Interactions of Hurricanes with New England and New Jersey Saltmarsh Communities

Emily Peraria
Fall 2016
Marine Botany

The past decade has brought an onslaught of extreme weather, no more apparent than
along the New England and New Jersey coastline. In the last five years alone, the Atlantic Coast
has been ravaged by extremely destructive hurricanes such as Irene and the infamous
Superstorm Sandy. A great deal of coastal infrastructure damage comes from storm surge and
back-bay flooding, storm effects that put salt marshes in the direct line of fire. While saltmarshes
may be low-elevation and become flooded easily, they are crucial to habitat and infrastructure
protection during storm events, shielding the mainland from flooding, wave action, and debris
flows. But just as saltmarshes have an effect on the mainland, the mainland has an often negative
effect on saltmarsh communities, especially during storms. The research presented dispels
common theories that occasional storm events are harmful to saltmarsh communities and reveals
the cyclical interaction between saltmarshes, storms, and coastal communities. It highlights the
importance of storms for saltmarsh accretion and the dangers of overfishing predacious species
that feed upon saltmarsh herbivores, as well as the lack of long-term effects on saltmarshes by
periodic coastal storms. Most importantly, it showcases the crucial roles saltmarshes play in
coastal community protection and the negative impacts humans are making on observed
saltmarshes.
Saltmarshes are under a particularly high amount of abiotic and biotic stress. Low-zone
marsh species such as Spartina alterniflora and Spartina cynosuroides must be highly
competitive in the high-nutrient and oxygenated environment, but also tolerate high salinities,
wave action, fluctuating tides, and occasional wind and flooding events. Mid-marsh species must
be adapted to osmotic stress and low nutrient availability, occasional flooding events, and high
salinities in low-lying areas with decent drainage (i.e. Salicornia sp.). Marshes are perfectly
designed to act as pollutant filters, wave buffers, and highly productive and resilient ecosystems
for protected bays. But climate-driven sea-level rise has led to an increase in storm intensity and
frequency, battering coastal communities, and even worse, their protective saltmarshes (Brisson
et al., 2014, p. 1). And with saltmarshes providing approximately $23.2 billion annually in storm

protection and 20-45% of all wetlands predicted to disappear within the next century (Brisson et
al., 2014, p. 1), it is crucial to analyze the role salt marshes play in overall human existence along
coastlines and how people can not only protect saltmarshes now, but how they can prevent major
sea level rise for this century and centuries to come (Brisson et al., 2014).
Research done by Marsooli, Orton, Georgas, and Blumberg for the Stevens Institute of
Technology analyzes the effectiveness of wetlands in coastal flood mitigation in Jamaica Bay,
New York. By creating a 3-D hydrodynamic model incorporating equations for vegetation for
drag, inertia force, and water velocity, researchers were able to illustrate the effects of
vegetation-induced drag combined with bottom roughness (Marsooli et al., 2015, p. 94).
Research concluded that while salt marshes do little to reduce maximum still-water surface
height, vegetated marshes slow water velocity over the wetland area while increasing water
velocity in the shallow channels around the marsh and deep channels in the bay (Marsooli et al.,
2015 p. 94). This concludes that while salt marshes do little to mitigate flood levels, they are
excellent buffers for incoming water and wave action. Therefore, it can be concluded that
communities situated directly behind large and thriving saltmarshes could experience reduced
wave attenuation and fast-moving storm surge, and therefore could endure reduced infrastructure
damage. (Marsooli et al., 2015)
Increasingly, the issue of saltmarsh stability during hurricanes has turned into an issue of
saltmarsh stability in areas highly affected by humans (i.e. pollution, chemical dumping, and
industrial production). While increased storm frequency and intensity no doubt stress saltmarsh
communities, direct human impact seems to be the leading cause of saltmarsh die-off in the
observed areas (Brisson et al., 2014, p. 1). Research conducted by Brisson, Coverdale, and
Bertness for Brown University highlights the directly proportional relationship between humandriven saltmarsh die-off (particularly concerning Spartina alterniflora) and decreased
infrastructure protection in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. It mentions the rise of the purple marsh

crab Sesarma reticulatum due to the overfishing of its primary predator. This has led to the largescale die-off of Spartina alterniflora in the observed areas, as Sesarma reticulatum communities
have increased, and therefore have increased their Spartina alterniflora consumption. (Brisson et
al., 2014, p. 1). The team hypothesized that the large-scale die-off of this crucial stabilizing plant
in saltmarshes would lead to increased wave attenuation and reduced shore stabilization (Brisson
et al., 2014, p. 2). Above and belowground biomass of Spartina alterniflora was quantified for
each of the Cape Cod sites. Wave attenuation was assessed by deploying magnesium calcite
blocks at the same height along saltmarsh creek banks exposed to wave action in dying,
recovered, and healthy marshes (Brisson et al., 2014, p. 2). Shoreline stabilization was measured
by monitoring sediment stabilization over the course of the experiment. (Brisson et al., 2014, p.
3) The team concluded that healthy areas of high Spartina alterniflora stem densities had the
highest above and belowground biomass, experienced the lowest erosion rates, and had the most
stabilized shorelines, with small accretions (Brisson et al., 2014, p. 3). Die-off areas with low
Spartina alterniflora stem densities had the lowest above and belowground biomass, the highest
erosion rates, and the most unstable shorelines, experiencing the highest amount of erosion
(Brisson et al., 2014, p. 3). It can be concluded that healthy saltmarshes with high above and
belowground plant biomass are the most protective ecosystems, and therefore are most useful in
buffering wave attenuation and remaining intact during storms. The overfishing of key predators
of herbivorous species creates a top-down controlled environment that not only impacts
herbivorous species, also primary producers, ecosystems, and entire communities. (Brisson et al.,
2014)
Other research conducted in the area focused on the effect of flooding and precipitation
during storm events on saltmarshes. Research conducted by Watson, Szura, Wigand, Raposa,
Blount, and Cencer focused on the effects of storm characteristics on the foundation species
Spartina patens in the New England area. The high marsh salt meadow cordgrass is not as

tolerant to fluctuating salinities as its low-marsh counterpart, but thrives in areas with decent
drainage. It is a highly facultative species with exceptional belowground biomass and matted
roots and rhizomes for sediment stability. The decline of Spartina patens, according to research,
is related to increased high water levels and long-period inundation of the high marsh area, as
Spartina patens is requires adequate drainage to survive (Watson et al., 2015, p. 174). An
experiment on Spartina patens was conducted in a controlled greenhouse environment to
monitor the effects of inundation, precipitation, and drought on the species. The experiment
concluded that precipitation and drought had little to no effect on Spartina patens, while
inundation strangled the plant and reduced its growth (Watson et al., 2015, p. 174). With the
evident disappearance of Spartina patens in the New England area and its crucial role in high
marsh stabilization and diversity, it is important to consider sea level rise and increased storm
intensity as culprits for longer inundation times and species die-off (Watson et al., 2015).
While many hypothesize that hurricanes have mostly negative effects on saltmarsh plants,
it is important to note that periodic hurricanes provide marshes with fresh and nutritive sediment
from local areas to be deposited on the low marsh zone. Research done by Nyman, Crozier, and
DeLuane for Louisiana State University shed light on sedimentation from hurricane events.
While the experiment was conducted in Louisiana and included a species, Juncus roemerianus,
which is not as common to the New England area, the evidence found in the research is still
applicable to hurricane effects on saltmarsh communities. The team analyzed the relationship
between storm sedimentation and small-scale heterogeneity among young marsh plant species
(Nyman et al., 1994, p. 665). Hurricane sedimentation was analyzed over time, and it was
concluded that increased marsh elevation not only reduced marsh flooding, but also helped to
restore marsh elevations to mean water levels, reducing stress to the marsh brought on by
flooding inundation (Nyman et al., 1994, p. 674). Sedimentation from hurricanes was also found
to increase soil nutrient supplies that would last up to 50 years in the root zone (Nyman et al.,

1994, p. 675). Thus, hurricanes also aid in accretion and nutrient upwelling for saltmarsh
communities, enhancing the protective back-bay barrier (Nyman et al., 1994)
For many still living in the New England and New Jersey areas, Superstorm Sandy of
2012 is still a fresh memory, mostly due to its extreme storm surge and the resulting decimation
of coastal infrastructure. Tracy Elsey-Quirk quantified Sandys effect on New Jersey saltmarshes
for Louisiana State University and concluded that while the storm was disastrous, it had shortterm effects on the affected salt marsh communities, especially in Barnegat Bay (Elsey-Quirk,
2016, p. 13). This was largely due to the protection against wind and wave action by the barrier
island (Long Beach Island) and extreme water levels buffering the low-lying marsh from wave
attenuation and carrying suspended solids (i.e. debris) past the low-lying low marsh plants to the
taller high marsh plants (Elsey-Quirk, 2016, p. 1). This concludes that while hurricane events
may be detrimental to human communities, marsh communities are relatively unscathed longterm. Flooding buffers wave action and wind and prevents desiccation from debris by washing
them onto the marsh (Quirk, 2016).
To conclude, the stability of saltmarshes is largely determined by humans, even in storm
events. Overfishing decreases predator populations and increases herbivory, leading to die-offs of
major marsh-building species like Spartina alterniflora. Most importantly, humanitys effects on
the overall climate has led to global sea level rise and an increase in storm frequency and
intensity not limited to the New England and New Jersey areas. Sea level rise means increased
inundation and strangulation of saltmarsh species like Spartina patens. While an increase in
storm frequency may lead to increased sedimentation and nutrient upwelling, which are
beneficial side-effects for marshes, the costs of global sea level rise and global warming
outweigh the benefits. Saltmarshes and high-biomass and facultative saltmarsh species are
crucial to human existence on the New Jersey and New England coastlines, as they provide
thriving and vivacious ecosystems that protect the extremely vulnerable coast. While large-scale

changes must happen to slow or even stop global sea level rise, immediate small scale-changes
can be made right now to protect local saltmarshes. Decreasing pollution and debris put in the
ocean and bays, discouraging the removal of sections of saltmarsh for boating or building, and
reducing the harvest of salt marsh species such as salt hay or other high-productivity species may
help to replenish and keep marshes thriving. Without this precious resource, our communities,
businesses, and lives could be swept away in the night just as they were four years ago.

Literature Cited
Brisson, C. P., Coverdale, T. C., & Bertness, M. D. (2014, October 9). Salt marsh die-off and recovery
reveal disparity between the recovery of ecosystem structure and service provision. Biological
Conservation, 179, 1-5. Retrieved October 9, 2016.
Elsey-Quirk, T. (2016, February 12). Impact of Hurricane Sandy on salt marshes of New Jersey.
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 1-14. Retrieved October 9, 2016.
Marsooli, R., Orton, P. M., Georgas, N., & Blumberg, A. F. (2016). Three-dimensional hydrodynamic
modeling of coastal flood mitigation by wetlands. Coastal Engineering, 111, 83-94. Retrieved
October 13, 2016.
Nyman, J., Crozier, C., & Delaune, R. (1995). Roles and Patterns of Hurricane Sedimentation in an
Estuarine Marsh Landscape. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 40(6), 665-679. Retrieved
October 10, 2016.
Watson, E., Szura, K., Wigand, C., Raposa, K., Blount, K., & Cencer, M. (2016). Sea level rise, drought
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