Introduction

Background explanation
Reynolds number is dimensionless quantity that predicts similar flow characteristics in
various fluid flow situations. It is defined as inertial forces divided by viscous forces:
=

inertial forces vL
=
viscous forces

When Reynolds number is low, the flow is described as laminar and it means that fluid is
affected mostly by viscous effects. At high Reynolds number, turbulent flow occurs which is
driven by inertial forces.
Any real moving fluid loses its energy due to frictional effects. This kind of dissipation is
known as head loss. It has 2 main categories:
1. Major losses
2. Minor losses
Major losses are known as loss per length of pipe while minor losses are due to curvature
of the pipe, valves, etc. In some piping systems, minor losses can exceed major losses if
many curvatures are present.
Experimental objectives
The objective of the experiment is to measure head loss using fluid friction apparatus for
laminar and turbulent flows. Then sketch the graph of head loss vs. velocity and show laminar,
turbulent and transition regions in smooth bore pipes. For pipe with roughened bore, determine
how fluid friction coefficient is related to Reynolds number using Moody chart. The
measurement of head loss in different systems has many important applications. One of them is
in mine ventilation systems, in which velocity of air can change significantly due to frictional
effects.
Hypothesis
Using head loss measured using fluid friction apparatus, graphs of head loss vs. velocity
and their logarithmic values will be plotted. According to theory, in h vs. u graph, laminar zone
should be straight while for log|h| vs. log|u| graph turbulent flow zone should be straight. The
main objective of the experiment is to compare calculated and measured head losses to verify
that head loss can be calculated using equations. In second part of the experiment, head loss will
be measured to find friction coefficient and its relation with Reynolds number will be shown.

Equipment used:

Figure 1. F1-10 Hydraulics Bench and C6-MKII-10 Fluid Friction Apparatus

1) C6-MKII-10 Fluid Friction Apparatus
2) F1-10 Hydraulics Bench
3) C6-50 Data Logging Accessory
Exercise A. Fluid friction in a smooth pipe:
1) After switching on the power supply, the needed water flow was set up by using flow
control valve.
2) Then the water flow was calculated by measuring the time needed to fill 5 liters.
3) After what the value of head loss was recorded.
4) The flow rate was changed several times and procedure was repeated for each flow
rate.
5) Note for internal diameter of the tube was taken.
4Q
6) By using the formula d 2 the speed of water flow was evaluated.
7) Head loss against velocity graph was sketched.
du
8) By the formula
the Reynolds numbers were estimated.
9) By Reynolds numbers the value of head loss was evaluated and compared with
measured head loss.
Exercise C. Fluid friction in a roughened pipe:
1) The needed water flow was set up by using flow control valve.
2) Then the water flow was calculated by measuring the time needed to fill 5 litres.
3) After what the value of head loss was recorded.

4) The flow rate was changed several times and procedure was repeated for each flow
rate.
5) Note of internal diameter of the tube was taken.
gdh
6) By using the formula 2 l u2 friction coefficient was estimated.
7) Then by

du
the Reynolds number evaluated.

8) Pipe friction coefficient against Reynolds number graph was sketched.

Results and Discussion

Experiment A. Fluid Friction in a smooth Pipe.

The main objective of Experiment A was to determine the relationship of the head loss due to
friction in laminar and turbulent flows. In this case several runs needed in order to find this
correlation. But for each measurement taken Reynolds number was bigger than 2000 which that
there is no laminar flow in our result.
During the experiment the values for time and Head loss has been taken. In order to find
Reynolds number following equation has been used:
=
Where
3

is the density of water at 15 C and

ud

(1)

is the molecular viscosity of water (1.1510-

Ns/m2).

For example first measurement calculation has been made in next way:
=

ud 999 1.31 0.0077

=
=8740.65

1.15 103

To calculate the head loss theoretically equations has been used:

h=

4 fL u 2 L u2
=
(2)
2 gd
2 gd

Like in previous case first measurement has been taken consideration:

h=

L u2 0.0320 1.00 1.312

=
=0.3620 m
2 gd
2 9.81 0.0077

In this experiment smooth pipe has been used and it means relative roughness is equal to zero. So
Moody chart can be used to determine the friction factor. All results are tabulated in Table 1.
Distance between two tappings L = 1.00m

Table 1. Results for Experiment A

Volume
V

Time
T

Flow Rate
Q

[litres]

secs

[m3/s]

Pipe
Diam.
d
[m]

82.17
38.56
30.27
26.4
22.84
20.61
18.02
16.49
15.14
14.6
13.77

6.0849510-5
1.2966810-4
1.651810-4
1.8939410-4
2.1891410-4
2.4260110-4
2.7746910-4
3.0321410-4
3.3025110-4
3.4246610-4
3.6310810-4

0.0077
0.0077
0.0077
0.0077
0.0077
0.0077
0.0077
0.0077
0.0077
0.0077
0.0077

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

Velocity
u

Reynolds
No Re

Frictio
n Coef.

Calculated
Head loss
hc
[m H2O]

8740.65
18626.02
23727.10
27205.27
31445.68
34848.10
39856.78
43554.84
47438.52
49193.10
52158.26

0.0320
0.0264
0.0248
0.0240
0.0232
0.0227
0.0220
0.0216
0.0212
0.0210
0.0207

0.3620
1.3524
2.0676
2.6307
3.3976
4.0738
5.1704
6.0480
7.0515
7.5094
8.3313

[m/s]
1.31
2.78
3.55
4.07
4.70
5.21
5.96
6.51
7.09
7.35
7.80

Measured
Head loss
hc
[m H2O]
0.34
1.28
1.95
2.63
3.26
4.00
4.95
6.00
6.95
7.44
8.25

Graph 1. Calculated and Measured Head Loss versus Velocity

9
8
7
Calculated
Head Loss

Power (Calculated Head Loss)

6
5

Head Loss

4
3
2
Measured
Head Loss

Power (Measured Head Loss)

1
0
0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

Velocity

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

Graph 2. Calculated Head Loss versus Velocity in Log Scale

10
f(x) = 0.22 x^1.76

Head Loss

1
1.00

10.00

0.1

Velocity

Graph 3. Measured Head Loss versus Velocity in Log Scale

10
f(x) = 0.21 x^1.79

Head Loss

1
1.00

10.00

0.1

Velocity

In the graphs 1, 2, 3 the relation between Head Loss and the velocity of water are shown. In the
graph 1 linear scale was used, whereas in the graphs 3 and 4 the scale is logarithmic. Also, in the
graphs 1 and 3 measured head loss was used, while in graphs 2 and 4 calculated head loss is
used. Based on the shaped of the obtained graphs, it might be concluded that the flow is turbulent
in the whole range of measurements. According to the obtained results, the measurements for
laminar zone were not made during the experiment. Also, the plot for logarithms of Head Loss
and Velocity given linear graphs, which also represents that the flow is turbulent. However, there
is a high difference between measured and calculated values, which is caused by the errors in the
experiment. They will be discussed further in this part.

Part C. Fluid Friction in a Roughened Pipe

The main aim of this part is to determine relationship between fluid friction and Reynolds
number for flow of water through a pipe having a roughened bore. The equations that has been in
previous exercise can be applied because the conditions are the same. It needs to be rearranged
as:
f=

gdh
2 L u2

(3)

For example for first case friction coefficient was calculated as:
f=

gdh 9.81 0.0152 4.08

=
=0.05253
2 L u2
2 1.00 2.412

In order to find relative roughness of the pipe Moody chart has been used. All results are
tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2. Results for Experiment C
Volume
V
[litres]

Time
T
secs

Flow Rate
Q [m3/s]

Pipe
Diam.
d [m]

Velocity
u
[m/s]

Reynolds
No
Re

5
5
5
5
5
5

11.45
10.49
9.82
9.67
9.32
9.19

0.000437
0.000477
0.000509
0.000517
0.000536
0.000544

0.0152
0.0152
0.0152
0.0152
0.0152
0.0152

2.41
2.63
2.81
2.85
2.96
3.00

31775.96
34683.96
37050.38
37625.10
39038.06
39590.29

Measured
Head loss
hc
[m H2O]
4.08
5.13
6.02
6.41
6.99
7.52

Friction
Coef.
f

Relative
roughness

0.05253
0.05543
0.05701
0.05886
0.05962
0.06237

0.02310
0.02672
0.02875
0.03114
0.03217
0.03589

From the table above relative roughness has been for each measurement. The average value of this data
has been taken:
Relative Roughness = 0.0296
Using the relative roughness above the roughness height (k) of the metal pipe, that was given for
experiment, can be calculated:
k = d (Relative Roughness) = 0.01520.0296=4.5010-4

Graph 4. Friction Coefficient versus Reynolds' Number (Log Scale)

0.064
0.062
0.060
0.058
0.056
Friction Coefficient 0.054
0.052
0.050
0.048
0.046
10,000

100,000
Reynolds Number

In the Graph 5, the relationship between friction coefficient and Reynolds number is shown. It is
important to mention that the shape of the graph is not as predicted. Theoretically, as Reynolds
Number increases the Friction coefficient should decrease. However, obtained results shows
opposite relation. The cause of that issue might be errors in the experiment, which would be
discussed further.

Sources of errors
Based on the result of laboratory work, it might be concluded that there was as a high impact of
errors in this experiment. Despite that the impact of human error existed during taking
measurements, the systematic error caused by the malfunction of some elements of equipment is
predicted to be more significant. Some part of the error is caused by human factor while
measuring the time, which is crucial part of calculating the velocity of water. Small changes

directly affect the values obtained by calculations. There is a high impact of equipment error.
Firstly, error might be caused by the malfunction of the sensors. It affects all results obtained in
the experiment, what leads to significant errors. Moreover, it was noticed during the experiment
that there was a leaks of the water in the pipes of equipment, hence, the values given by
apparatus are distorted. Based on that fact it might be concluded that the equipment is not
capable of working with high flowrates and provide measurements with errors. Thirdly, there
were experimental errors while calculating head loss. It was recorded from the computer
program which was connected to the measuring apparatus. The program showed the value of
head loss not constantly, it was always fluctuating up and down, therefore, roughly average value
was taken and it might be not correct. In addition, the given values for water density and
viscosity are for 15o C. Hence, ideally experiment should be conducted in 15o C temperature.
However, that experiment was conducted in a room of temperature 27o C. Hence, there is another
source of error.

Conclusion

Summing up all, it can be stated that hypothesis does not correlate with the results obtained from
the experiment. The graph for laminar and turbulent zones was not clearly shown due to lack of
information about laminar flow. Head loss only for turbulent zone was obtained from the
experiment. Big difference between theoretical and measured head losses was obtained in the
experiment. Difference between them was because of different sources of errors stated in results
and discussion part. In C part, results of relation between Reynolds number and friction
coefficient was not clearly shown due to same sources of error.