerations must be addressed before you conduct
your study?

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4. Review Erikson's psychosocial stages of development in Chapter 2. Select a journal article related to
the topic of multiple intelligences from Chapter 9. Write an abstract on the article including (a) the
bibliography, (b) summary of the article, (c) your reaction and response to the article, and finally (d) an
analysis of how the article information relates to Erikson's developmental stages and the
interrelatedness among the areas of development (physical, social, emotional, and cognitive). Keep in
mind that although Erikson's theory points to a critical issue at each stage, these issues are present in
some form throughout the life span. For example, issues related to trust are present at every age. The
same is true for autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, and integrity.

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5. In Chapter 1 Santrock describes the work of Marian Wright Edelman, President of the Childrens
Defense Fund. Edelman has been a leading advocate of childrens rights. The Childrens Defense Fund
has reported on indicators that place the United States at or near the bottom of industrialized nations in
the social neglect of its children. Edelman advocates for better health-care, safer schools and
neighborhoods, parent education, and family support systems. Santrock discusses the following
benefits of studying child development: (1) to nurture children because they are society's future, (2) to
gain understanding of self and others, (3) to prepare for career and /or parenting responsibilities, and
(4) to influence education/schools to be more effective. After reading and studying the information
from Santrocks Chapter 9 on creativity, including convergent and divergent thinking, speculate ways to
further support and nurture children in meeting Marian Wright Edelmans challenge to us to make the
world a better place for us all.
6. In Chapter 1 Santrock indicates that something needs to be done to improve the education of our
children. He continues to say that the biological, cognitive, and socioemotional areas of development
are all interrelated and cannot be separated. In Chapter 9 Santrock refers to the controversies and
issues in intelligence. (a) Explain the intelligence controversies. (b) Reflect on your educational
experiences and identify three suggestions for improving the educational opportunities of our children.

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IMPLICATIONS FOR GUIDANCE

1. The postmodern family has been described by David Elkind in Ties That Stress (1994) as permeable as
opposed to the nuclear family of the modern age. The permeable family is affected by massive change
and high demands made upon parents. Postmodern parents often must choose between meeting their
own needs for success versus meeting needs of their children. Thus, he proposes that children in the
postmodern society are vulnerable. In Chapter 9 Santrock discusses the possibility of dramatically
changing IQ by modifying the environment. Ask students to: (a) analyze the hereditary and
environmental information as it relates to IQ, (b) identify concerns or issues that the postmodern family
might experience based on the intelligence research, and (c) create a list of suggestions for guidance to
help improve the postmodern family.
2. Research indicates that the authoritative parenting style generally results in the best outcomes for
childrens development. Review the characteristics of parenting styles in Chapter 15. Then review the
intelligence testing information in Chapter 9. (a) Reflect and describe your testing experiences during
school. (b) Identify guidelines for parents to follow in guiding their children when faced with testing
issues. (c) Compare and contrast how the guidance might differ among the parenting styles.
3. In Chapter 1 Santrock indicates that many parents learn parenting practices from their parents. He
continues to say that some practices are accepted and others discarded and when strategies are passed
from one generation to the next that both desirable and undesirable practices are perpetuated. Review
Howard Gardners Eight Frames of Mind/Intelligence described in Chapter 9. (a) Identify which of the
multiple intelligence components are your strengths. (b) Identify the parenting practices from your
childhood that nurtured and stifled your intelligence. Continue by identifying (c) which of these
practices you would perpetuate and (d) which ones you would discard.

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