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University of Ottawa
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ABSTRACT: In recent years, significant advancements were made in the geotechnical and geoenvironmental fields towards the implementation of the principles of unsaturated soil mechanics into engineering practice. Some of the key advances can be attributed to the developments achieved in our present understanding with respect to the soil water storage characteristics and the measurement of soil suction. Info rmation related to the water storage characteristics of unsaturated soils can be derived from the soil- water
characteristic curve (SWCC). This paper provides a brief summary of the SWCC and the various parameters
that influence the SWCC behavior. Details about the commonly used direct and indirect methods for the
measurement of suction both in the laboratory and field and the recent developments in this area are also presented. Finally, case study details of in situ matric suction measurements are presented and discussed.
The focus of the paper is to highlight the key research findings and advances presented on the topic related
to suction and storage characteristics of unsaturated soils in the 3rd International Conference of Unsaturated
Soils held in Recife, Brazil, 2002.
1 INTRODUCTION
The engineering properties of unsaturated soils such
as the shear strength, the coefficient of permeability,
and the volume change behavior are significantly influenced by the storage characteristics of soils. The
storage characteristics (i.e., water holding capacity)
of soils provide valuable information related to the
stability of slopes, the bearing capacity of highways
and airport runways, the performance of soil covers
and liners, flow through mechanism in tailings and
waste rock, residual soils behaviour, groundwater
flow and movement of contaminants in soils in unsaturated cond itions.
As an example, the influence of storage characteristics of soils on the engineering performance of
soil slopes is presented. Landslides are common in
many parts of the world and most of them occur in
the wet season triggered by heavy rainstorms. The
influence of rainfall on the slope stability has been
widely recognized by several investigators (for exa mple , Brand 1984). Many slopes with a factor of safety
value less than one, determined using the conve ntional methods of stability analyzes extending the
principles of saturated soil mechanics, do not fail.
The stability of such slopes is mainly attributed to
the role of suction, which contributes to the increase
mental studies related to the determination of unsaturated soil properties requires elaborate testing
equipment and highly qualified technical personnel.
Due to these reasons, there is a growing interest towards the prediction of engineering properties of unsaturated soils using the SWCC and the saturated
properties of the soil, as it is simple and less expensive (Fredlund et al. 1994, Aubertin et al. 1995, Vanapalli et
al. 1996, Oberg & Sallfors 1997, Leong & Rahardjo 1997,
Barbour 1998, Khallili & Khabbaz 1998, Bao et al. 1998).
100
80
Regina Clay
60
Botking Silt
Sand
40
(1)
20
0
1
100
10000
1000000
Rs
Ts
Rs
Meniscus
hc
Glass tube
Water
2r
r = Radius of
the tube
r
R s = cos
Figure 2 presents a sketch of the capillary phenomenon. The downward forces must be equal to the
upward forces at the air-water interface to achieve
equilibrium conditions. A mathematical relationship
that satisfies the criteria is given below:
2 r Ts cos = r 2 hc w g
(2)
hc =
2Ts
w g Rs
(3)
a) Bounday stage effect
(u a u w ) =
(4)
Air-entry value, b
Saturated water content, s
0.50
0.40
Boundary
effect stage
0.30
Residual suction
Residual water content,r
0.20
0.10
Transition
stage
0.10
0.1
Air
2Ts
Rs
10
100
1000
Soil suction (kPa)
10 000
Air
Device
3.2 Psychrometers
Psychrometers can be used to measure the total suction of the soil by measuring the relative humidity in
the air phase of the soil pores or the region near the
soil when the equilibrium cond itions are attained.
The psychrometers operate on the basis of temperature difference measurement between a nonevaporating surface (i.e., dry bulb) and an evaporating surface (i.e., wet bulb).
The total suction is related to relative humidity in
accordance with the thermodynamics relationship
presented in the Equation 5 for 20C of temperature
(Richards 1965).
= 135022 ln( RH )
(5)
Two types of psychrometers, namely, the thermocouple psychrometer and the transistor psychrometer
are available. While the thermocouple psychrometers are commonly used to measure suction in the
range of 100-7,500 kPa, the transistor psychrometers
are capable of measuring a larger range of soil suctions (i.e., 100-71,500 kPa) ( Ridley & Wray 1995).
Mata et al. (2002) performed a careful calibration of
a transis tor psychrometer, using three different salts
(i.e., NaCl, NaNO2 and Mg(NO3 )2 6H2 O) and measured suction values in the range of 500 and 84,000
kPa (Fig. 5 ).
men having a specific value of suction by water exchange between the soil and the filter paper in a liquid or vapor form.
Container
Filter paper
(non contact)
Brass cylinder
Soil
5000
Measured values
4000
Output (mV)
Paper towel
42.1 r= 0.998
Filter paper
(contact)
20 Min
Polyethylene
3000
30 Min
2000
60 Min
1000
100,000
10,000
10
20
30
40
50
60
Total suction (MPa)
70
80
Chromel
(0.025 mm)
Measuring
junction
Stainless steel
screen
Constantan
Reference
junction
90
Constantan
(0.025 mm)
Suction (kPa)
1,000
100
10
Log (Suction )=1,882-0,0102
1
0
20
40
60
80
Water Content of Filter Paper, %
100
The soil suction is determined by placing the filter paper in contact (i.e., in order to measure the matric suction) or not in contact (i.e., in order to measure the total suction) with the soil sample (Fig. 7).
When the equilibrium is attained, the water content
of the filter paper is measured using a typical calibration curve to determine the soil suction (Fig. 8).
Filter paper technique is a convenient and economical method to measure the soil suction both in the
laboratory and in the field with a reasonable degree
of accuracy.
The non-contact procedure is a reliable technique to measure total suction. However, the direct
contact procedure may measure either total or matric suction, depending on the degree of contact between the soil and the filter paper (Fredlund & Rahardjo
1993).
Melgarejo et al. (2002) introduced some modifications to the conventional filter paper technique for
the measurement of suction. The method allows recording water content, soil suction and volume simultaneously. However, there are limitations in the
Thermal conductivity sensors are useful to continuously measure in situ suction with the aid of data acquisition systems. The sensor consists of a porous
ceramic block containing a temperature sensing element and a miniature heater (Fig. 9). The change in
the temperature at the centre of the ceramic block is
closely related to the change in matric suction of the
surrounding soil.
Cable
insulation
Epoxy
seal
4 Lead wires
Epoxy cap
Plastic jacket
Temperature
sensing
integrated
circuit
Heater resistor
Ceramic porous
media
V23 C =
0.0014 t + 0.5743
Vt
0.6065
(6)
26
25
24
23
22
916
V out (mV)
914
912
910
908
906
0
10
15
20
25
Time (h)
30
35
40
45
Stainless
steel
chamber
Epoxy
sealant
Spiral
grooves
Flushing Port
Valve
Line to
water supply
Pressure transducer
LO
PPL
OTT BB
15 cm
15 cm
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
Tensimetro
TENSIOMETER
GM
MSS
G
-120
OT
PPLLO
T DD
15 cm
15 cm
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
29-4-01 7:00:00
15-4-01 7:00:00
1-4-01 7:00:00
-120
18-3-01 7:00:00
-100
4-3-01 7:00:00
equilibrium conditions are attained is the matric suction value of the soil.
From a theoretical stand point, a standard tensiometer should be capable of measuring suction
value equal to atmospheric pressure (i.e., 101.3 kPa).
At this value of suction, the pore-water pressure is
equal to the atmospheric pressure and hence cavitation should initiate. However, several investigators
noticed cavitation effects at suction va lues of lower
than atmospheric pressure (i.e., around 90 kPa) ( Fredlund & Rahardjo 1993).
Bertolino et al. (2002) compared the matric suction values measured using granular matrix sensor
(GMS) and tensiometer readings and suggested both
instruments have a similar response up to suction
value of 70 kPa (Fig. 13 ). However, tensiometer values differ from GMS values for suction values
greater than 70 kPa. This variation may be associated with the cavitation effects. More studies are
necessary to understand the reliability of using standard tensiometers in the suction range of 70 to 100
kPa to improve its performance.
cap
7.6
strain gauge
0.4
0.1
Figure 15. TDR unit with a cable tester for determining the
moisture dielectric constant and estimating the moisture content (from Triches and Pedroso, 2002).
diaphragm
Neutron
Probe
tensiometer
body
porous
ceramic
water
reservoir
Tarantino & Mongiov (2002) designed, constructed and tested a high capacity tensiometer
which is similar to the Imperial College HCT with
some modifications ( Fig. 14). Preliminary studies
show that the instrument performance is satisfa ctory
and precision performance of suction measurement
is similar to Imperial College HCT. Besides, this
new instrument was able to measure a water tension
of 1,000 kPa for more than 16 days and attain a
maximum sustainable tension of 2,000 kPa.
Mahler et al. (2002) also developed a new tensiometer tha t costs $ 300 (US) to measure soil suction extending the design concepts of Imperial College HCT. Test results show that suction values of
350 kPa can be measured using this new tensiometer. There is good comparison between the results
measured using the new tensiometer and other
commercial tensiometers.
3.9 Measurement of water content
Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) technique is
used to determine the moisture content based on the
dielectric constant values. TDR unit with a cable
tester is shown below (Fig. 15 ). The dielectric constant values vary between 2.5 to 7 in dry soils. Ho wever, in water dielectric constant value reaches up to
80. A calibration curve, which is the variation of
moisture content and dielectric constant, is developed prior to the use of TDR unit in the field. The
in situ moisture content is estimated from the measurement of dielectric constant value, using the
calibration curve. Over the past 30 years TDR has
been used to measure water content at many scales
and under a broad range of cond itions (Topp & Reynolds 1998). It has become a standard method of water
content measurement second only to gravimetric
Sphere of
influence
Access
Tube
Dry
Probe
(Source and
Detector)
Wet
The neutron method of measuring soil water content uses the principle of neutron thermalization. The
neutron probe has proven to be an effective means
for long-term monitoring of in situ moisture contents
(Li et al. 2002).
air
pressure
supply
high-air
entry disk
Sample
Water
water
(atm)
Relative
Equivalent
Humdity
total suction
_________________________________________________
Lithium chloride
11.3
297.6
LiCl.H2 O
Magnesium chloride
32.9
151.7
MgCl2 .6H2 O
Magnesium nitrate
53.4
85.6
Mg(NO3 )2.6H2 O
Sodium Chloride
75.7
38
NaCl
Potassium sulphate
96.8
4.4
K2 SO4
_________________________________________________
Figure 18 shows a schematic drawing of an osmotic desiccator. Typically, five or six desiccators
with different salt solutions relate to varying relative
humidity conditions which translate to total suction
values in the range of 3,500 to 300,000 are used.
Several investigators used this technique to determine the SWCC portion in the high suction range
Some investigators expressed concerns about determining the SWCC defined over the entire range
of suctions based on pressure plate and desiccator
tests, since these techniques are based on different
modes of water movement (i.e., liquid flow in pressure plate versus vapour migration in osmotic desiccators) (Luckner et al. 1991). However, if the SWCC is
viewed from a phenomenological point of view, the
total suctio n represents the total energy deficiency in
the water phase. Whether equilibrium with the applied energy state is obtained by liquid flow or by
equilibrium with the vapour phase is not of concern
for the definition of the SWCC (Vanapalli et al. 1999).
4.2 Hysteresis of the SWCC
Conventionally, the SWCC is measured following
the drying path. However, SWCC can also be measured following wetting path. The SWCC in drying
and wetting paths can be significantly different (Fig.
19 ). The non-uniform pore-size distrib ution in a soil
can result in hysteresis in the measurement of
SWCC in the drying and wetting paths.
0.50
specimens to attain equilibrium conditions with respect to the relative humidity conditions in the desiccators (i.e., to attain a constant mass). Other instruments such as polymer activity sensors meter can
also be used to measured high total suction values
( Gee et al. 1992, Albrecht et al. 2003 ). The SWCC portion
in the high suction range can be measured in a relatively short time using this instrument.
0.40
Desiccator
Drying curve
0.30
0.20
Wetting curve
0.10
0.10
0.1
10
100
1000
10 000 100 000 1 000 000
Matric suction, (ua - u w) [kPa]
Porcelain
crucibles
Soil
specimens
Salt solution
r1
r2
achieve different suction values to the soil specimens placed in the medical centrifuge at a single
speed of rotation. Higher values of soil suction can
be subsequently induced into the soil specimens by
increasing the test speed (i.e., angular velocity, ).
Suction values in the range of 0 to 2,000 kPa can be
achieved using small-scale medical centrifuge.
Specimen holder
Soil specimen
Ceramic
The SWCC were measured by several investigators using different techniques and reported in this
conference. In these methods, the suction is measured using instruments such as sensors, tensiometers
or filter papers and the water content or volumetric
water content was measured using instruments such
as the TDR or neutron probe.
Water table
2
(r
r12
12.1
10
[%]
9
8
7
= 0.22
6
5
(7)
1.2kPa
kPa
ab =
= 1.2
15.8
Tensiometer - TDR
Pressure plate
4
3
0.1
10
100
1000
Figure 22. Soil-water characteristic curve measured with tensiometers-TDR and the pressure plate apparatus (from Ct et
al. 2002)
250
200
150
100
50
10
100
1000
10000
100000
= b
(8)
= C ( )
1
=
n
1 + ( a )
(9)
1
n
(12)
ln 1 +
r
C ( ) = 1
1000000
ln 1 +
r
(13)
1
1 + a n
(14)
(10)
2
Gardner
van Genuchten
Fredlund & Xing
1
=
n
1 + ( a )
2
1
n
(11)
This model provides a reasonably accurate representation of data for a variety of soils. The effect of
one parameter can be distinguished from the effect
of the other parameter (Sillers et al. 2001 ). The main
0
0
6
Test Number
10
12
DRY OF OPTIMUM
INITIAL WATER CONTENT
SPECIMENS
90
Equivalent pressure = 0 kPa
Initial void ratio, e = 0.60
(Air-entry value = 3.5 kPa)
80
60
25 kPa
e = 0.59
(6 kPa)
50
80
Optimum
e = 0.52
w = 16.3 %
60
Wet of optimum
Void ratio, e = 0.545
Initial water content, w = 19.2 %
Dry of optimum
e = 0.6, w = 13%
40
20
0
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
100 kPa
e = 0.543
(15 kPa)
40
1
10
100
Suction (kPa)
1000
10000
Figure 26. Soil-water characteristic curves for specimens compacted dry of optimum water content (from Vanapalli et al.
1999).
Desiccator
tests
70
1000000
Suction (kPa)
Figure 25. Soil-water characteristic curves for specimens compacted at different initial water content (from Vanapalli et al.
1999).
Soil- water characteristics of a glacial till compacted with different initial water contents and densities are shown in Figure 25. The SWCCs of the
same soil can vary significantly in the suction range
of 0 to 1,500 kPa when the soil is compacted at different initial water contents representing dry of optimum, optimum and wet of optimum cond itions
( Vanapalli et al. 1999). Fine-grained soils, such as this
glacial till, typically have two levels of structure: a
macro- level structure and micro-level structure. The
soil microstructure is described as the elementary
particle associations within the soil, whereas the arrangement of the soil aggregates is referred to as
macrostructure (Mitchell 1976). Typically, both the
macro- and micro- levels of structure are present in
natural and compacted clayey soils. The resulting
macrostructure of specimens prepared at different
initial water contents is different in spite of their
identical mineralogy, texture and method of preparation. The resistance to water discharge (i.e., desaturation) is relatively low in the dry of optimum
specimens in comparison to optimum and wet of optimum specimens (Fig. 26 and 27).
The specimens with initial water content equal to
dry of optimum contain relatively large pore spaces
which are located between the clods of soil as compared to the pore spaces within the clods. The relatively low suction values associated with removing
water from the large pores are significantly different
from the large suctions required to remove water
from the microscopic pore spaces between soil particles within the clods of clay. As a result, the macrostructure controls the initial desaturation of com-
70
10000
60
40
14
12
Granite c. r. (G)
12 to 13%
10
15
20
25
30
35
Suction (kPa)
Factor D
500
400
300
200
1-LA
100
14
42in4genetic
43and
14
24
3 composition
1442order
443
Samples
grain
size
Transitional soils
Non - Lateriticsoils
Schist c. g. (S)
Limestone c. r. (La)
Limestone c. r. (Lb)
10
8
6
4
Lateriticsoils
Fine fraction
F.C. =
. . . 5
30
0
50
10-NS'G'
1000
9-NS'G'
100
Suction (kPa)
8-NS'G'
10
7-NS'G'
70
6-TA'G'
60
80
5-TA'
80
4-LG'
3-LG'
90
Vertamatti & Arajo (2002) presented a methodology to differentiate lateritic, transitional and nonlateritic soils using a parameter called differential
factor, D, which is derived from the SWCC. The differential factor D, is defined as the product of the
angles formed between the horizontal axis and the
secant line of five varying suction intervals (Fig. 29).
2-LA'
Degree of Saturation, S, ( %)
WET OF OPTIMUM
INITIAL WATER
CONTENT
Fine
F.C.
fraction
=
8%
2
3.5%
0
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.20
Porosity, n
Figure 28. Influence of the overall porosity, n, and fine content
on the air entry value, b (from Ct et al. 2002).
Guillot et al. (2002) present details of Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), a technique to measure the
water content of a fine-grained clay in the high suction range (i.e., between 0.2 and 155 MPa). Figure
31 presents the water loss weight measured using
TGA. The results of this study demo nstrate that the
free water is expelled between room temperature and
tion effort is not very distinct. Second, as the compaction effort increases, there is a general increase in
the air-entry value. Third, the band of the SWCC
tends to narrow as compaction effort increases.
2
Standard Proctor
Enhanced Proctor
Modified Proctor
1.9
1.8
S = 100%
1.7
S = 89%
0,25
1.6
5%
0,2
15%
0,15
20%
25%
0,1
0,05
0.25
200
400
600
Temperature (C)
800
1000
0,3
kinetics
0,25
MSP113
0
0
10%
Water Content
calcined clay)
0,3
MSP155
MSP177
MSP186
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
ATG
TGA
0,2
0,15
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
Suction (kPa)
0,1
0,05
0.25
0
150
Time (min)
MEP130
0.2
MEP134
MEP149
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
Suction (kPa)
100
3c
50
MEP096
0.2
MMP146
MMP153
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
Suction (kPa)
45
40
35
30
25
20
vacumm after
imersion
15
10
5
Imersion after
vacumm
0
1
10
100
Suction (kPa)
Figure 36. Effect of saturation technique on soil-water characteristic curve behavior of a compacted soil (from Barbosa et al.
2002).
2500
Compressive strength kPa
Drying
Wetting
Drying
1500
1000
Wetting
500
0
0
25000
50000
75000
100000
125000
150000
Jan 5, 02
Jan 6, 02
Jan 9, 02
Jan 12, 02
Jan 15, 02
Jan 18, 02
Jan 20, 02
5
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
Pore water pressure (kPa)
80
70
10
(-)
10
(+)
Pressure
1.0
P1R2
Depth (m)
Ground level
1
Depth (m)
The in-situ soil moisture and soil suction are dependent on several environmental factors that include: wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles, temperatures,
solar radiation, wind, evaporation, and evapotranspiration. The storage characteristics of a soil also have
a predominant influence on the in-situ suction profile.
Figure 38 shows the variation of the suction profile with respect to depth. The two zones; namely,
vadose zone and saturated or phreatic zone are separated by the water table. The soil in the vadose zone
is mainly in a state of unsaturated condition with
negative pore-water pressures, while the zone below
is in a state of saturated condition with positive water pressures. The water table is the boundary between these two zones. The pore-water pressure at
this point is equal to zero (i.e., under atmospheric
conditions).
1.5
Flooding of
desiccated soil
0
Grassed surface
0.5
Water table
1.0
P2R2
Depth (m)
Excessive
evaporation
Hydrostatic
pressure
0.5
P3R2
1.0
Depth (m)
Figure 38. Extreme states of the pore water pressure distribution with depth (from Fredlund & Rahardjo 1993).
0
Bare surface
1.5
27 Jan
1 Feb
6 Feb
4 Feb
18 Feb
40
1994
30
20
10
Rainfall (mm)
Depth
1.5
0
27
January
18
February
Figure 40. Changes of in-situ matric suction profiles in re sponse to rainfall under three different conditions from (from
Lim et al. 1996).
0.0
26/05/2000
1.0
2.0
Depth (m)
15 samples
5.0
Sm = 91%
6.0
Exponential trendline
7.0
8.0
70
10
15
20
25
30
35
a w
40
45
50
0
1
st
2
3
1 suction peak
exponential trendline
4
nd
2 suction peak
5
6
7
mean:13 kPa
9 SUMMARY
This paper provides background information on the
SWCC behavior and provides details about some
common devices used in engineering practice for the
measurement of suction. The research findings and
advances presented in the Parallel Session 2.1 of the
3rd Internatio nal Conference of Unsaturated Soils,
Brazil: Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics
are summarized. The key research topics presented
in this session were related to the SWCC behavior
and measurement of suction.
In the last 50 years several investigators have
contributed to our present understanding of unsaturated soils (Bishop 1959, Blight 1967, Matyas & Radhakrishna 1968, Fredlund & Morgenstern 1977, Karube &
Kato 1989, Alonso et al. 1990, Toll 1990, Kohgo et al. 1993,
Cui et al. 1995, Wheeler & Sivakumar 1995, Maatouk et al.
1995, Wheeler & Karube 1996, Barbour 1998, Fredlund 2000,
Tang & Graham 2002). However, some limitations in
3.0
4.0
Depth (m)
80
90
100
extending our present understanding of the principles of unsaturated soil mechanics into engineering
practice can be attributed to difficulties associated
with the measurement of suction. There are several
devices available for the measurement of suction
both in the laboratory and in the field. These devices have one or more following problems: bulky
construction, long time to reach equilibration suction
values, slow responses to changes in suction, low to
high sensitivity to temperature, and inability to produce continuous output that can reliably measured
using data acquisition systems in all environments
(Muraleetharan and Granger, 1999).
Researchers and practitioners dealing with unsaturated soils however need to recognize and acknowledge that we are still in the learning process of
measuring both the soil suction and the SWCC with
precision both in the laboratory and field (Zapata et al.
2000).
Research advancements in recent years have
shown considerable promise with respect to alleviating some of the major problems associated with the
measurement of suction. Several recent research
studies and those presented in this conference to understand the influence of various parameters on the
SWCC are of value. These studies are useful as they
better our present understanding of the SWCC and
its use in the prediction of engineering properties of
unsaturated soils.
Many studies have proposed alternative techniques for the measurement or estimation of the
SWCC (for example, Fourie et al. 1995, Aubertin et al. 1998,
Khanzode et al. 2002, Fredlund et al. 2002, Ct et al. 2002,
Simms & Yanful, 2002). These alternative techniques
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of
Kenton Power in the preparation of some of the figures and providing comments on the paper
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