Bmimmimmih

BX 8915

.W5"

THE

WOR
JOHN WITHERSPOON,

D. D.

SOMETIME MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL AT PAISLEY, AND

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON COLLEGE, IN

NEW

LATF,

JERSEY.

CONTAINING

ESSAYS, SERMONS,

&c.

ON

IMPORTANT SUBJECTS
INTENDED TO ILLUSTRATE AND ESTABLISH THE DOCTRINE Or

SALVATION BY GRACE, AND TO POINT OUT ITS

INFLUENCE ON HOLINESS OF LIFE.

TOGETHER WITH HIS

LECTURES ON MORAL PHILOSOPHY,

ELOQUENCE AND DIVINITY;
HIS SPEECHES IN

THE AMERICAN CONGRESS;

AND MANY OTHER VALUABLE

PIECES,

NEVER BEFORE

PUBLISHED IN THIS COUNTRY.

VOL.

VII.

EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR

J.

"

OGLE, PARLIAMEKT-SQTJARE 5 M. OGLE,

GLASGOW J OGLES, DUNCAN, & COCHRAN, LONDON^

AND T. JOHNSTON, DUBLIN,
1915.

CONTENTS
OF

VOLUME

11.

LECTURES ON MORAL PHILOSOPKY.

Leaiire

...
-

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.
VII.

3^
-

.
-

VIII.
IX.

Leaure X.

9
16

25

Pag.
-

VI.

38
44.

51

60

.
-

66
75

ON POLITICS.
XI.

86

Relation of Parents and Children,

91

Relation of Mafter and Servant,

93

Leaure XII. Of

Civil Society,

Of the

Different

ment,

94

Forms of Govern-

Leaure XIII. Of the Law of Nature and Nations;,

Of Making Peace,
Leaure XIV. Of Jurifprudence,
Of the Sanction of the Moral Laws,
Leaure XV.

97
107
115
118
125

-129

Contraas^

ih.

CONTENTS"

vi

Pag.

Of

the

Marks and

Le-flure

XVI. Of Oaths

Signs of Cen-

tralis,

134

Vows,

and

139

Of the Ufe of Symbols in Contrad 5,142

ibo
Of the Value of Property,

Common

Rights ol NecelTitj, and

Rights,

Recapitulation,

145
149

LECiURES ON ELOQUENCE.
Lelare

I.

in.
IV.

11.

174
1S5

V.
VI.

vir.

Of Figurative Speech,
Of Figures J

194

213.

2J9

VIII.

XI.
XII.

"

227

239

245

0/

^5

XIII.

XIV.

XV.
XVI.

i 1

213

IX.

X.

1^5.

165

.
-

27s
284
301

LECTURES
ON

MORAL JPMIJLOSOFMW

LECTURE

MORAL Philofophy
which

that branch of fcience

treats of the principles

duty, or morals.
is

is

I.

It is called

and laws of

Philosophy, becaufe

it

an inquiry into the nature and grounds of moral

obligation

Hence

by

reafon, as diflinft

arifes a queftion, Is

it

from revelation,
lawful, and

is it

fafe

ov ufeful, to feparate moral philofophy from reli-

gion

It will

be

faid,

it is

ferent from, revealed truth

if different, falfe

An
sophy

author of

either the fame, or difif the

fame, unneceffary

and dangerous.

New England fays,

'

Moral philoBut

is jufl reducing infidelity to a fyfiem.'

however fpecious the

at bottom not folid.

objetlions, they will be found

If the fcripture is true, the

difcoveries of reafon cannot be contrary to

Vol. IL

it

ad

LECTURES ON

10
therefore

And

are certain

a probability that

may

be an

I.

has nothing to fear from that quarter.

it

we

as

Let.

can do no

evil, fo there is

much

do

good.

There

and confirmation of th^ ^n-

illuftration

fpired writings

it

may

it

from reafon and obfervation, which

will greatly add to their beauty and force.

The

noble and eminent improvements in natural

made fmce

philofophy, which have been

of the

laft

century, have been far from hurting the

of religion

interell

the end

greatly promoted

on the contrary, they have

Why

it.

fhould

not be the

it

fame with moral philofophy, which is indeed nothing elfe but the knowledge of human nature ? It
is

do commonly proceed upon

true, that infidels

But

pretended principles of reafon.

as

it

is

im-

pofTible to hinder them from reafoning on this fubjet, the bell way is to meet them upon their own

ground, and to Ihew from reafon

gf their principles.
ferves

more

from the
fophers,

do not

the fallacy

itfelf

know any

thing that-

for the fupport of religion, than to fee,

and oppofite fyftems of philo-

different

that

there

fchemes, but what

is

is

nothing certain in their

coincident with the

word of

God.

Some

there are, and perhaps

than any former age,

and fay, that

all

more

who deny

in the prefent

the law of nature,

fuch fentiments as have been

ufually afcribed to the law of nature, are from revelation and tradition.

We

muft

dillinguifii

here between the light of

nature and the law of nature

underftood what

we

by

the

firft

can or do difcover

powers, whhout revelation or tradition

is to

be

by our own
by the fe-

Led.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

I.

difcovered, can be ma;de

when

eond, that which,

11

appear to be agreeable to reafon and nature.

There have been fome very {hrewd and able

Dr Wilion of Newcaftle, and

Scotknd, who have written a-

writers of late, viz.

Mr

Riccalton of

gainft the light of nature,

and

are taken

knowledge

principles of
tion

That

fhewing that the

be precife upon

admitting

I think,

what

fucli

contend

how

coniider

vered

if left to

difficult

to diftinguiih

we may,
is

notwithilanding,

confonant to rea;

though perhaps

would never have

itfelf,

it.

or the grcatefl part, of

be proven by reafon

fon, or m.ay

reafon,

all,

for,

very

and
from the exercife of

any thing

far

It is

this fubjedV,

the dilcoveries of reafon

Yet

That
than man without inftrulion
men have been brought up fo, they have

fcarcely been fuperior to brutes.

difco-

it.

Dr
the

from informa-

nothing can be fuppofcd more rude

iofnorant,

Vv^hen

to

firll

Clark was one of the greateft champions

law of nature

but

it is

the fhrewd oppofers of

it

for

only fince his time that

The

have appeared.

Ilutchinfonians (fo called from Hutchinfon of

Eng-

that not only all moral, but alfo all na-

land)

iniiil,

tural

knowledge, comes from revelation, the tru?

fyflem of the
arts,

&.C.

clafles

In

Vv'orld,

this,

true chronology, all

as is ufual with

of men, they carry their noftnims to extra-

vagance.

am

of opinion, that the fcripture

perfectly agreeable to found philofophy

tainly

The

human

moil other

it

was never intended

political

to teach us

is

yet cer-

every thing.

law of the Jews contains many noble

principles of equity, and excellent examples to

-/

fu*.

LECTURES ON

IS
tilre

lawgivers

that certainly

it

Let. I.

yet it was fo local and peculiar,

was never intended to be immu-

table and univerfal.

would be more

It

and ufeful

juft

to fay, that alll

iimple and original difcoveries have been the pro-

duftion of Providence,

On

man.

the whole,

moral philofophy,

and not the invention of

feems reafonable to

it

in the fenfe

make

above explained,

men

a fubjed of ftudy.

And, indeed,

what they

they ought to acquaint them-

will of

with

selves

it,

They mull know what

it.

they mean even to fliew that

Tbe Division of

Moral

let

philofophy

is

is,

if'

it is falfe.

the Subject*

divided into

branches, ethics and politics

two great

fome add ju-

to this

may

rifprudence, though this

it

think

be conlldered as a

part of politics.

Ethics relate to perfonal duties

politics to the;

government, and rights of focieties

conftitution,

and

jurifprudence, to the admin-illration of juftice in

conflituted flates.
It

feems a point agreed upon, that the principles

of duty and obligation mull be drawn from the nature of

how

man.

That

is to

fay,

if

we

can difcover

Maker formed him, or for what he intended him, that certainly is what he ought to be.
The knowledge of human nature, however, is
his

either perplexed

made

fo

by

the

have treated

it.

and

difficult

manner

in

Perhaps

of

itfelf,

or hath been

which writers

in all ages

this circumftance itfelf is a

flrong prefumption of the truth' of the fcripture-

Le^l.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY*

I.

IJ

doclrine of the depravity and corruption of our na-

Suppofing

ture.

this depravity,

niuft be

it

one great

caufe of diiHculty and confufion in giving an account

of

human
This

work

nature as the

take

of God.

be indeed the cafe with the

to

moral and theological know-

greatell part of our

ledge.

Thofe who deny

depravity, will be apt to

this

plead for every thing, or for

tates of nature,

nature in
fruit

its

which are

things, as dic-

prefent flate, but at the fame titne the

and evidence of

purity.

many

in reality propenfities of

by

It is

its

departure from

its

original

power of natural

the remaining

we mufl endeavour to detect and op-

confcience that

pofc their errors.

I.

We

may

confider

what

truly confifls.

2.

I.

which

it

to the other

in

is,

conllitute his nature.

Philofophers have generally attempted to af-

lign the precife

ether animals
to

very generally in his

which the diiierence

As an individual, what are the

creatures, and

parts

man

from and fuperior

fpecies as diHincl

diftinlion

but

between men and the

when endeavouring

to bring

it

one peculiar incommunicable characleriftic, they

liave generally contradicted

one another, and fomc-

times difputed with violence, and rendered the thing-

more

uncertain.

The

difficulty of fixing

only ferves to

Ihevv^,

ample of what we

upon a

that in

precife criterio:,,

man we have

fee alfo every

where

an ex-

elfe,

viz,

a beautiful and infenfible gradation from one tiling

to another, fo that the higheft of
it

tlie

inferior

is,

as

were, conncded and blended with the lowefl of

B3

LECTURES ON

14

the fuperlor clafs.

by fome

fpecles, fo that

it is

you

will find

hard to

it

fa}

one or the other.

to the

whole vegetable

in the

I,

Birds and beafts are connelec

whether they belong

indeed

Led.

Sc

as well as ani-

mal kingdom, (i.) Some fay men are .diftinfrom brutes by reafon, and certainly this,

guiflied

kind or degree,

either in

is

the molt honourable

our diftin6lions. (2.) Others fay, that

many

oi

brute*

give llrong figns of reafon, as dogs, horfes, and ele-

phants

but that

and forefight

man

but

is

by memory;

diflinguifhed

apprehend that thefe are upon

the fame footing with reafon, if there are fome

glimmerings of reafon in the

are alfo manifeft proofs of

briite creation, there

memory,, and fome

Some have thought

forefight.

(3.)

diiiinguifh

man from

it

oi

proper

the inferior creatures

by

tc

the

ufe of fpeech, no other creatures having an articulate language.

knowledge,

we

Here, again,

are obliged to ac-

that our diftinl;ion is chiefly the excel-

lence and fulnefs of articulate difcourfe

liave certainly the

derltand
faid,

many things
man is not

that

for brutes

making one another unby found. (4.) Some have

art

of

completely diftinguiflied by

And

any of thefe, but by a fenfe of religion

think

it

muft be admitted, that of piety, or a

of the Supreme Being, there

is

feen in the inferior creatures.

fenfe

not any trace to be

The

ftories

handec

ubout by weak-minded perfons,. or retailed by

ere-

dulous authors, of refpet in them to churches,

oi

facred perfons, are to be difdained as wliolly

fa-

bulous and viiionary.

who have
brutes

by

faid, that

(5.) There have been fom(

man

is diftinguiflied

a fenfe of ridicule^

from

tli;

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lecl. I.

The whole

creation (fays a certain author) is

except

man, no one aughs but himfelf.

grave,

There

is

fomething whimfical in fixing upon this as

the criterion,

and

does not feem to place us in a

it

Perhaps

v^erj refpelable light.

:o

I^

it is

not improper

fmile upon the occafion, and to fay, that if

rentiment
Fefs

is

embraced,

we

who

kindred with the apes,

of a

'elves polTeffed
ified to excite

are certainly

rifible faculty, as

On

laughter in us.

"eems no necellity of fixing

this'

be obliged to con-

fhall

them-

well as qua-

the whole, there

upon fome one

crite-

ion, to the exclufion of others.

There is a great and apparent diftindtion between

nan and the inferior animals, not only in the beauy of his form, which the poet takes notice of.
Is homini sublime

nemory,
L

future

but alfo in reafon,

dedit, &.c.

refleftion,

and the knowledge of

God

and

ft ate.

A general diftindion, which deferves particularly

o be taken notice of in moral difquifitions,

nan

is

evidently

made

to

and fupplied with what

"rom dangers,

nore by reafon, and brutes more

It is not

thought.

Lefts

by

fc

and

experience,

hand things well

t

It is

by

ufeful

is

inftinft.

fomething previous to reafon

When we

inftindl,

efleftion,

that

very eafy, and perhaps not neceftary, to

xplain inftinl.
.nd

is,

be guided, and protected

fay the birds build their

man

or inftru6lion,

enough

by
we under-

builds his habitation

but

if

We attempt

to give

logical definition of either the one or the other^

will immediately be aflaulted

Qents,

by a thoufand argu-

LECTURES 0^

l6

Though man
thing

elfe

is

Letl. 2

evidentlj governed

hy fome-

than inflinft, he alfo has feveral inflinc-

tive propeniities, fome of them independent of, andl

fome of them intermixed with his moral difpofitions.

Of

the

iiril

kind are hmiger,

of the lad

the

is

thiril,

storge, or

and fome others

ji

parental tendernei-

towards offspring.

On
leads

we

inilind

Creator,

ar>d

to the

appointment of th

man

whether, in

operates

tures,

only fay farther, that

fhall

more immediately

or in other crea

j
more early and more uniformly'

than reafon.

LECTURE

/CONSIDERING

2d

V^

we

II.

man

as an individual

difcover the moil obvious and re

mark able circumflances of his nature, that he

compound of body and fpirit. I take this
granted here, becaufe
nature of man.

we

When

is

^
a

fci

are only explaining the

w^e

and principles of aftion,

it

come

to his fentiments*,

will be

more proper

take notice of the fpirituality and immortality

how they are proved.

The body and fpirit have a great

to
ofi

the foul, and

fluence one

and

upon another

difpofition of the foul,

the

re'ciprocal in-

body on the temper

and the foul on the

and habit of the body.

The body

minifter of the foul, the

means of conveying

ception to
It is

body

it,

but nothing without

needlefs

,to

is

ftate

properly

the,

per-

it.

enlarge on the ftru^lure of the

this is fufficiently

known

to all, except

we

MORAL PHILOSOPHT.

L.ed. 2.

X*J

lefcend to anatomical exa6lnefs, and then, like all

he other parts of nature,

nfluence of the

body

reat in enflaving
loes not

it

fhews the

With regard

lom of the Creator.

in a certain

men

ial

and yet there

to appetite,

feem any fuch connedbion with morals

and

between

man and man,

proper powers

its

but

is

to the

as

feems plain,

it

body

hat fuch are the laws of union between the

ind fpirit, that

bme

as to

think there

reafon to doubt that there are great and elTen-

differences

"pirit

wif-

view may be very

equire a particular defcription.

ittle

infinite

to morals, the

many

faculties are

rendered altogether

by
Memory is

an alteration of the

nerely

frequently

loft

weakened, and

incapable of exercife,

of the body.

ftate

and judgement weakened

jy old age and difeafe.

Sometimes, by a confu-

lon of the brain in a

the judgement

The

difordered.

md

thirft,

he foul
tion.

feem

to

have

Some

fall,

is

inftinftive appetites of

to refide diredlly in the

little

more than a

whol-

hunger

body, and

paflive percep-

particularly fear and rage,

paflions,

feem alfo to have their feat in the body, immediately

producing a certain modification of the blood

md

This indeed is perhaps the

fpirits.

degree with

whenever they

all paflions

cafe in

fome

are indulged

Lhey give a modification to the blood and fpirits,

which make them

eafily rekindled

but there are

lone which do fo inftantaneoufly arife from the

body, and prevent deliberation, will, and choice,

now named.

is

thefe

to

which we

To confider the evil paflions

we may fay, thofe that de-

are liable,

pend moft upon the body, are

fear,

anger, volup-

LECTURES OK

iS
tuoufnefs

Ledt. 2

and thofe that depend

leafl

upon

ar

it,

ambition, envy, covetoufnefs.

The

facukies of the

mind

are

commonly

divide(

into thefe three kinds, the underftanding, the will

and the

afFeftions

though perhaps

it

proper

is

tj

obferve, that thefe are not three qualities whollj

diftindt, as if

ciple.

they were three different beings, bu

ways of

different

It

wills, or

is

is

exerting the fame limple prin-

the foul or

mind

underftandsj

that

affefted with pleafure

The

and pain.

underftanding feems to have truth for

its

objeft, theJ

difcovering things as they really are in themfelves,

and in their relations one

difputed, whether good

to another.

may

On

object of the underftanding.

feems as

if truth,

the one hand,

and that only, belonged

derftanding; becaufe

we

has been

It

be in any derree the

to the

il

uni

can eaiily fuppofe perfons of

equal intelledlual powers and oppofite moral charac-j

Nay, we can fuppofe

ters.

nmalignity joined td

a high degree of underftanding, and virtue, or tru^

much lower. On the

made by the v/ill feems

goodnefs, to a

other hand^

the choice

to

have

judgment, or deliberation of the underftanding,

How

very foundation.
if the

evil

can

this be, it will

the

as

be

its

faid.

underftanding has nothing to do with good

confiderable oppolition of fentimcnts

oi
a-

mong philofophers has arifen from this queftion

Dr Clark, and fome others, make underftanding or
reafon the immediate principle of virtue.

bury, Hutchinfon, and others,

principle of

other
ce iTary

is

it.

make

Shaftf-

afte6tion the

Perhaps neither the one nor

wholly

right.

Probably both are

the
ne-^

MORAL PHILOSOPHY,

2.

!cl.

The

conneclion between tnith and goodnefs, be-

and the heart,

reen the underftanding

moment, but

great

of great

alfo

we may fay with

ink

I9

is

a fubje6l
I

difficulty.,

certainty, that infinite per-

dion, intellectual and moral, are united and infeirable in the

Supreme Being.

There

is

how-

not,

in inferior natures, an exa6l proportion be-

ler,

/een the one and the other

yet I apprehend, that

uth naturally and neceffarily promotes goodnefs,

id falfehood the

contrary

but as the influence

is

ciprocal, malignity of difpofition, even with the

reateft natural

powers,

blinds the underftanding,

id prevents the perception of truth itfelf.

Of

the will

it

is

averfion, joy,

fire,

ufual to enumerate four a6ls

The two

and forrow.

laft,

utchinfon fays, are fuperfluous, in which he feems

be right.
iced to the

All the

a(5ls

in other words, chufing

The

by

defire

be re-

alfo paliions, becaufe

external objects.

from a calm deliberate

differ

may

and averfion,

and refufing.

aiFections are called

ten excited

ey

of the will

two great heads of

dgement, or determination of the

Iii

as

far as

decifion of the
will,

they

may

called ftrong propenfities implanted in our nare,

which of themfelves contribute not a

as the

The
T

judgement, or incline the

little to

will.

affedions cannot be better underftood than

obferving the difference between a calm, deli-

;rate,

general inclination, whether of ihe

feifiih

or

;nevolent kind, and particular violent inclinations,

^^ery
Lt

man

this

chment

deliberately wifhes his

differs confiderably

from

own

happinefs

a pafllonate at-

to particular gratiKgations, as

a love of

Led.

LECTURES ON

to

a.

A good man will have

riches, honours, pleafures.

a deliberate fixed defire of the welfare of mankind

but this differs from the love of children, relations,

friends, country.

The

paffions are very

modified,

however

accident or indulgence, to fuch a fize,

and deferve

as to be called,

we

Accordingly
lifh

the objet of defire or averfion,i

that is

may grow by

language

However,

to

be

called, a pafifion.

exprefs ourfelves thus in the Eng-

A paflion for horfes, dogs, play, &c.

all

the paffions

may

be ranged under

To the

the two great heads of love and hatred.

belong efteem,

eni)y^

they

and

delight,

other, all kinds of averfion, and

may

be

defire

ways of

malice, rage, revenge, to

firfh

and every

admiration, good-will,

fpecies of approbation,

it,

may be

numerous, and

greatly diverfified, becaufe every thing,

to thi

exprefling,

whatever obje6ls

dire61:ed.

Hope and fear, joy and forrow, though frequently ranked among the paffions, feem rather to be
Hates or modifications of the mind, attending
exercife of every paffion, according as

probable or improbable, pofleffed or

its

the

objedb is

loft.

Jealoufy feems to be a paffion of a middle nature,

which

it

is

not eafy to fay whether

fliould b<

it

ranked under the head of love or hatred.

faid of jealoufy

from love

yet,

it

feems

in

it

fpringi.

jDlainly impoffible that

can have place without forming an

its obje61:, at leaft

It is often'

between the fexes, that

fome degree.

ill

it'

The fame

thing

may be faid of jealoufy and fufpicion in friendfhip

The paffions may be ranged in two claffes in a dif
ferent

way,

viz. as they

are

felfifli

opinion o^i

or benevolent,

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lecl. 2.

There will be great occaiion

public or private.

of virtue, and the motives that lead to

the nature
is

obferved now,

There

:ure as it really is.

inftion

between

only to

is

is

paffions,

to

in explaining

:onfider this diflindlion afterwards,

What

tl

illuftrate

it.

our na-

a great and real dif-

and benevolent,

felfifh

own
imme-

rhefirft point diresStly, and immediately at our

utereft in the gratification; the others point
iiately at the happinefs of others.
Is

firfl

kind.

And

the fecond,

if

is

that ultimately

:aufe

we

>thers

it is

It is

no purpofe

to

the

goodof

certain,

that the direl object in

cafes, is to

promote the happinefs of

it is

and for

many have been

)thers

irifice

every thing, even

thi's

human

or in one point of view,

it v/ill

willing to fa-

life itfelf.

After this brief furvey of

capacity,

to

to pleafe ourfelves, or be-

feel a fatisfadion in feeking

for

aew, in many

ight,

the

family and domeilic affeftion,

xiendflnp, and patriotifm.

'ay,

ts

Of

the love of fame, power, property, pleafure.

nature, in one

which may be

called

be neceffary to return back, and

ake a furvey of the way in which wc become ac-

which we are to be
upon wiiich the above faculties arc

quainted with the objed:s about

jonverfant, or

o be exercifed.

On

this

it is

proper to obferve in general, that

here are but two waj^s in which

knowledge of things, viz.

ifl,

we come

to the

Senfation, 2d,

Re-

leclion.

The
)arts,

firil

of thefe mull be divided again into two

external and internal.

External arifes from the immediate imprefTion of

)bjeds from without.

VOL.

II,

The

external fenfes, in

num-

LECTURES

11
ber, are five

Ledl. 2.

OJ^f

feeing, hearing,

and

feeling, tailing,

fnielling.

In thefe are obfervable the impreflion

we

the fenfation

table from

it,

that

That our

je6l.

it is

fenfes are to

be trufled in the in-

me a

becaufe thev are the foundation of

firfl

principle,

our after rea-

all

The' few exceptions of accidental

fonings.

gularity

ill

or

produced by an external ob-

formation they give us, feems to

irre-

the fenfes, can found no juft objedlion

many

to this, as there are fo

plain and obvious

"waj^s of difcovering and correcting

The

itfelf,

and the fuppolition infepa-

feel,

it.

reality of the material fjftem, I think,

may

except upon fuch principles as

"be eafily eflablillied,

are fubverlive of all certainty, and lead to univerfal

fcepticifm

and perfons

who would

principles, do not deferve to

maintain fuch

be reafoned with, be-

know-

caufe they do not pretend to communicate

ledge, but to take all

The

knowledge from

we

Immaterialifts fay, that

us.

are confcious of

nothing but the impreffion or feeling of our

mind

fion itfelf implies

that

and fuppofes fomething external

communicates

we

it,

and cannot be feparated from

Sometimes fuch reafoners

that fuppofition.
that

own

but they do not obferve, that the impref-

tell us,

cannot fhew the fubftance feparate from

fenlible qualities

its

no more can any man Ihew m.e

a fenfible quality feparate from a particular fubjec^.

If any

ing

me

man

will jQiew

any thing that

out any thing that

is

me

whitenefs, without fhew-

is

white, or roundnefs with-

round,

will fliew

fubftance without either colour or

fliape.

him

the

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lecl. 2.

away the

Imm'aterialifm takes
truth and falfehood.

am

and

of opinion, there

Again,

that place.
tree, as

between

I call this true, that is,

really a houfe or a tree in

is

form an idea of a houfe or a

what may be

dillinfliion

have an idea of a houfe or a

tree in a certain place,

I

23

in that place

you

difference, if after all,

afk

what

me, there

tell

is

neither

is

An

houfe, nor place, any where exifting.

tree,

the

advocate for that fy (lem fays, that truth confifts in

which nothing can

the livelinefs of the idea, than

be more manifeftly

falfe.

idea of any thing that

when
more

can form as diflin^l an

not, as

my

from

abfent

it is

is

any thing that

fight.

lively idea of Jupiter and Juno,

their aclions,

is,

much
and many of

have a

from Homer and Virgil, though I do

them ever exifled, than I

not believe that any of

have of many things that I

thefe
-

know happened

within

few months.

The

truth

is,

the immaterial fyftem

is

a w41d and

ridiculous attempt to unfettle the principles of

mon

fenfe

by metaphyfical

reafouing,

com-

which can

hardly produce any thing but contempt in the gene-

who

rality of perfons

hear

it,

and which,

I verily

believe, never produced conviction even on the per-

fons

who

pretend to efpoufe

i#.

LECTURE
TNTERNALfenfation

is

III.

what Mr Hutchinfon

the finer powers of perception.

from the external

obje6ls, but,

C2

by

It

takes

calls

its rife

abflradion, con-

24

LECTURES ON

fiders fotnething

farther than merely the fenfible

Le&i, 3.

qualities

Thus, with refpel

1.

to

many

obje61s, there is a

of beauty in the appearance, ftrulure, or

fenfe

compofition, which

is

altogether diftint

colour, liiape, and extension.

beauty perceived

and

perceived

enough

How,

from mere

then,

is this

by the eye, but it is

by what may be well

It enters

reliflied

called an internal fenfe, quality, or capacity

of the mind.

There

2.

whence the

is

arts

a fenfe of pleafure

in

imitation,

of paintings fculpture, poetry, are

often called the imitative arts.

It is eafy to fee, that

the imitation itfelf gives the pleafure, for

we

receive

much

pleafure from a lively defcription of

would

be painful to behold.

3.

4.

what

A fenfe of harmony.
A fenfe of order or proportion.

Perhaps, after

all,

the whole of thefe fenfes

be Gonfidered as belonging

to

one

may

clafs,

and to be

by

the union

the particulars.which either fingly, or

of feveral of them, or of the whole, produce what

is

called the pleafures of the imagination.

we may

If fo,

^xtend thefe fenfes to every thing that en-

ters into the principles of

beauty and gracefulnefs

Order, proportion, fimplicity, intricacy, uniformity,

variety

thing in

efpecially

common

as thefe principles

have any

that is equally applicable to all

the fine arts, painting, ftatuary, architefture, mulic,

poetry, oratory.

The
ty,

or

much

various theories upon the principles of beau-

what

it

is

that properly conftitutes

it,

are of

irnportance on the fubje^l of talle and cri

MORAL PHiLosorHy.

Le(ft. 3.

very

ticifm, but of

ther

little

Whe-

in point of morals.

be a fimple perception that cannot be ana-

it

lyfed, or a Je ne fcai quoi,

be difcovered,

that cannot

prefent purpofe, fmce

is

15

it

as the

it is

French

call

it,

the fame thing to our

cannot be denied, thaf there

a perception of beauty,

and that

this is

very dif-

from the mere colour or dimenfions of the

ferent

This beauty extends

objel.

to the

form and Ihape

of vlfible, or to the grace and motion of living objels

indeed, to all

works of

art,

and prodalions

of genius.

Thefe are called the

it is

of

moment

reflex fenfes

fometimcs, and

to obferv^e, both that they really be-

long to our nature, and that they are very dilFcrent

from the
It

groffer perceptions of external fenfe.

mud

be obferved, that feveral diftinguiflied

alfo

mo-

writers have added, as an internal fenfe, that of

a fenfe and perception^ of moral excellence,

rality,

and our oblio-ation to conform ourfelves to

it

in our

:ondu(51:.

Though
infon, or

make
I

there

any

no occafion

to join

Mr

Hutch-

other, in their oppolition to fuch

as

reafon the principle of virtuous conduct, yet

think

it

muft be admitted, that a fenfe of moral

good and
ture,

is

evil,

is

as really a principle of our na-

as either the grofs external

or reflex fenfes,

and as truly diftind from both, as they are

froiji

each other.

This moral

fenfe

is

precifely the

what, in fcripture and

common

fame thing with

language,

we

call

law which our Maker has

written upon our hearts, and both intimates and en-

confcience.

It is

the

forces duty, previous to all reafoning.

C3

The

op-

LECTURES

2(5

Le<S, 3.

02sr

law of nature,
adnnt the reality of a moral

pofers of innate ideas, and of the

are unwilling
fenfe,

The

to

objections are v/holly frivolous-

jet their

produftion and exercife

of the

powers of the imagination,

any one

fliould fay,

reflex

fenfes

or

every whit as great

is

moral fenfe.

as to the application of the

to the

and information

neceffitj of education

If,

done by

as is often

therefore,

Mr

Locke,

If there are any innatg principles, what are they

enumerate them
they mufl be

in

to

me;

every

if

they are

man

let

me

clown, and examine him, and fee

wliat they are.

tafte are natural,

would

fay,

effential to

take any arilefs

if

if

man,

he can

tell

me

the principles of

Let

they muft be univerfal.

me

whether he will agree

fry the clown, then, and fee

\vith us, either in difcovering the

beauty of a

poem

or pifture, or being able to aflign the reafons of his

approbation.

There are two fenfes which are not eafily reduto any of the two kinds of internal fenfes,

cible

They

and yet certainly belong to our nature.

one another

allied to

fenfe of

culous

is

honour and ihame.

fonaething peculiar

mitted, that every thing that

fame time unreafonable and

tain the terms are

that

is

abfurd

is

fenfe

for
is

of the ridi-

though

it

ridiculous

abf\ird

are

and a

fenfe of ridicule,

yet

be ad-

is at

it is

the

as cer-

not convertible, for any thing

not ridiculous.

There

are an

hun-

dred falfehoods in mathematics and other fciences,

that do not

tempt any body

to

laugh.

Shaftefbury has, through his whole writings, en-

deavoured
tlie tell

to eilablifh this principle, that ridicule is

of truth

but the falfehood of that opinion

MORAL

Le6t. 3.

FHILOSOPIIY.

27

appears from the above remark, for there

is

fome-

thing really diftindl from reafoning in ridicule.

feems

It

be putting imagination in the place of rea-

to

-See Brown's Eflays on the Charaterillics.

fon

A fenfe of

honour and lliame feems,

in a certain

view, to fubjeft us to the opinions of others, as

they depend upon the fentiments of our fellowYet, perhaps

creatures.'

we may

timent as intended to be an

confider this fen-

afliftant or

guard to

by making us apprehend reproach from

what is in itfelf worthy of blame. This
fenfe is very ftrong and powerful in its effects, whether it be guided by true or falfe principles.
virtue,

others for

After this fui*vey of

how we

human

nature, let us confider

derive either the nature or obligation of

duty from

it.

One way

is

to confider

what

from our nature, of the way

This

happinefs.

mufl:

indications

we have

that leads to the trueft

be done by a careful atten-

tion to the feveral clafles of perceptions and affections, to fee

which of them are moft

excellent, de-

lightful, or defirable.

They

will then foon appear to be of three great

as

clafies,

mentioned above,

eafily dillinguifhable

from one another, and gradually

rifing

above one

another.

The

affords
is

gratification of the external fenfes.

We

fome pleafure.

pleafing,

and

to

are led to defire

avoid what

is

This
what

difguftful to

them.
2

The

which

is

finer

powers of perception give a delight

evidently

more

excellent,

and which

mull neceffarily pronounce more noble.

we

Poetry,

LECTURES OK

l3

Le6l. 3.

muGc, &c. the exertion of genius, and

powers in general, give a
pleafurc, though not fo tumultuous, much more refined, and which does not fo foon fatiate.

painting,

exercife of the mental

Superior to both thefe,

3.

is

a fenfe of moral ex-

cellence, and a pleafure arifuig from doing what

didated by the moral

It

fc'nfe.

muft doubtlefs be admitted, that

tation is agreeable to truth,

and that

this reprefento thofe

who

weigh the delight of moral

muft appear fuperior to any other grati-

would calmly and

fairly

actions,

it

fication,

being moft

fore

is

we might

iiohle,

pure, and durable. There-

conclude, that

is to

it

be preferred

other fources of pleafure, that they are

before

all

to give

way

to

it

when

oppofite, and to be

wife embraced than in fubferviency to

But though we cannot fay there

no other-

it.

is

any thing

falfe in this theory, there are certainly

very eflen-

tial

defeds.

As

for

example,

it

wholly confounds,

or leaves entirely undiftinguifhed, acting virtuoufly

from feeking happinefs

fo that

promoting our own

happinefs will in that cafe be the elTence or definition of virtue, and a

be the
there

fole

is

view

to

our

own

intereft will

and complete obligation to virtue.

good ground

to believe, not

Now

only that reafon

teaches us, but that the moral fenfe diftates to us,

fomething more on both heads, viz. that

difinterefted afFeftions that point

diredly

tliere are

at the

good

of others, and that thefe are fo far from meriting

to

be excluded from the notion of virtue altogether,

that they rather

felfifh

of felf-intereft

feem

to

claim a preference to the

know the friends of the fcheme

have a way of colouring or folving

affedions.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

jLe^:. 3.

They

(this.

fay,

29

only approve and delight in

men

rbenevolent affeftions, as pleafmg and delightful to

But

jthemfelves.
ito

this is not fatisfjing, for

it

feems

weaken the force of public affeftion very much,

nature feems
it all to felf-intereft, and when

ito refer

inbe carrying you out of yourfelf, by ftrong

to
affedtions,
implanted
or
propenfities
'llinaive
ito

and diredion of thefe into the

us
ftream of felf-intercft, in which experience tells
we are moft apt to run to a vicious excefs.
BefideS it is affirmed, and I think with good rea-

turn the current

fon, that the

moral fenfe carries a good deal more in

of
than merely an approbation of a certain clafs
delightful,
or
praife-worthy,
adions as beautiful,
the
therefore finding our intereft in them as

it

and
j

moft noble

alfo a fenfe of obligation,

are right, and others

fenfe implies

The moral

gratification.

thatfuch and fuch things

wrong

that

we

bound

are

in

hateful,
duty to do the one, and that our condud is
we do
if
punifliment,
of
blameable, and deferving

the contrary

and there

is alfo in

the moral fenfe or

reward
confcience, an apprehenfion or belief that
ftiall
and punifhment will follow, according as we

ad

in the

one way, or in the other.

It is fo far

from being

time, that there is

no more

of beauty,
in virtuous adion than a fuperior degree
beauty
the
or a more noble pleafure, that indeed

and fweetnefs of virtuous adion

very circumftance that it

duty or fuppofed obligation.
the beauty
is

it

vanifties, as

more

adion, than

pleafant
to

from

do a

my

this

a compliance with

Take away

this,

well as the pleafure.

to

fatisfy

is

arifes

juft

or

and

Why

charitable

palate with delightfvvl

LECTURES

Lel. ^.

Olf

meat, or to walk in a beautiful garden, or read an

exquifite

poem

an obligation
portant in

only becaufe

do

to

It

itfelf.

myfelf under

I feel

im-

a thing ufeful and

as

it,

not duty becaufe plealing,

is

The fame

but plealing becaufe duty.

be faid of beauty and approbation.

thing

may

do not ap-

prove of the condu6i: of a plain, honeft, induflrious,

pious man, becaufe

it

more

is

of an idle profligate, but

fay

beautiful than that

is

it

more beautiful

and amiable, becaufe he keeps within the bounds

of his duty.

moral action
tion.

It

a higher fpecies of beauty in

I fee

but

may

be

it

arifes

faid,

from a

that

my

fenfe of obliga-

interefl

and duty

are the fame, becaufe they are infeparable, and the

one

arifes

from the other

but there

tindion and priority of order.

duty, becaufe

it is

my

interefl,

pointment of nature, that

if I neglciSl:

my

is

a real dif-

A thing

is

but

a wife ap-

it is

my

I fhall forfeit

not

my

intereft,

duty.

Several other remarks might be

made

to confirm

When

any perfon has by experience found,

that in feeking plcafure he embraces a lefs pleafing

this.

enjoyment,

may

be

in place

of one

more

delightful,

he

fenfible of miftake or misfortune, but

he

has nothing

at all

condemnation

of the feeling of blame or felf-

but

aftion, he has an

when he hath done

inward remorfe, and

an immoral

feels that

he

has broken a Igw, an^ that he ought to have done

Pthcrv'ife.

MORAL

Le(^. 4.

LECTURE

THIS

into,

and

further for the principle of

you a view of

the chief contro-

this fubjeft, obferve, that there are really

queftions

(three

little

In order to do this with the greater

moral action.

accuracy, and give

on

IV.

therefore, lays us under the neceflity of

fearcMng a

erfies

3!

r-HILOSOrHY.

upon

which mull be inquired

it,

diftinguiflied.

am

they are fo

fenfible,

intimately connected, that they are fometimes necelTarily

intermixed

ng leads into

but

error.

at others, not diftinguiih-

The

queftions relate to,

The nature of virtue.

1
2. The foundation of virtue.
3. The obligation of virtue.
When we inquire into the nature
do enough when we point out what
how we may come to the knowledge
.

of virtue,
it is,

When we

oppofite vice.

from the

it

fpeak of the foundation

Why

is

adion preferable

to

of virtue, v/e alk or aafwer the queftion,

it

fo

Why

the contrary

is

this courfe of

What

is its

excellence

fpeak of the obligation of virtue,

law we

are bound,

ought to be obedient
tains or prefcribes

or

wc

fhew

of every par-

and be able to diftinguifh

ticular duty,

or

we

When we

aik,

By what

from what principles we

to the precepts

which

it

con-

After fpeaking fomethlng to each of thefe

the controv^rfies that have been raifed

to

upon them

and the propriety or importai^ce of entering far

Led.

LECTURES ON

52

controverfies, or a particular decifion of

into thefe

them,

4.

proceed to a detail of the moral laws,

I fhall

or the feveral branches of duty, according to the

divilion
I

firft

As

down.

laid

what it
by which

to the nature of \artue, or

what

in other words,

is

or,

is

muft

ma^ keep

clear

obferve, that

upon

the rule

try every difputed praftice

that

of the next queftion, you

may

the fyflems they muft have recourfe to one or

all

more of the following,

who

All

perience.

Confcience, reafon, ex-

viz,

found virtue upon

affeftioii;

particularly Hutchinfon, Shaftefbury, and their fol-

lowers,

make

the moral fenfe the

very often attempt

to

i-ule

Thefe authors feem

this fubjecl.

of duty, and

exclude the ufe of reafon on

alfo to

make

be-

nevolence and public afle6lion the ftandard of virtue,

in diftindlion

Dr
age,

from

all

private and

felfifli

paflions.

Clark, and mofl EngliHi writers of the

make

larly as oppofed to

They have

lail

reafon the ftandavd of virtue, particu-

inward fentiment or

this to fay particularly in

afFeclion.

fupport of their

opinion, that reafon does in fa6l often controul and

alter fentiment

whereas fentiment cannot

clear decilions of reafon.

Suppofe

me any

my

tates to

thing to be

my

duty,

alter the

heart dicas,

for ex-

ample, to have compafTion on a perfon detected in

the commiffion of crimes
flection, I perceive

niilied will

be hurtful

teract the fentiment

Again

Some

chiefly at

the

felfifli

upon

yet

if,

that fuffering
to the

upon cool reto go unpu-

him

community,

coun-

from the deductions of reafon.

take in the aid of experience, and

it.

All particularly

fcheme, find

it

neccflary to

who are upon

make expc-

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lccl. 4.

33

them what things

happinefs, and what not.

lence the guide, to fliew

conducive to

We

are realljr

proceed to confider the opinions upon

iliall

the nature of virtue, the chief of

which

are as fol-

low.

Some

1.

fay that virtue conflils in afting agree-

ably to the nature and reafon of things

we

are to abflraft

from

private, in determining

all

and that

affection, public and

any queftion upon it.-

Clark,
2.

Some

fay that benevolence or public affe61ion

and that a regard

is

virtue,

is

the ftandard of virtue.

able in this

fcheme

to the

What

that

is,

it

good of the whole

is

makes

obligation in particular inftances give

pofed greater good.

moll remarkthe fenfe of

way

to a fup-

Hutchinson,

One author (Wollaiton Rel. of Nat. delineated)

makes truth the foundation of virtue and he re3

duces the good or evil of any ation to the truth

or falfehood of a propofition.

This opinion

not in fub fiance, but in words only,

differs

from Dr

Clark's.
4.

Others place virtue in felf-love, and

make

well regulated felf-love the llandard and foundation

of

This fcheme

it.

bell,

5.

is

bell defended

by Dr Camp-

of St Andrew's.

Some

of late have

made fym.pathy

ard of virtue, particularly Smith, in his

the lland-

Theory of

Moral Sentiments. He fays we have a certain

feeling, by which we fympathife, and, as he calls
This
it, go along with what appears to be right.
is

but a

new

Vol.

11.

phrafeology for the moral fenfe.

LECTURES ON

34
6.

David

Hume

I$eculiar to himfelf.

has a fcheme of morals that

He makes

agreeable and useful virtuous,

which

he^ entirely

Leci. 1.

annihilates

tween natural and moral

every thing

and mce

is

th:,t is

versa,

by

the difference be-

qualities,

making

health,

ftrength, cleanlinefs, as really virtues as integrity

and truth.
7.

We

have an opinion publifbed in

this country^

that virtue confifls in the love of being, as fuch.

Several of thefe authors do eaiily and naturallj

incorporate

piety with their fyftem, particularly

Clark, Hutchinfon, Campbell, and Edwards.

And

there are

fome who begin by

natural religion, and then found virtue

This amounts

to

eftablifliin|

upon

piety.

the fame thing in fubftance

fol

upon the nature of virtue only mean't(

the Author of nature has pointed out as
what
fhew
reafoners

duty.

And

after natural religion is ellablifhed 01

general proofs,
its

it

laws, which,

will remain to point out

bring us back to confider our

rational dedu6lion

what

not taking in revelation,

from

own

nature,

arc

mul

and

th<

it.

The opinions on the foundation of virtue mai

be fummed up in the four following.
2. The reafon and m
I. The will of God.
ture of things. 3. The public intereft. 4. Private
2.

intereft.

By this is not meant wha'j

I. The will of God.
was mentioned above, that the intimations of the dibut that th(
vine will point out what is our duty
difference
between
virtue
and vice
reafon of the
to be fought na where elfe than in the good plea;

fure of

God

that there

is

no

intrinfic excellence

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

^CCl. 4.

any

r.

but as he

tbiii,<T

35

commands

or forbids

it.

riiey pretend that, if it were otherwife, there would

be

fomething above the Supreme Being, fomething

natuie of things that would lay

in t!;e

him under

But notwithflanding
fate.
forming clear conceptions on

he law of necefTityor
the difticulty of our
this fubjeft,

feems very harih and unreafonable

between virtue and vice is

it

to fay, that the difference

This would be

no other than the divine will.

away

taking

It

felf.

he

the moral chara6ler even of

God him-

would not have any meaning, then,

to fay

But

infmitely holy and infinitely perfect.

is

who have

probably thofe

aiTerted this, did not

any more, than that the divine will

mean

fo perfect

is

and

excellent, that all virtue is reduced to conformity

to

it

evil

and that we ought not

by any other

divine condu6l
2.

is

This

this principle

endeavouring

it

may

iiciently precife

judge of good- and

is

as true as that the

the llandard of wifdom.

Some found

things.

to

This

rule.

in the reafon

and nature of

be faid to be true, but not fuf-

and

Thofe who embrace

explicit.

fucceed bell in their reafoning,

to fiiew that there is

an

when

cfientlal dif-

But when they

ference between virtue and vice.

attempt to fhew Vrrherein this difference doth or can

confiit,

other than public or private happinefs, they

fpeak with very

3.

little

meaning.

This opinion

Public happinefs.

foundation of virtue, or that which

tinlion

between

it

and vice,

mote the general good

is its

is,

makes

that the

the dif-

tendency to pro-

fo that utility at

bottom

is

the principle of virtue, even with the great patrons

of difmterefted affeclion.

LECTURES

36

Thofe who choofe

4. Private happinefs.

the foundation of virtue here,

consider no other excellence in

own

diately conduces to our

Upon
is

Left. 4,

ON"

thefe opinions I

to place

would have us to
it than what imme-

gratification.

would obferve,

that there

fomething true in every one of them, but that

they

may

The

be ealily pufhed

be the true flandard of

moral

to

nature and will of

all

an error by excefs.

God

is

perfed as

fo

to

excellence, natural and

if we are fure of what he is or comwould be prefumption and folly to reafon

and

mands,

it

againil

it,

or put our views of fitnefs in the

of his pleafure

by

but to fay, that God,

room

his will,

might have made the fame temper and condudb

virtuous and excellent,

which we now

feems to unhinge

our notions of the fupreme

all

excellence even of

God

Again, there feems

an

intrinfic

yet

himfelf.

be in the nature of things

excellence in moral worth, and an in-

delible imprelTion of
xinQ.

to

call vicious,

upon the conlcience,

it

dif-

from producing or receiving happinefs, and

we

cannot ealily illuflrate

its

excellence, but

by

comparing one kind of happinefs wdth another.

Again, promoting the public or general good
feems to be

we muft

fo

nearly conneled with virtue, that

neceffarily fuppofe that univerfal virtue

could be of univerfal
excelTes to
fatalift

are fo

the

which

this

utility.

Yet

and neceffitarian fchemes,

many

general

there are

two

has fometimes led. One, the

objections

to

which there

and the other, the making

good the ultimate practical rule to

every particular perfcn,

fo that

he

may

violate par-

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

,Lc6l. 4.

37

more general

obligations with a \i%\w to a

jlicular

benelit.

Once more,

certain, that virtue is as really

is

it

conne(Sled with private

and yet

to

make

foundation of

be

as

feems

it,

with public happinefs,

the intereft of the agent the only-

narrow the mind, and

to

to

dcftrudive to the public and generous affec

fo

tions, as to

produce the moft hurtful elTeds.

down

If I were to lay

a few proportions on the

foundation of virtue, as a philofopher, they

fliould,

be the following.
1.

From

reafon, contemplation, fentiment,

tradition, the beirig,

cellence of

what he

and

infinite perfeftion

and

and ex-

God, may be deduced and therefore

and commands, is vii'tue and duty.
;

is,

Whatever he has implanted

a principle,

is to

fities refilled

in corrupted nature as

Propen-

be received as his will.

and contradicted by the inward prin-

ciple of confcience, are to be confidered as inhe-

rent or contra6tcd vice.

2.

True

ood

and

virtue
this

certainly

may

ment in doubtful

promotes the general

be made ufe of as an argu-

cafes,

to

determine whether a

particular principle is right or

wrong

but

to

make

he good of the whole our immediate principle of

aJlion, is putting om"felves in

God's place, and ac-

tually fuperfeding the neceflity and ufe of the particular

principle of duty

upon the confcience.

the univerfe

am

As

is faultlefs

willing to fay

it

is

which he hath imprelied

whole,

believe

and perfeft, but

am

to the

un-

the best pofiible fyflem, becaufe

not able to underfland fuch an argument, and

becaufe

it

feems

to

me

abfurd that

D3

iniiaite

perfe^L--

LECTURES ON

38

Left. 4.

tion ihould exliaull of limit itfelf

by

a creuted pro-

du6tion.

..

There is in the nature of things a difFerence

between virtue and vice and however much virtue
3.

and happinefs are connefled by the divine law,

and in the event of things, we are made

feel towards

We

tinft.

and

dif-

have the limple perceptions of duty

intereft.

4. Private

by

fo as to

them, and conceive of them, as

and public

may

intereft

be promoted

the fame means, but they are diftinl views

they ihould be made to

aiiift,

and not deftroy each

other.

The

refult of the

take the

by

i*ule

whole

reafon, experience,

we can be
and

is,

that

we ought

and every way by which

fuppofed to learn the will of our Maker,

his intention in creating us fuch as

And

v^e

founded

to

of duty from confcience, enlightened

ought to believe, that

as the

tranfcript of his

God

nature of

it

is

as

we

are.

deeply

himfeif, being a

moral excellence, and that

it

is

produflive of the greateft good.

LECTUPvE V.
-,,

TT

remains only that w^e fpeak of the obligation

of virtue, or what

is

ciples

The

we ought

law that binds us to

what motives or prin-

the

the performance, and from

to follow its diftates.

fentiments upon this fubjed differ, as

men-

have different views of the nature and foundation

Lcl.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

5.

may

of virtue, yet they

39

be reduced within nar-

rower bounds.

The

obligation of virtue

may

two general kinds^ duty and

to

we

real, implies that

if

to

fubjed:!;

fome

The

able.

fupericr, to

own

whom we

why we

very

it is

are account-

The moral

it

ought to obey.

plain,- that

in the obligation of virtue, than

there

is

more

merely our greatefl

fentiment

itfelf

implies that

duty, independent of happinefs.

This pro-

happinefs.
is

firft,

happinefs, and that

greatefl

no other reafon

Nov%-, I think

it

The

fome law, or

are under

other only implies that nature points

out to us as our
tliere is

be eufily reduced

interefl.

duces remorfe and difapprobation, as having done

what

is

ideas

very diHinft,

his

blameable and of

own

intereil,

when

ill

and not obtaining

he might, and when

nefs as

we

confider

the fecond,
faperior,

we

and

fo

v/e fee

through every moral obligation.

him

We

defert.

have two

w^e fee a inan miftaking

much happihim breaking

In the

firfi:

cafe,

as only accountable to himfeif

confider

him

to the public.

as accountable to

in

fome

This fenfe of duty

is

the primary notion of law and of rights, taken in

their moil extenfive

ry thing
others,

we

think

eve-

lignification, 'as including

we

are entitled to expet fron>

and the neglecl or violation of which

we

confider as wrong, unjuft, vicious, and therefore

blameable.
reafon

It is alfo

by many,-

affirmed with great apparent

particularly Butler, in his

Analogy

and his Sermons, that w^e have a natural feeling of

ill

defert,

and merited punifliment in vice.

patrons of the

felfilh

fine the obligation

The

ideas alone, are thofe vrho cori^

of virtue to happinefs.

LECTURES ON

40

But of thofe who

Led.

are, or v/ould

oppofite fenthnent, there are

coniiderablj from others.

5,

be thought, of the

fome who

Some who

differ

very

profefs great

oppoiition to the felfifh fchera^, declare alfo great

averHon

founding the obligation of virtue in anj

to

degree on the will of a Hiperior, or looking for any

fanlion of punilliment, to corroborate the moral

This they efpecially

law^s.

when

it is

treat

w^ith

fuppofed to be from the Deity.

bury fpeaks with great

He

tended felf-interefl.
tue for

its

own

Shaftf-

bitternefs againft

view a future Hate of what he

into

contempt,

fays

men

calls

taking

more ex-

fhould love vir-

fake, without regard to reward and

punilhment. In this he has been followed by

many

reafoners, as far as their regard to religion w^ould

permit them.
.

If,

however,

fcience,

we

we

attend to the dictates of con-

fhall find evidently a fenfe

felf- approbation,

of duty, of

and remorfe, which plainly fhew

us to be under a law, and that law to have a fanction

what

elie is the

meaning of the

fear and ter-

ror, and apprehenfions of guilty perfons

mentes

si

Nor is

recludantur,
this all,

but

fenfe of dependence.
is

J^/077/w

&c. fays Cicero.

we have all
The belief

certainly a natural

of a Divine Being

certainly either innate and neceffary, or

handed

down from the firil man, and can now be well fupAnd our relation to
ported by the cleareft reafon.
the
foundation
only
of many moral
lays
him not
fentiments and duties, but completes the idea of

morality and law,

by fubjeding us

to

him, and

teaching us to conceive of him, not only as our

Maker,

Preferver, and Benefador, but as our righ-

;.eft.

4*

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

5.

As

ecus Governor and fupreme Judge.

md

perfeaions of

:he obligation

God

the being

are irrefragably eftablifhed,

of duty muft ultimately reft here.

be forgotten, that the belief or appunifh3rehenfion of a future ftate of rewards and

Deity,
a
of
belief
the
as
univerfal
has been as
It

ought not

to

inents

therefore muft
Lnd feems infeparabie from it, and
moral law.
the
be confidered as the fandion of
as
bhaftibury inveighs feverely againft this,

making

but there
rnan virtuous from a mercenary view
this mathre two ways in w^hich we may confider
;

little
and in either light his objections have
obligaprimary
the
confider
(i.) We may
force,
:er,

founded upon a fenfe of its own

and dependexcellence, joined with a fenfe of duty
and purewards
,ence on the Supreme Being, and
in
fomid
hifhments as a fecondary motive, which is

tions of virtue, as

abfolutely neceffary to reftrain or re-

^acl to be
jclaim

men from

Or, (2.)

vice and impiety.

We

the light of nature, as well as

confider, that, by
virtue is confirevelation, the future reward of
the happinefs
and
virtue,
idered as a ftate of perfeft

Uay

is rcprefented

'^ere there

is

as arifmg

nothing

at

from
all

this

circumftance.

of a mercenary prin-

goodnefs,
but only an expedation that true
liable
and
imperfedion,
of
ftate
a
i^vhich is here in
the
ftiall then be improved to

Iciple,

to

much

oppofition,

^higheft degree,

and put beyond

all

poftibility of

|change.

We may add to thefe obligations, the mamfeft tendency of a virtuous condud

promote even our

this, in orainary cafes, it does ;

the fteady hop of futurhy.
with
joined

prefent happinefs

and when

to

LECTURES ON

4^
does in

Lel.

5.

cafes produce a happlnefs fuperior to

all

"what can be enjoyed in the pralice of vice.

Yet,

who denied pain to be

v/ife man fuperior to all tliej

perhaps, the Stoics of old,

an J

and made the

evil,

viciiTitudes cf fortune, carried things to a romantic'

And

and extravagant height.

in

modern

who,

times,

of a future

ftate,

own

rc^

Situations in v/hich, if

you

teach that virtue

There are manj

ward.

do fome pcrfons

fo

fetting afide the coniiderationis its

depriv^e a

good

man

nefs,

ftate

feems very undefirable.

his

of the hope of future happi-

contrary, fome times the worft of

men

perity and fuccefs to a great degree

feem

to

to

have any fuch remorfe, as

quate punifliment to their crimes.

On

the

enjoy profnor do they

be an ade-'

If any fliould

that a good man has always feme comfort

from within, and a bad man a felf- difapprobation
and inward difquiet, fuited to their charafters, I

inlifl-,

would

fay, that this arifes

from the expeftation

of*

a future ftate, and a hope on the one lide, and fear

on the other, of that condition there.

Thofe who declaim fo highly of virtue being

own reward

in this life, take

coniiderable arguments which, from the dav/n

made

philofophy, has always been

proof of a future

ftate, viz. the

unequal diftribution

life.

feem

bad men properly.

view the

ftate of

of'i

ufe of as a

of good and evil in this

to

its

away one of the moil

Beiides, they do not

they talk of remorfe of confcience as a

puniftiment, they forget that this

is

When

fufficient

feldom to a high

degree, but in the cafe of fome grofs crimes.

Cru-

elty and murder, frequent a61s of grofs injuftice,

are

fometimes followed with deep horror of con-

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 5.
fcience

45

and a courfe of intemperance or

luft is

difmal eifects upon the

often attended with fuch

body, fame, and fortune, that thofe

who

furvive

it

a few years are a melancholy fpeflacle, and a

burden to themfelves and others. But it would be
very loofe moralitj^, to fiippofe none to be bad men,

but thofe
of

tion

who were under

On

condemna-

the habitual

confcience.

the

contrary,

the

far

greater part are blinded in their underftandings, as

They

well as corrupt in their pradice.

Ignorance and in-

themfelves, and are at peace.

attention

keep the multitude

deceive

at

And

peace.

falfe

principles often produce felf-jullification and

common

robbers are fometimes found to juftify

themfelves, and fay,

my

ill-

Even

even in atrocious crimes.

founded peace,

mull

live

have a right to

proud fellow

ihare of proviiion, as well as that

that rolls in his chariot.

The

refult of the

whole

is,

that the obligation to

virtue ought to take in all the following particulars

A fenfe

of

its

own

py confequences
and fubjeftion

intrinfic excellence

in the prefent life

to

of

its

hap-

a fenfe, of duty

the Supreme Being and

hope

of future happinefs, and fear of future mifery, from

his decifion.

Having coniidered the reafonings on the

foundation, and obligation of virtue,
to

fliall

nature,

now proceed

more particular detail of the moral laws, and

take them under the three heads formerly men-

tioned, Ethics, Politics, and Jurifprudence.

LECTURES ON

44

LECTURE

AS

to the

as laying

may be

flates

begin with what

is-

ufually called the ftates of man, or the feve

which he may be

ral lights or relations in

dered,

VI.

we muft

firft,

Le6l. 6.

divided into two kinds,

confi.

Thefe

a foundation for duty.

Natural

Adventitious.

2.

The

natural flate

To

2.

may be enumerated thus

Thefe are called natural

are related to

by

know

We

muft

our fellow-creatures, and their

at all

fociety

at

to

thefe,

are,

at all times,

They were made by him,

God.

his providence.

lar to ours in this refpedt,

muft

Hi
him

becaufe they

flates,

All men, and

neceflary and-univerfal.

to

3. Solitude or fociety.

his fellow-creatures.

Perhaps we may add

4. Peace or war.
provilion,
outward
plenty or want.
5. His

live

with regard to God, or natural relation

flate

andj

alfo neceffarilyi
ftate, to

be fiml

and many others.

A man

times be independent, or conneded v.dth

peace with others, or

at

war well

^pro-

vided, or in want.

The

other ftates are called adventitious, becaufe

they are the

effect

of choice and the fruit of in-

duftry, as marriage

family mafter

particular voluntary focieties

lions

-characters or

abilities,

ofHces in a conflitiited

many

and fervant

callings or profef-

natural and acquired

fociety

property and

particular modifications of each of thefe.

In profecuting the fubjed further, and giving an

analyfis of the

moral duties founded upon thefe

Led.
Iftates,
I

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

6.
I fliall

firft

45

take notice of our relation to

God, with the proofs of

and perfe^lions,

his being

and then coniider the moral laws under three heads;

our duty to God, to our neighbour, and

our-

to

felv^es.

Our duty to God. To this place I have rewas to be faid upon the proof of the
being of God, the great foundation of all natural
I.

ferved what

religion

without which the moral fenfe would be

weak and infufEcient.

The proofs of the being

of

God

are generally

divided into two kinds, i. ji priori. 2.

The

firft is,

foning

A posteriori.

properly fpeaking, me'taphyfical rea-

downward from

the

firft

principles of fcience

or truth, and inferring byjuft confequence the being

and perfedions of God.

(if there

&:c.

prioi'i,

and

foning),

is

Clark's Demonftrations,

be any thing that

if this is

as complete as

be called a

fliould

method of rea-

a conclufive

any thing ever

publiftied

perhaps he has carried the principle as far as

it

will go.

This way of arguing begins by

\

own

exiftence

eftabliftiing

our

That we are

from confcioufnefs.

not necefllirily exiftent, therefore muft have a caufe;

that

fomething muft have exifted from

or nothing ever could have exifted

by an

muft

exift

what

exifts neceflarily

muft be perfeft

all eternity,

that this

internal neceiHty of nature

muft

exift alike

ad every where be
;

all thefe

excellencies, that

II.

that

independent,
juft, taie:

are evidently perfedions or

which

exifts

by

a neceflity of na-

ture muft be poflefled of every perfedion.

Vol.

every where

omnipotent, omnifcient, infinitely good,

Becaufe, as

Being

And

Led.

LECTURES ON

46

the contrary of tbefe virtues, implying

or infufficiency,

6.

weaknt

cannot be found in the

Infinite

commonly

called a

Being.

The

medium

other

posteriori, begins

in

of proof,

with contemplating the univerfe

parts; obferving that

all its

proofs that

irrefiftible

not be without a caufe

telligent

it

contains

many

could not be eternal, could

it

that this caufe

mull be

in-

aftoniiliing greatnefs, the

and from the

wonderful adjuflment and complication of

things,,

we can fet no bounds to the perfec-J

Maker, becaufe we can never exhaul

concludes that
lion of the

the power, intelligence, and benignity that

In this

in his works.

way

of arguing

we

we

fee

deduce

the moral perfections of the Deity from the faint

refemblances of them that

we
to

by

we

fee in ourfelves.

As

neceflarily conceive juftice, goodnefs, truth. Sec.

be perfections or excellencies, we are warranted]

the plainefl reafon to afcribe

Being in an

There

is,

infinite

them

to the Divine]

degree.

perhaps, at bottom, no difierence be-

tween thefe ways of reafoning, becaufe they muftj

in fome degree reft upon a common principle,'*'
viz.

This

That every thing

is

that exifts

muft have a caufe.

equally necefTary to both the chains of rea-

foning, and muft itielf be taken for an original,

fentiment of nature, or an impreflion neceffarily

made upon

us from

all

that

we

fee

and are con-

About this and fome other ideas

great ftir has been made by fome infidel writers,
particularly David Hume, who feems to have inverfant w^ith.

duftrioufly endeavoured to Ikake

the certainty of

our belief upon caufe and efFed, upon perfonal

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 6.
identity,
raife

of power.

and the idea

metaphyfical

late writers

In opponiion

eafy ta

to this,

have advanced, with great appa-

rent reafon, that there are certain

common

dictates of

It is

and confound the un-

ftibtleties,

derilanding on fuch fabjeas.

fome

47

fenfe,

firfl

which

principles, or

are either fimple

Theie

perceptions, or feen with intuitive evidence.

and without
re the foundation of all rcafoning,
them, to reafon is a word without a meaning.

They can no more be proved

than you can prove

an axiom in mathematical fcience. Thefe authors

of Scotland have lately produced and fupported
this opinion, to refolve at

once

all

the reiinemenls

and metaphyfical objeaions of fome

infidel writers.

of argument often made

There is a different fort

the beufe of, or brought in aid of the others, for
and
nations,
ing of God, viz. the confent of all
the univerfal prevalence of that belief.

not whether
alfo

upon

we muil

tioned.

If

we mull

take

it is
it

know

fay that this argument reils

nothing can exifl

that

the principle,

without a caufe, or

upon the plan

juft

now men-

an univerfal dictate of our nature,

as true

immiediately, v/ilhout fur-

ther examination.

An

author

gument
caifie).

I for-iierly

mentioned has fet this ar(Dr Wilfon of New-

in a peculiar light,

He

fays that

we

receive all our

ledge, as philofophers admit,

feiifation

knowand re-

we fee, and all the

reilcrbion and abilraclion upon it we are capaple of,
he affirms it is impoffible we could ever form the
They have,
idea of a fpirit or a future ilate.

flcftlon.
I

by

Now, from

that

all

however, been early and univerfal, and therefore

E2
I

LECTURES ON

4^

have been communicated

miift

down by

at firft,

5.

and handed

information and inftrutftion from age to

So

age.

Led.

upon the fuppoHtion of the

that, unlefs

exigence of God, and his imparting the knowledge

of himfelf to men, it is impoiTible that any idea of

him could ever have entered

There

is

probability, in this

As

way

is,

of reafoning.

of God, the

to the nature

obferved

human mind.

into the

fomething ingenious, and a good deal of

the unity of

God.

thing to be

firll

This

is fufficiently

upon the reafonings both a priori and

eftablifhed

If thefe reafonings are juft for the being of God, they are ftriftly concluiive for the

posteriori.

unity of God.

There

a necefli ty for the exift-

is

ence of one Supreme Being, the

no neceflity for more

firft

dent Being does not admit any more.

v/e

caufe, but

nay, one fupreme indepen-

And when

view the harmony, order, and unity of

we

in the created fyflem,

of the unity of

Perhaps
(efpecially

God.

may
if we

it

be thought an objeftion to
lay any

fo prone to the belief

But

iblid

as,

this

all

this,

on the univerfal

ftrefs

lentiments of mankind), that

gods.

deiign,

be led to the belief

mufi:

nations have been

and v/orfhip of a plurality of

argument

is

rather fpecious than

however prone men were to worihip local

feem to have confidered them

inferior deities, they

only as intermediate divinities and interceffors be-

tween them and the Supreme God.

The

perfedlions of

tv7o kinds.
I

ty,

The

God may

be divided

into.

Natural and MoraL

natural perfeftions of

God

immeniityj wifdom, and power.

are fpirituali*

Le^,

We
jean

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

6.

call thefe natural perfections,

be eafily

diftiiigiiilhed,

from goodnefs of

jparated,

49
bccaufe they

and in idea

diipoiition.

at Icaft fe-

highly

It is

probable, indeed, that fupreme excellence, natural

and moral, mull alwa^'S nfide in the fame

and are truly infeparabie

we

yet

fubjecSl,

diilmguiih them,

not only becaufe the ideas are diflincl, but bccaufe

they are by no means in proportion to one another

Great powers of mind and

inferior natures.

in

body

pcrfeclion of

are often joined to malignity of

It is not fo,

difpofition.

moral excellence

his

moral

God

however, in

his natural perfe6lions are

for as

founded on reafon, fo

evidently founded in the

is

fenfc, or confcience,

which he hath implanted

in us.

Spirituality

God.

of

prefent
fpirit.
inlifl

It

what we may

is

we

cannot at

form any complete or adequate idea of a

And fome, as you have heard formerly,

that without revelation

acquired the idea of

are

call the v^jy nature

muft be admitted that

many who have

it

we

could never have

Yet there

that v/e have.

reafoned in a very flrong and

feemingly conclufive manner,

to

ihew that mind or

intelligence muft be a fubilance altogether diftinct

That

from matter.

all

known

the

properties of

matter are incapable of producing thought, as being w^hoUy of a different kind

and univerfally,

inert

is

intelligence, aclive

bed reafoning on
riality

is

that matter as fuch^

divifible

thought or

and uncompounded.

bee

th.e

Immate-

this fubjeb in Baxter's

of the Soul.

Immenfity
he

and

in the

Di^^ne

Bemg

is

that

by wluch
Meta-

everv where; and equallv prefent.

LECTURES ON

50

Ledl. 6.

upon

phyficians, however, diiFer greatly

The Cartedans

jed.
at

iall

applicable to

w^hoUy

ariling

They

fpirits.

fay

peculiar and effential

qualities of

who make

is,

an idea

it is

from extenfion, which

Newtonians, however,

this fub-

will not admit that place

one of thej

is

matter.

The'

much

ufe of'

fo

the idea of infinite fpace, conlider place as effential

The

to all fubllance, fpirit as well as matter.

on both

ficulties are great

ceive of fpirit at

of matter
it

feems

And

yet

and

to
it

all,

lides.

It is

feparating from it the qualities

have attempted

after v/e

be bringing thera back

to

do

feems not only hard, but impoflible, to

to

feems

It

much on

too

deny

to

immenfity.

his

be putting created

a level with the infinite

they are either

It is,

confined

to

a
is

by

expreffed as

And

faying.

divine immenfity
verfal,

and

Wifdom
plying

We

in this fenfe

that

think,

mited in their operations, as

elfe.

is

pofTible, are

end to be

way

fpi-

certain,
li-

fo well

are here, and no

where

both parties mufl admit the

his

agency

is

equal, uni-

irrefiilible,

another natural attribute of God, im*

infinite

is

in

Spirit

place, or fo

no

knov/ledge

that

all things,

their relations, all things exifting,

Wifdom

it

and particularly upon the immenfity

place,

of the Deity.
rits

fo,

to talk of place.

conceive of any real being without fuppoiing

fome

dif-

hard to con-

and

all

in all

things

the objeds of the divine knowledge.

ufually confidered as refpefting fome

attai^ied

and

it

implies the clear difco-

very of the befl and mofl effeflual means of

at-

Led.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

6.

Power

is

the being able to do all things, without

The omnipotence

limit or reftraint.

ways confidered
feems to

arife

vidence.

5I

an

God

of

is al-

and
immediately from creation and pro'as

ejQential

common

It is

perfedlion,

to fay that

God

can do

all

things except fuch as imply a contradiftion, fuch

make

as to

and not

a thing to be

but this

be

to

at the

fame

unneceifary and foolifh in the

time

way

of an exception, for fuch things are not the

objefts of

is

power

They

at all.

own

are

mere

we may

in our conception, and indeed

abfurdities

fay, of our

All things are pofTible with God_,

creation.

nothing can withftand his power.

LECTURE VIL

THE moral

perfedlions of

juftice, truth, goodnefs,

Holinefs

is

God

are, holinefs,

and mercy.

fometimes taken in a general and

comprehenlive fenfe, as being the aggregate, implying the prefence of all moral excellence ; yet it
is

fometimes ufed, and that both

ture-revelation and

God

to

or explain.

It

is

extremely dif-

it is

Holinefs

is that

charac-

which veneration, or the moil pro-

found reverence in
tion.

the fcrip-

in

writers, as a peculiar

In this limited fenfe

attribute.

ficult to define

ter of

by heathen

us,

fometimes

and when we go

to

is

the correfpondent affec-

alfo

exprelTed

form an idea of

it,

by

can fcarce fay any thing better, than that

being removed

at

an

infinite

groflefl of material indulgence.

purity

perhaps

diflance

it is

we
his

from the

LECTURES

^a
Judice

is

Led:. 7,

ON-

an invariable determination to render

leems to be founded on

juitice

to all their due.

we have

ftrong and unalterable perception

tlie

good and

right and wrong,

niihrnent.

The

internal fan6lion,

fanftion

and providential

that

God.

of

point out the juftice

exter-

or the

of

natural

The

laws^

chief thing

merits attention upon this fubjedl

troverfy about v;hat

of

and particularly
and the other pu-

one deferves reward,

that the

nal

evil,

is,

the con-

called the vindictive juftice

is

God,

of

God

we

a natural fenfe of the propriety of, a difpolition

That

is to

fay,

there in

is

or have

punifhment, independently of the confe-

to inilid

quences, viz. the reformation of the offender, or

This loofe moralifts often

the example of others.

Yet

declaim againft.

it

feems plain, that the fenfe

minds of good and

in our

ill

defert,

makes

the proper objedl of punifliment limply in

guilt
itfelf.

may have a relation to general order and the

good of the whole, which how^ever is out of our
This

reach.

The

God

truth of

upon

greatly inlifted

part of natural religion.

finite

perfection

for

one of his perfections,

is

in fcripture, and
It is

an

eflential

infeparable from in-

any departure from

truth

muft be conlidered as ariiing from weaknefs or neWhat end could be ferved to a felf-fufficeffity.
cient

and

ception

all-fufficicnt

Goodnefs in
happinefs to

The

Being by falfehood or de^

God is a
others.

creatioii is a

difpofition to

This

proof of

it.

is

communicate,

eafily underftood.

Natural and moral.

MORAL rHILOSOPHY.

Left. 7.

no

evil is

juft objeftion to

5J

becaiire of the pre-

it,

ponderancy of happinefs.

Mercy,

as diftinguilhed

nity, is his

from goodnefs or benig-

being of a placable nature

ready to

forgive the guilty, or to remit dcferved punifh-

ment.

It

how

has been dilputed,

placability

is

by

difcoverable

far

reafon.

mercy or
is

It

not

would have been

There arft
juft at the fame time to have puniftied.
but two ways by which men from reafon may in-

mercy

or forgivenefs, unlefs

mercy

fer the attribute of

I.

Becaufe

we

belong

to

to the

Deity,

ourfelves are fenfible of this difpo-

and fee in

fition,

it

it

a peculiar beauty.

2.

From

the forbearance, of Providence, that finners are not

immediately overtaken

v/ith

pimifhment, but have

them to repent. Yet as all the condrawn from thefe principles muil be vague

fpace given
clufions

and general, the expeftations of the guilty founded

upon them muft be very uncertain. We mufl

conclude, therefore, that however ftable a foundation there is for the other attributes of

and reafon, the

ture

way

in

God

in na-

which, and the terms

on which, he will fliew mercy, can be learned

from revelation only.

Having confidered the being and perieftions of

God, we proceed to our duty to him.
This may be confidered in two views, as general

and

duty

to

fpecial.

1.

By

the

firft I

obey him, and fabmit

to

underftand our

him

in all things.

This you fee includes every branch of moral duty

to our

and

neighbour and ourfelves, as well as

fo the particular parts of

afterwards.

But in

it

to

God,

will be confidered

this place, confidering

^very

LECTURES ON

54

Let. 7.

good aftion as an a6l of obedience

will a

little

God, we

to

attend to the di^dne fovereignty, and the

foundation of

it.

In fpeaking of the foundation of virtue,

in

took

a fenfe of dependance and fubje6lion to

God*

But as men are not

quiries,

What

is

minion

queftion

Some found

It is

to lay us

and fpeak of
tainly

upon Omni-

his power.

refift

This

under a necelTity, rather than to

We

this fubje6l

ought, however, to think

wnth reverence, and cer-

Omnipotence feems

fliould not

directly

it

impoffible to

convince us of duty.

it

in-

by fome,

raifed

is

properly the foundation of the divine do-

potence.

feems

be deterred from bold

to

further

to oblige us to actual, if

bring us to willing obedience.

It is

fomev/hat remarkable, that in the book of Job,

compofed on purpofe
providence, where

fome

to refclve

God

himfelf

is

difficulties in

brought in as

fpeaking out of the whirlwind, he makes ufe of no

other argument than his tremendous majefty and
irreliftible

upon

this,

on mere

power.

feems

Yet

much

to reft the

the

fame

Therefore, 2.

will.

matter Vv^holly

as founding virtue

Some found

vine dominion on his infinite excellence

it is

the

law of reafon

and therefore that

fway.

univerfal

is

that the wifeft fiiould rule,

infinite

Even

alone, does not feera

If one perfon

the di-

they fay

perfedion
ihis,

is

entitled to

taken feparate and

holly to fatisfy the mind.

wifer than another,

it

feems reafon-

able that the other fhould learn of him, and imitate

him
the

',

but

firll

it

fcarcely feems a fuflicient reafon that

Ihould have abfolute authority.

But per-

haps the wQaknefs of the argument, taken in

this

MORAL PHILOSOPHy.

JjcS:. 7.

55

may arife from the inconfiderable difference

between man and man, when compared to the fu-

view,

periority of univerfal and unchangeable perfection.

3.

Some found

upon

it

They

creation.

fay that

God has an abfolute property in all his creatures

he may therefore do what he will with his own.
;

This, no doubt, goes a good way, and carries conliderable force with
as

it

to the

you will afterwards

fee,

mind, the rather

that,

fomething limilar

is

it

to this in us that lays the foundation of our

moll

perfeft rights, viz. that the product of our

own

induftry

is

properly at our

As upon

own

the foundation

difpofal.

of virtue

thought

it

neceffary to unite the principles of different VvTiters,

fo

upon

this fubje6l

think that

mentioned ought

ticulars

all

grounds of the divine dominion.

infinite excellence,

the three par-

be admitted,

to

as the

Omnipotence,

and the original produftion and

continual prefervation of all creatures.

2.

Our duty

fpecially, as

it

to

God may

be conlidered more

points out the duties

we owe imme-

diately to himfelf.

Thefe
nal.

I.

may be
The

divided into internal and exter-

internal

are all included under the

three following, love, fear, and truft.

The

love of

God, which

is

the

firll

and great

duty both of natural and revealed religion,

may be

explained in a larger and more popular, or in a

more

precife

In the

and

firft,

following a6ls,

ftrifler

love

may

way.
be refolved into the four

(i.) Efteem, (2.) Grautude, (3.)

Benevolence, (4.) Delire.

LECTURES ON

$6

Left.

Thefe four will be found infeparable frc^

love

and

much

pretty

is

it

on efteem, on the

Love

you

founded

is

good

real or fuppofed

You

true

the fame order

in

that the afts fucceed one another.

of the objeft.

7,

qualities

can no more love that which

which you hate. Gratitude

it, to have
a lively fenfe
of favours received, and to efteem them for the
defpife, than that

is alfo

infeparable from

whom

fake of the perfon from

they came.

Bene-

volence, or rejoicing in the happinefs and wifliing

And, laftly, a defire of a place

Whatever we love we defire to

well to the objeft.

in his efteem.
poflefs, as far as

The

ftridter

it is

fuited to our faculties.

and more precife method of

dering the love of God,

is

branches, benevolence, and

our afFeftions to

fame

divide

to

conli-

into

And

defirci

God feem

it

two

indeed

be capable of the

to

divilion as our affeclions to our fellow-crea-

tures,

benevolent and

think

felfiQi.

it

unde-

God,
which terminates direftly upon himfelf, without
any immediate view to our own happinefs, as w^ell
niable that there

a dilinterefted love of

is

as a difcovery of our great intereft in his favour.

The fecond great

we muft carefully

duty

to

God,

diftinguifti

one which bears the name, and

at leaft in

a moral view

Dutiful fear
ration,

is

it

is

is

its

is

different

The

of evil or puniftiment from

filial

and

but here

from

from

it,

called vene-

objel the infinity of the

divine perfelion in general, but

majefty and greatnefs.

altogether oppofite.

what may be otherwife

and hath for

fometimes a

fear

this affeftion

particularly his

other

him

is

merely a fear

thefe

fervile fear.

are called

The

firft

in-

MORAL

Left. 7.
creafes,

men improve

as

the other

PHILOSOPIii'.

is

in

5^

moral excellence, and

Perfe6l love cailetli out

deflroyed.

Perhaps, however oppcfite, as thej have the

fear.

fame name, they

may

tural affedlion, only as

be faid
it

be the fame na-

to

takes place in innocent or

The fame

holy, and in guilty creatures.

majefly

of God, which produces veneration in the upright,

produces horror and apprehenlion of punifhment in
the guilty.

The

third great duty

nual dependence on

This

is trufl.

God

is

for every thing

a conti-

we

need,

together with an approbation of and abfolute reiignation to his providence.

The external

2.

duties to

God, I^iall

briefly pafs

over, being only, all proper and natural exprcffions

of the internal fentiments.

may

It

be proper, however,

neral of the worfhip due to

to

take notice in ge-

God,

that

whether

we

confider the nature of things, or the univerfal practice

of mankind, in

all

ages, v/orfnip, and that no:

only private, but public and fecial worlliip,

is

a duty

of natural religion.

Some

of the enemies of revealed religion, have

fpoken with great virulence againft

this, as

unrea-

fonable, and even dilhonourable to the Divine

The

ing.
as

fubflance of

is this,

Bethat

would be no part of the chara61er of an emi-

it

nent and good man,

others praifmg
ties,

what they fay

fo

is

it

and take pleafure

him and recounting

his

in

good quali-

abfurd to fuppofe, that the

Supreme

pleafed with incenfe, facrifices, and praifes.

Being

is

But

ought

it

to delire

tliefe a61s

to

be obferved, that he does not require

and exercifes as any

VoL.II.

gratification to

him-

38

LECTURES OK

fell,

but as in tliemfelves

we

fuited to the relation

for forming our

ft

and

jiift

and

Le!:. 7.

him, and ufeful

in to

temper and univerfal

We

practice.

we muft

ought alfo to remember, that

and

necelTarj^,

not immedi-

ately and without difcrimination, reafon from what

would be praife and blame-worthy among men, to
what would be juft or unjuil in God, becaufe the

Befides, though

circumftances are very different.

for

man

any

to defire the applaufe

of his fellow-

creatures, or be pleafed with adulation,

mean
there

of

would be a

and contemptible character, becaufe indeed

iuch unfpeakable imperfedlion in the beil

is

men

yet

when any duty

or fentiment

and manifeftly due from man

is

man, there

to

fully
is

no-

thing improper or diihonourable in requiring or

expeling

it.

Thus

a parent requires refpeft and

fubmiHion from his children, a mailer from his

ferv'^ants

and though the injury

he thinks himfelf

is

merely perfonal,

entitled to puniih

of contempt or difregard.

every exprelllon

Again, every

man who

has beftowed fignal favours upon another, expefts

to fee

evidence of a grateful and fenfible mind,

and feverely condemns every fentiment or a6lion

that indicates a contrary difpoiition.

On the whole, then, we fee, that if the worlhip of

God be what is due from us to him, in corifequence
of the relation we ftand in to him, it is proper and
neceffary that he iliould re(juire it. To honour God,
is to

honour fupreme excellence

expect and

One

demand

v>^ould

be

to

for

him

duty of prayer

equally againft

it

not to

deny himfelf.

other difficulty I ihall touch upon a

It refpe6ts the
lie

it,

little.

and the objedlions

on the footing of natural re-

'

MORAL

Lel. 7,

59

The objedions are two*

God, who perfedlj knows all our

and revealed.

ligion
I.

PPIILOSOniY.

Why

does

wants, require and cxpedl prayer before he will

them

liipply

To

this

would anfwer,

that

he

fupplies great multitudes of our wants without our

a Iking

it

prayer,

general

and

I
;

and

as

fay

the

it

requiring

his

to

fame thing

duty of

the

as of worfliip in

reafonable and necelTary to exprefs,

is

to increafe

upon our minds,

depend-

a fenfe of

ence, aad thereby lay us under an obligation of

we

properly improving what

other obligation

is v/ith

receive.

The

2.

regard to the force or efH*

cacy of prayer.

Why,

when

fyllem of divine providence

the whole

fixed and unalterable

that

God

Ihould

is faid,

it

Can we

To

this

pray,
is

pofTibly fuppofe

will change his purpofes,

to our cries or tears

we

from

a regard

fome anfwer no

otherwife than as before, that without having any

effect

upon the event,

it

has only an effett upon

Dr

our minds, in bringing us to a right temper.

Leechman of Glafgow,
makes no other anfwer
think to refl

it

fiuence in the

would

way

in a great

jedion

arifes

as

this

on prayer,

But

difficulty.
it

of cafualty upon the

event,

would therefore fay

further,

real efficacy on the event,

any other fecoiid caide.

human

lacious.
it^

and

The cb-

from going beyond our depth, and

reafoning from the unchangeable purpofe of

to

has no in-

mcafure break the force and fer-

that prayer has a

much

to

here, and admit that

vency of prayer.
juft as

in his difcourfe

adions, v/hich

is

always unjull and

Hov/ever unable we

not withil finding

the

may be

God
fal-

to explain

fixed plan of providence,

LECTURES ON

6o
there
tural

is

a real influence of fecond caufes, both na-

and moral,

it

is

fixed

plentiful crop

apprehend the connexion

ar^d I

between caufe and

If

Left. 7.

efFe6l is fimiiar in

from eternity

upon a

certain field, I

nothing whatfoever can prevent

efforts of the

know

it>

both

if

know
it

hj'-potheticallj, if

not ploughed and fown, there will be no grain

and that

It,

ters,

jet

it

is

upon

be properly manured and drelTed,

if it

will probably be fruitful.

it

that

otherwife, the

whole creation cannot produce

as certainly that,

cafes.

there fhall be a

tha:t

Thus, in moral mat-

prayer has as real an influence in procui'ing

the blefiing, as ploughing and fowing has in pro-

curing the crop

eflabliflied order

and

as confiftcnt with the

it is

of nature and the

events in the one cafe, as in -the other

was

fon the Stoical fate of old

ratio of the Stoics, as

the

for this rea-

called the igiiava

they fomctimes made ufe of

above fallacious rcafoning.

LECTURE

WE

come now

may

fcending to

its

and

is

active,

to

VIII.

our duty to man.

be reduced

to a fnort

Love to
fum of our duty.

principle.

the

Benevolence,

the principle and

which regards

This

fum, by a-

others, fmcere

formerly obferved, ought not

be confidered as the whole of

ly

certainty of

virtue, but

fum of

that

it

to

certain-

branch of duty

others.

We may difliinguifh between,

(i.) particular kind

afFeflions,

ciTid,

The

to all.

(2.) a

calm and deliberate good-will

particular kiod afFectioas, as to family,

friends, couatr}',

itrengrlien

to

6l

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Ledl. 8.

feem

by doing good

or chiefly

be implanted by nature,
it is only

to

the general principle, for

larly related to, that

we

thofe

to

we

are particu-

can promote the general

happinefs.
Particular kind afTedions

Ihould be re fi rained

and direded by a calm good-will

attachments to

ever our

good,

a greater

tliey

Where-

to all.

private perfons prevent

become

irregular and ex-

ceiiive.

Some

an improvement of the particular affecand arifes from thv. more narrow to the more,

others,
tions,

think that a calm and fettled good-will to

is

from famil}^ friends, country, to all

But it feems more reafonour fellow-creatures.
extenlive

able to fay, that the general afledion

of our confcience of a fuperior kind.

is

a ditate

If

it

were-

only an increafe and extenfion of private alFeflion,

grow more weak, as the diftance froni
it would
ourfelves increafed, whereas in faft the

more en^

larged affections are intended to be more powerful

than the confined.

When we

are fpeaking of kind aiFe6lions,

to obferv^e that

it

will

fome unbelievers

not be improper
have objeded againft the gofpel, that it does not
recommend private friendfnip and the love of out:

But if fairly confidered, as the fcripture,.

country.
both by example and precept, recommends all particular affeftions, fo it is to its honour, that it fet>
the love of manl^ind above
fo

much

infilling

on

them every

one, and

the forgivenefs of injiuries

F3

by
and

6t

LECTURES ON

the love of enemies,

the

Let. 8,

has carried benevolence to

it

The

greateft perfc6lion.

parable of the Sa-

maritan, in anfwer to the queflion.

neighbour

is

painting any

The

to

become

illuilrious

gicatly

ilill

my

be feen.

love of our country, to be fure,

and thofe

is

country appears in a

it,

facri-

have

mankind

is

Sometimes attachment

to

yet the love of

fuperior.

a noble

who have

private eafe and family-relations to

f'ced

is

one of the greateft beauties in moral

where

enlarged affeftion

f.nd

Who

littlenefs

of mind, thinking

other nations inferior, and foolifhly believing

all

and valour are

that knowdedg-e, virtue,

to themfelves.

As

Fimicajides to

mean

ing

among us

the

all

confined

Romans long ago made

the

deceit, fo there are not Vvant-

thofe w^ho thinli that ail the French

are interefted, treacherous, and cowardly.

On

the great la^v of love to others, I fhall only

fay further, that

greateil

it

and bed

ought

to

intereft,

have for

its

object their

and therefore implies

w4lhing and doing them good in foul and body.

It is nccelTary

now

to

defcend to the application

of this principle to particular duties, and to exa-

mine what are the rights or claims that one man

Rights and obligations are corhas upon another.
Whatever others have a juil right
relative terms.
or title to claim from me, that is my duty, or what
I

am

obliged to do to them.

Right in general may be reduced, as to its

fource, to the fupreme lav/ of moral duty
for
;

whatever

men

have a claim

are in duty obliged to do, that they

to,

and other

men

are confidered as

under an obligation to permit them.

Again^ as

Lc^.
our

MORAL PHILOSOPHr.

8.

own

happinefs

a lawful object or end,

have each a right

fiippofed to
I

is

C^

we

to profecute

are

this

may interfere, we limit each

others rights, and a man is faid to have a right or
power to promote his own happinefs only by thofe
but as our profecution

means which

are not in themfelves criminal or in-

jurious to others.

Rights may be divided or clafTed in feveral

rent

on

ways

an attention
Rights

this fubjel.

to

of which

all

may

(i.) Natural or acquired.

is

diffe-

of ufe

be,

Natural rights are

fuch as are elTential to man, and univerfal

ac-

quired are thofe that are the fruits of induftry, the

ciTecls of accident or conqueft.

tural right to a6l for his

own

A man has a na-

prefervation,

and

to

defend himfelf from injury, but not a natural right

to domineer, to riches, (comparatively fpeaking)

cr to

any particular

office in a conftituted flate.

(2.) Rights are confidered as perfect and im-

Thofe

pcrfecl.

are called perfefl

rights

which

can be clearly afcertained in their circumftances,

and which we may make ufe of force to obtain

when they are denied us. Imperfect rights are

we may demand, and others ought to give
us, yet we have no title to compel them.
Selffuch as

prefervation

is

a perfeft right,

but to have a grate-

ful return for a favour is not a perfect right.

All the duties of j^uftice are founded on the perfect rights

thofe of

mercy generally on

the imper-

fe6l rights.

The

violation of an imperfect right

is

often as

great an act of immorality as that of a perfed

right.

It is

often as immoral, or

more

fo, to refufe

LECTURES ON

64

Let. S.

to fupply the neceflitous, or to

as to

commit

Yet

or fortune.
right,

the lafc

and the other of

Human

too fparingly,

it

is

ati

the breach of a perfeft

imperfect.

reach only, in ordinary cafes, to the

la'.vs

Sometimes imperfe6l

perfect rights.

ing carried

do

a fmall injury againft a man's peribn

become

far,

rights,

may

gentlenefs in a parent to a child

by be-

humanity and

as

perfec'^,

be

fo grofsly

violated as to warrant the interpofition of hum?ja

autliority.

(3.) Rights are alienable and unalienable.

firft

we may,

according to juflice and prudence,

up by our own

furrender or give

may

"we

not.

man may

goods, lands, money.

give

There

are

which he cannot give awav,

own

The

as

knov/ledge, thoughts, &:c.

a6c

the others

away

his

own

things

feveral

a right over his

Others,

which he

x)ught not, as a right to judge for himfelf in all matters of religion, his right of felf-prefervation, pro-

Some

vidon, &c.

fay that liberty

lawfully refume

The

may

rights as alienable and

and

of

rights

which are

may be

alienated in

the

miiverfiil,

of fociety for the good of the whole, as well

as of private

perfons

of felf-defence

up

between

Many

and acquired.

(late

av/ay

very different from that of natural

is

ftriclly natural

it

it.

diftin^lion

unalienable

unalienable,

is

and that thofe who have even given

this

in a Ifate of civil

is

as for example, the

in a

right

great meafurc given

government

into the

hands of

the public, and the right of doing juftice to ourfelves or to others in matter of property^

given up.

is

wholly

MORAL

heSt. 8.

may

(4.) Rights

PIIILOSOPIIT.

be confidered as they

with regard to their objcd.

over our

own

i.

diiFer

we have

Rights

perfons and alliens.

called liberty.

which belong

6$

This

clafs

is

Rights over things or goods

2.

This

to us.

called property.

is

3.

Rights over the perfons and aftions of other men.

This is called authority.

which are the property of

4.

Rights in the things

others,

which

are of fe-

\cral forts.

When we come
moral philofophy,

more

will be

to

the fecond great divifion of

politics, the

fully explained

above diflintions
at prefent

them in order,
of duty from man

to point at

ficient

the great lines

Our duty

to others, therefore,

to
to

fuf-

ii is

fhew what are

man.

may

prehended in thefe two particulars,

be

all

com-

juflice

and

mercy.
Jullice confills in giving or permitting others to

enjoy whatever they have a perfel right

to,

and

making fuch an ufe of our own rights as not to enThere is one

croach upon the rights of others.
writer, David Hume, who has derided the duty
of jullice, refolving it wholly into power and conveniency and has affirmed that property is common, than which nothing can be more contrary to
;

reafon

for if there

of reafon,

men

it

is,

feverally polTefs,

violate.

The

is

any thing clear

many

as a didlate

which
which others ought not to

that there are

rights

foundation of property in goods, I

will afterwards ftiew you,

is

plainly laid in the fo-

cial ftate.

Another virtue which

chaftity.

this

author ridicules

is

This, however, will be found to be in

66

LECTURES ON

eluded in
of

and

juftice,

all nations,

and

to

to

be found

have the

hath in nature and public

Mercy

in the fentiments

clearefh foundation

utility.

the other great branch of our duty to

is

man, and

Lt\:. 8.

the

exercife of the benevolent prin-

ciple in general,

and of the feveral particular kind

is

affelions.

Its a^ls,

generally fpeaking, belong to

imperfed rights, which are ftrongly

binding upon the confciencc, and abfolutely necefthe clafs of

fary to the fublillence of

human

fociety

yet fuch

as cannot be enforced with rigour and precifion

human laws.
Mercy may be

generally explained

nefs to do all the

good

offices

to

by a

by

readi-

others that they

ftand in need of, and are in our power, unlefs they

are oppofed to

fome perfed

right, or

an imperfeft

one of greater moment.

LECTURE

THE

third clafs of

IX.

moral duties

is

what con-

tains our duty to curfelves.

This branch of duty

is

as real

and as much

founded in the moral principle, as any of the former.

Confcience as clearly

glecting

it,

teftifies

and vicious condutl in

generally lead

the evil of ne-

this refpecb

does

us diredlly not only to mifery, but

to fhame.

We

may,

think, divide our duties to ourfelves

into tv/o heads,

which

will be both diftinct and

Led.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

8.

compreheiifive,

67

Self-government.

I.

Self-in-

2.

tereft.

The

firft

of thefe

and afFedions,

fires,

What

afked,

is

in

to

keep our thoughts, deIf it be

due moderation.

due moderation

is

be difcovered three ways.

anfwer,

When

(1.)

the indul-

gence interferes with our duty to God,

To

ourfelves, and, (3.)

When

may-

it

(2.)

To

our neighbour.

our thoughts or defires are fuch as

contrary to the love, fear, or truft

we owe

to

be

God,

to

then they are to be reftrained and brought into fubjection.

Thus

are generated the virtues of humi-

lity y contentJJienty patience^

and fuch as are allied to

them.

When
as to be

our thoughts and inward temper are fuch

any way injurious

to other?,

governed and reftrained; hence

tion to

guard againft

all

the

they muil be

immoral

pafiions,

will produce meeknefs and compofure of

And when we
we

iliall

have got but a

h'uey

experience,

bleifing.

We

anger, fear, difcom-

hatred,

pcfes us exceedingly, and

an evil inftead of a

is

fhall therefore perceive

tv of continence,

felf-denial,

and moderation in every thing

may

little

which

fpirit.

fpeedily find that an excefilve indulgence

of any paffion,

2.

obliga-

arlfes the

The

the necefli-

fortitude,

how

reftraint,

good foever.

other general branch of duty to ourfelves

be called

ral religion,

{"elf-intereft.

This, taking in natu-

includes our relation

to

the

Divine

Being, and attending particularly to that of procuring his favour.

Therefore

it

is

a prime part of

our duty to ourfelves, to guard againft any

tiling

LECTURES

68

may

that

be hurtful

to

Lecl. 5.

0>f

our moral charaler, or

reli-

gious hopes.
2.

We

ought

to

ring every thing

be aftive and diligent in acqui-

Moft of our duties

ties

of juflice and

to

in

them, and

if

du-

the

If there are

others.

to

they have rights

confequence of their Hate and rela-

fame

tions, the

ourfelves, refemble

mercy

certain offices due

and claims

and comfort.

necefTary for life

the

is

are therefore to take

with

cafe

all

We

ourfelves.

proper methods

to prefervc

and acquire the goods both of mind and body.

To

acquire knowledge, to preferve health, reputation,

pofiefTions.

The
chiefly

w^hole muil be kept within fome limits

we muft guard

againfl interfering with the

rights of others.
It will

be proper, before concluding

this part

of

the fubje6r, to take notice of the opinions of the

what

ancients, particularly their enumeration of

are

called the cardinal virtues.

Their cardinal virtues were

prudence, 2Xi^ fortitude .

volence,

you

fee, is

flrft

clafs

te7?ipera?ice,

Humanity

of our duty to our neighbour.

tue of the

justice,

Juflice included the

whole

or bene-

kept out of view, though a vir;

but

all

its

exerclfes are with

them ranked under tlie heads of juftice temperance was by them confidere/:! as much more exten;

five than beincr

o

moderate in the ufe of meats and

drink, to which the Engliih

fuied.

The

word

is

chiefly con-

Egkrateia of the-Greeks, lignined not

only abflinence

meats and drink, but continence

or purity, and a moderation of

whatever kind, cf fame and

all

riche":, as

our defires of
well as pica-

Le^.

9.

69

way

they generally

Prudence, even in the

fares.

explain

much

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

feems fcarccly

it,

as a natural qualitj.

to

be a moral, or fo

Prudence, they fay,

is

takino; the wifcil courfe to obtain feme n-ood end.

The

placing this

fliow

how

among the caidiial virtues will

among them. Great parts
high efteem. They did not very

matters flood

or talents were in

between a good mdn- and a great

Prudence feems rather an embeliilliment of

fully diftinguifh

man.
tin

ilhiflrious character,

why

other rcafon

An-

than a moral virtue.

prudence feems

have held

to

among the ancients was, that their chief

foundation for virtue was intercft, or what Vv'ill produce happinefs. The in^iry upon this fubjefl

fuch a place

-was,

what

prudence

is

summimi hcmim.

is the

very necelTary.

Now,

Agreeably

to this

to all this,

they commonly called the virtuous man, the wise

man, and he was alw^ays an hero.

Fortitude
lldered in

is

two

eaiily underftood,
lights,

as active

and
and

may

be con-

pallive,

gives the two great vktues of patience

which

and va-

lour.

One
among

of the moll: remarkable qualities in morals

was the debate upon the StoThat pain is no evil, ^lor pleafure aiy
good.
This arifes fron\ comparing external things
with ths, temper of the mind, when it appears
without doubt, that the latter is of much more conthe ancients,

ical polition,

They
when be-

fequence to happinefs than the former.

ufed to reafonthus
fbov/ed

Outw^ard pclTeiTions,

upon a bad man, make him no

better,

but

worfe, and finally more miferable. Hov/, then, can

thefe

be goods

Vol.

II.

in thcmfclves,

which become good

yO

LECTURES O^

or evil, according to the

They were

them.

Lecl. 9,

him

of

flate

that ufes

therefore called the things in-

There was fomething ftrained and extravagant in fome of their writings, and perhaps

different.

a great deal of true and

oftentatious, yet

The moft

foning.
tiie

moral way,

rea-

the Tablature of Cebes.

is

now

Let us

ju-ll

beautifid piece of antiquity in

what we have gone

recapitulate

through, and then add fome obfervations, or corrollaries,

We ha.ve

on the morality of adions.

confi-

dered,

The
The

1.

2.

nature of man.
foundation,

nature,

and obligation of

virtue.

Have given

3.

a fort of general analylis of the

moral laws, as pointing out our duty to

God,

to

our

neighbour, and to ourfelves.

We

mull

now

confider all morality in general as

We

conformity to a law.

law

this

Men may
as to the

colleled,

is

have feen above whence

and derives

its

authority.

not only as to the foundation, bur

differ,

import or meaning of the law in fome

particulars

but

it is

always fuppofed that the law

exifts.

The
two

may

morality of alions

different lights, but thefe

each other,
of by the law

(i.)

As

itfelf

be confidered

in

very nearly related to

they are ranked and difpofed

(2.) In the conformity or op-

pofition of the aflions to the law.

Under the firil view, an a'lion

manded, fcrbiddi '^, or permitted.

Commanded
fuifls

either

com-

duties oblige abfolutely, and, as ca-

ufed to fay, semper non

to fay,

is

"jero

they are obligatory upon

ad semper i
all

that is

perfons, at iht

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lecl. 9.

^I

feafons that are

proper for them, but not upon

every perfon

every time

at

becaufe then

God, but

to v/orfhip

this

men

All

could be but one moral duty.

only

therfe

are obliged

certain times

at

other duties liave alfo their place and feafon.

Prohibitions oblige semper

We

fons at all times.

man

every

et

ad semper,

mull net

lie

all

per-

this obliges

every moment, becaufe no time of

at

make it lawful.
we may obferve feveral

circumllances can

On
1.

permiiiion

There

is,

as

feme

things.

fay, a two-fold permiiTion,

the one full and abfolute,

which not only gives us

a right to certain things with impunity, but implies

a pofitive approbation of the legislator, and the

other implies' only that the a6lion

being neither
2.

commanded nor

left

is

at large,

forbidden.

Permiiiion in natural laws always implies the

approbation of the legiuator

in confequence of

it, is

and whatever is done

innocently done, for

God

and confcience do not permit, or pafs uncondemned,

any bad
3.

actions.

It is

otherwife in

any adioa open,

it

human

may

law^s

they leave

if

be done with impunity,

and yet by np means with approbation.

have a right by human law

vered and couched manner, v/hich yet

in

may

may

carry

them the higheft degree of malignity.

4.

The

truth

of aftion in a

is,

flritl

when we

conlider the morality

or proper manner, the w^hole

clafs of permitted aclionsvaniflies.

by

to fay things in a co-

their intention

They become

and application either good or

bad.

G%

LECTURES ON

;2

Led.

9,

Confidering alions in their conformity to the

lav/s,

a d;ftin)-ion arifes limilar to the former, into

good or

jiift,

had and

A good a<5lion
the law in

its

fubflance, and in all

enough

It is not

indij/'crent,

mufl be wholly conformable

that

it

A bad
or in

be materially good, the time

aftion

which, either in fubilance

that

is

any circumftance,

is

In confequence of
jpeakine,

all

arifing

trtuy

from

all llraight

contrary to the lav/.

flri^lly

this,

good or

jufl

and properly

adions are equally

a perfe6l conformity to the law, as

lines are equally ftraight

anions are not equally bad, as lines

in a different dcj^rec

from

are thofe

thai;

but

may

all

bad

be bent

ilraieht direction.

th.e

any truly fuch)

(if there are

IndiiFerciit eiclions

commandbut when we conlider

are permitted, and neither

ed nor forbidden

by

the

law

The fpirit and principles of true morality,

iind

to

circumftances.

be proper, and the intention laudable.

mufl:

10,

its

no actions wholly

under an obligation

to

ourfelves and others, to

we Ihall
we are

promote the happinefs of

which every alion may be

applied immediately or remotely

to the divine will

becaufe

indifferent,

may make

and fubjeciion

a part of our deiign, in

doing or forbearing any thing whatever.

.

In ellimating the morality of actions, feveral

cumftances muft be confidered.

done.

(2.)

The

principle

from which

felf-intereft of the contracted kind,

hope of reward.

(3.)

The

this;

An

it

flows,

benevolence, or

hindrances or oppofi-

tion that muft be furmounted,

tion, difficulty.

cir-

The good

(i.)

as intereft, inclina-

objeclion feems to arife from

not ^flly folve.d.

If an action

is

the

more

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 9.
virtuous,
that

more

tlie

the habit of virtue

formed, the

lefs

away

to take

who

oppofition, internal and external,

overcome, then the longer a

is

all

73

man

has had

and the more completely

merit in his actions.

is

it

fcems alfo

It

moral excellence from the

Deit}^,

cannot be fuppofed to have the leail oppofition

to encounter, either

This

from within or without.

objection cannot be eafily removed, but

by faying,

no other refpe6l an evidence of the good moral temper, but as it Ihews

the ilrength of that incliantion that overcomes it
that the oppofition is in

and therefore, when a moral

tO

overcome and annihilate

much

An

liabit is

all

fo

ihong as

oppofition,

it is

fo

more excellent.
adion good in itfelf, may be made criminal
the

by an evil intention.
But nq acllon, in itfelf evil, ca:i be made lawful
or laudable by a good intention.

A man h obliged to
fciencc

follow the didates of con-

yet a miilaken confciencc does not wholly

abfolve from guilt, becaufc he ought to have been

at

more pains to obtain information.

adion is not virtuous in proportion

An
pofite

being vicious.

It is

its

op-

no high degree of

vir-

to

tue to love our offspring, or provide for a family

but to ncgleft either

One phenomenon

is

in

exceedingly vicious.

liuman nature, nearly con-

moral feelings, has been particularly conlidcix:d by fome writers, viz. That there ii

nefted with

tlic

fuch a difpofition in the generality of

10 fee objccls of dillrefs, as

c^xecution.

is

tlic

What

fight of

is

men to crowd

an extraordinary public

the defire that prompts to

mifery a pleafant feeling

it ?

Some

LECTURES om

74
re Col ve
fider

merely into

it

which they con-

curiofitj,

there feems to be fomething in

Others lay

novelty.

and

is

But

original imprefnon.

a natural and

as

.LeGl.^.

an exercife of

from

diiTerent

it

from benevolence,

its arifes

and that

compalTion,

have a ftrong natural impulfe

the

to

we

affeflion

of pity, and really feel a pleafare in indulging

But though every well-difpofed mind

it.

is

high-

ly fufceptible of pity, at leaft of all th2 benevo-

lence and help that pity fuggeils

prefents

ing

is

itfelf,

pleafant,

objefts,

ill

They

we can
or that

when

we have

a deilre after fuch

order to the gratification.

v/ho reafon on the

feliiih

refolve all into private intereft

fcheme, as ufualy

a fecret fatisfaclion in refiecLing

ferent iituation.
tion in narrovv'

and

difpofed

makes them

believe there
cciTtra<fl:ed
it

upon
is

it

oui^

fuch a

minds

de-

gives us

own

dif-

fat ''.fac-

but to thofe

has an oppofite

effe6l

it

which
than thofe from

rather confider the calamities

they themfelves are fubjefl

which they are free.

Perhaps it would be

to,

beil to take

principle to account for this efTect.

make

we

they fay

light to fee objects of dillrefs, becaufe

lolerably

the gujccl

fcarcely fay that the feel-

a part, and probably

more than one

Curiofity mull

humanity and compaf-

non alfo contribute to it. It feems to be thought

fome little alleviation to the fufferer's mifery when
others pity him. Yet prudent perfons, knowing

how

unavailing this pity

is,

often clicofe to be ab-

fent.

Sympathy
evolence.

is

a particular affeclion in aid of be-

Yet, like

all

other private affeclions^

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lecl. 9.

^^

when it is not moderated, it prevents its own elTed:.

One deeply affedled with the view of an objecl of
diilrefs,

thereby incapacitated to

often

is

afiifl

him.

Another queftion

Why men

above.

which

is

to the

have pleafare in feting tragedy,

a ftriking reprefentation of a melancholy

cataftrophe

medy,

fometimes fubjoined

is

it

As

may

far as the fubjecl differs

ciples with the

delire

to

objecrs

fee

But one powerful principle leads both

and tragedy,

from co-

be accounted for on the fame prin-

a pleafure

of dilirefs.
to

comedy

in the imitative arts

an

any cbjedt Vvhatever, gives the

highell pleafure, even though the cbjecl itfeli were
portrait of

e:;acl

originally terrible or difgufling.

We

fee plainly, that an indulgence of the plea-

fure ^iven

by a

to

fine

performance,

Unhappily,

the theatre.

a corrupt

ijiiind,

enemy

what crowds

they often invent fuch fcenes,

and conduct the matter

greateft

is

to give greater pleafure

fo, as to

to virtue

make

and good

LECTURE

the flage the

m.crals*

X.

OF POLITICS.

POLITICS
iiion,

ciety.

contain the principles of fociai u-

and the rules of duty in a

This

viev/ of the

is

but

ftate

of fo-

another and more complete

fame things, drawn out more

fully.

LECTURES

'

and applied

Led.

ON'

law

Political

particular cafes.

to

lO.
is

the authority of any fociety flampcd upon moral

duty.

The

firll

thing to be confidered, in order to fee

upon what principles

ilate
is

fociety

immediately previous

called the

celTarycontroverfies have been

Some have denied

that in

Yet

made on

thatfubjed:.

any fuch thing ever exifted

that

ftate.

And

to

no example or

it is

This

were men, they have alwaj^s been

that fince there

in a focial

the

is

Violent and unne-

of nature.

ft ate

formed,

is

to the focial (late.

be fare

fa<5l;

this is fo far true,

could

it

ever

lafi:

long*.

impoftibie to confider fociety as a volun-

tary union of particular perfons, without fuppofmg

fomewhat

thofe perfons in a ftate

this

There

union took place.

belonging to a
of a focial

And
at this

different before

are rights, therefore,

ftate of nature, different

from thofe

ftate.

diftin<3: focieties,

moment

or ftates independent, are

in a ftate of nature, or natural

li-

berty, v/ith regard to each other.

Another famous queftion has been,

of nature a ftate of war or peace

Is the

author of coniiderable note, but of very

feutiments in politics,
ftate of nature

is

being a

a ftate of fociety.

their opinions
it

ftate

of war.

feem

to

However

the principles of our

Hutchinfon

ftate

of nature

oppofite and hoftile

be with regard

feems no hard matter

illiberal

a ftrenuous advocate for a

and Shaf^ury plead ftrongly, that a

is

ftate

Hobbes, an

to reconcile

to

each other,

them.

Thai

nature lead to fociety,

tliat

our happinefs and the improvement of our powers

are only to be had in fociety^

is

of the

jjioit

un-

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lect. 10.

doubted certainty
the

work of God,

and that in our nature, as

there

benevolence to others
our nature as
is

prone

berty, there

is

a real good-will and

is

and independent,
to war, is

free

and confequently

to injury,

equally manifeft

and that in a

no other

way

ftate

of natural

The

niences of the natural ftate are very

many.

clafs of the

that nature

prompts

li-

but force, for preferv-

ing fecurity and repelling injury.

One

it is

but, on the other hand, that

now, when

is

it

77

inconve-

above-mentioned writers fay,

to fociety

neceffity and intereft obliges to

and the other, that

it

both are equally

true.

Suppofmg, then, the

flate

of natural liberty ante-

cedent to fociety to be a reality, let us confider the

perfea and imperfcft rights belonging

that

we may

they

differ in

fee

a focial

The perfea
are, (i.)

to that ftate,

more diftindly how, and

why

ftate.

rights in a ftate of natiural liberty,

A right to life.

(2.)

A right to employ
A

and induftry for his own ufe. (3.)

that are common and neceflary,
things
the
to
right
(4.) Aright to perfonal liberas air, water, earth.
A power over his own life, not to throw it
ty.
his faculties

(5

away

.)

unneceflarily, but for a

good reafon.

(6.)

opinion.
right of private judgement in matters of

Aright toaRbciate, if he fo incline, with any perforce) ;

fon or perfons v/hom he can perfuade, (not
(7.)

under

this is contained the right to marriage.

A right to
fame>

charader, that

It is

belong to a

is to

eafy to perceive that

ftate

(8.)

fay, innocence, (not

all

thefe rights

of natiural liberty, and that

it

would

to Innder
be unjuft.a.nd un-^qnal for any individual

LECTURES ON

^^

Left. lO.

or abridge another in anj one of them, without

confent, or unlefs

it

be in

juft retaliation for injury

received.

The

imperfect natural rights are very numerous,

but they are nearly the fame in a

of nature

ft ate

in a ftate of foclety, as gratitude, compaftion,

tual

good

offices, if

as

mu-

they will be no injury to the

perfon perfonuing them.

Indeed they muft be

ihe fame in a natural and in a fecial ftate, becaufe

the very definition of an imperfel right

you cannot

ufe force to obtain.

ought not to ufe force to obtain in a

tural liberty,

human laws

is

fuch as

Now, what you

of na-

ftate

in a well coiiftituted

you.

flate will not give

Society I would deiine to be an aftbciation or

compact of any number of perfons,

to deliver

up

or abridge fome part of their natural rights, in or-

der to have the ftrength of the united body, to

proteft the remaining, and to beftow others.

Hobbes, and fome other writers of the former

age, treat with great contempt this
jally called the focial compa6l.

monarchy

is

the law of nature.

which

He
Few

fentiments now, at leaft in Britain, yet

them

to trace
It

is

fenlibly

is

gene-

inftfts

that

are of his
it is

proper

to the foundation.

to

be admitted, that fociety began

by

families, and almoft neceffarily.

parental authority was the

firft

iirft

in-

Hence

law, and perhaps

it

extended for two or three generations in the early

ages.

Though

as an argument,

the patrons of
it

This which they

monarchy

ufe

this

does not favour their fcheme.

call the patriarchal

government,

or fuppofmg

could, there

could not extend far

it

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 10.

would be but one

rightful

lineal defcendent of

king

Adam's

75^

in all the earth, the

eldeft fon, not to

men-

tion that the very order of fucccflion in hereditary-

right has never been uniform,

European

fettled in the

The
wards

truth
to

is,

and

is

though man, for wife reafons, after-

be noticed, continues longer

dependence than other animals, yet

becomes

but of late

nations.

in'

a family-

he

in time

and when their numbers are in-

sui juris ;

creafed, when they either continue together, or remove and form diftind focieties, it is plain that

there muft be fuppofed an exprefled or implied

contraft.

Some

fay there

no trace or record of any fuch

is

any

contrail in the beginning of

no argument

is

and

at all

elTential to

any

commonly take

ft ate,

infenfibly, that their

fociety.

But

for things infeparable

beginning

is

this

from,

place fo

not obferved.

When perfons believe themfelves, upon the whole,

rather

opprelTed

than protected in any fociety,

they think they are

gainft

it,

or to fly

that their being

at

from

liberty, either to rebel ait

fubjeft to

which plainly implies,

it arofe from a tacit

confent,

Befides, in migrations and planting of colonies, in

all

ages,

contral

we

fee

evident

traces

and confent taken

to

an original

of

the

principles of

union.

From

this

view of fociety

as a voluntary

paft, refults this principle, that

men

com-

are originally

and by nature equal, and confequently

free.

Liberty either cannot, or ought not to be given

Led.

LECTURES ON

So

up

The end

in the focial ftate.

be the proteftion of

The

ing.

10.

of the union fhould

liberty, as far as

a bleff-

it is

definition of liberty in a conftituted go-

vernment, will be afterwards explained.

Sdme

obfenv'e, that

few nations

or focieties in the

world have had their

conftitiitions

principles of liberty

perhaps not one twentieth of

formed on the

the ftates that have been eliabliftied fmce the be-

ginning of the world, have been fettled upon principles altogether favourable to liberty.
juft

This

is

no

argument againft natural liberty and the rights

of mankind

for

it is

certain,

good

that the public

has always been the real aim of the people in general, in forming and entering into

has alfo conflantly been

of

at

leaft

any

aim

the profefTed

have been admitted, only they have

in

pra6lice

Though perhaps

by miilake

them

or deceit.

in the fine arts,

not follow that there are no fuch

to

been

failed or

not one tv/entleth part of

kind have any tolerable iki^

principles of

It

Therefore the principle feems

legiflators.

difappointed

fociety.

manit

does

arts, or that the

are not founded in nature.

Reafon teaches natural

liberty,

and

common

recommends it. Some nations have feen

this more clearly than others, or have more happily found the means of eftablifiiing it.
utility

Here, perhaps,

we

fhould confider a

the

little

queilion. Whether it is lawful to make men or to

keep them flaves, without their confent ? Th^!s
in
will fall afterwards to be confidered more fully
:

the

mean

time, obferve, that in every ftate there

muft be fome fuperior and others

infei'ior

and

it

is

moral philosophy.

lo.

Le(!!:.

hard to

fix the

8i

may fall
may become

degree of fubjection that

to the lot of particular pcrfons.

?len

Haves, or their perfons and labour be put wholly in

the

power of others by

certainly unlawful to

is

it

alfo

be made flaves by

ftate,

puniihment for the commifiiorj of crimes.

force, as a

But

They may

confent.

fometimes, in a conftituted

others, unproved,

make

upon

inroads

and take av/ay their liberty, by

no better right than fuperior power.

it is

law-

life,

even

has fometimes been doubted, whether

It

ful to take

away

the liberty of others for

on account of crimes committed.

no ftrong reafon given againft

except that

this,

to operate in Great Britain a-

"which

is

gainll

making malefaftors

fuppofed

There can be

flaves, that

it

would be

unfavourable to rational liberty to fee any rank of

men

But, fetting this afide,

in chains.

plain,

that if

ciety,

they

men may

may

forfeit

It

feems

able, both to equity and public

fort

of crimes

Imprifonment for

by

tifed

king

Vv-ith

life

all nations.

(laves of

it

feems

lives to

fo-

which is
more agree-

alfo forfeit their liberty,

a lefs precious biefnng.

fome

tlieir

alfo

utility,

to punilli

hard labour, than death.

has been admitted and prac-

Some have pleaded

the barbarous nations,

for

ma-

that they

more eligible ftate,

more of the comforts of life, than they
would have had in their own country. This argument may alleviate, but does not jufiify, the
practice. It cannot be called a more eligible ftate,
are

actually brought into a

and; have

if lefs ao-reeable to themfelves.

Upon the whole, there

are not only many unlawful

wavs of making flaves, but

Vol.

II.

alfo

fome that

are lawful.

Led.

LECTURES ON

82

10.

And the practice feems to be countenanced in the law

down

of Mofes, where rules are laid

ment, and an
different

from

there lies

any

But

men.

that of free
neceffity

a flate of (lavery, to
ruin.

for their treat-

eftimation of injuries

it is

on thofe

make them

done

to

them,

I do not think

who found men in

free, to their own

very doubtful whether any original

of fervitude can be defended, but legal pu-

ca'ufe

nilliment for the commiffion. of crimes.

manner of

in the

tate of reafon

treating

Humanity

is

manifeflly a dic-

think alfo of pri-

and nature, and

vate and public utility, as

The

them

much

as of either.

next ftep in opening the principles of the

focial flate, is to coniider the foundation, eftablifh-

Some begin

ment, and extent of property.

confidering the property of
inferior creatures.

man

this

by

in general, in the

Has he any

right to ufe the

lower irrational animals for labour, or food, or

both

It is

ful,

needlefs to refine too

To

jed.

ufe

them

much upon

this fub-

for laboxir feems evidently law-

as they are inferior, with flrength fitted for

it,

and flrength which they could not employ for the

improvement

^ind cultivation of the earth

the direlion of

man.

fome how

body

as the

They feem
to the

mind.

to

without

be to man,

They

help to

produce food to themfelves, and fo increafe their

number, and receive much more fenfual pleafure,

fharing in all refpels with their maflers the fruit

of their

To
ful.

toil.

ufe

them

for food

is

thus argued to be law-

If fuifered all to live, they

numerous J

would become too

and could not be fuflained,

fo

that

Le^.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

10.

death to

many

much worfe way muil

of them in a

be the certain confequence.

Fm'ther, nature feems

them

for food in the plainefc

the ufe of

to dictate

manner, for they are food for one another in a regular gradation, the infedl to the birds and

many

of them

greater,

more rapacious of

the tamer to the

or

fifties,

to the bealls, and the fmaller to the

every order.
If
the

the

we

take tradition or revelation for our guide,

matter

plain, that

is

works of

God made man

and put under him

his hands,

lord o
all

the

Only it appears that the grant of

made no "earlier than to Noah
food
was
animal

other creatures.

after the flood.

Let us next confider the eftabliftiment of private

property.

Private property

fon's having

certain portion of the goods

port and conveniency of

In a very imperfect
of goods

is

every particular per-

a confeiled and exclulive right to a

may fubfift

which

ferve for the fup-

life.

ilate

of fociety, community

in a great degree

and indeed

fubfifting is one of the fvireft figns of an

its

fed;

flate

made

of fociety.

Some

imper-

attempts have been

in civilized ftates to introduce

it,

but without

any conliderable eiFed, except in Sparta, the conIn fmall voftitution of which was very lingular.
luntary focieties, efpecially of the religious kind,
it

may

be eilabliihed, and will continue fo long as

the morals of

tlie

fociety are pure.

But in

fociety fully formed, efpecially if the flate

extenfivc, or intended to be fo,
flentially neceffary,

private property is

and founded

of things and public utility.

H2

civil

is at all

The

upon the reafon

reafons cf

it

are,

LECTURES ON

Left. I.

Witliout private property no laws Would be

1.

to

fufficient

There ne-

compel univerfal induftry.

ver was fuch a purity of manners and zeal for the

public, in the individuals of a great body, but that

many would

be

and

idle

and maintain

flothful,

jhemfelves upon the labour of others.

2. There is no reafon to expert, in the prefent

human

would be a

ilate

of

and

equal diflribution to every one according to

nature,

his neceffity, nor

that there

juft

any room for diltindion according

to merit.

There would be no place

3.

fome of the noblefl

for the exercife of

as charity, compaffion, beneficence,

4. Little

human

afTeftions of the

or^no incitement

niind^

&c.

to the a6live virtues^

labour, ingenuity, bravery, patience, &c.

Some have

down fchemes for making proThomas Moore, in his Utopia;

laid

perty common, as Sir

but in general they are chimerical and impradli-

There

cable.

is

no inllance in

faiSl,

Hate that made a figure in the focial

goods wholly in common.

it,

but

views

it

was a very fmall

befides, there

life

where any
had theii*

Sparta had the moil of

ilate,

and limited in

was fomething

its

fo fingular in

the whole conilitution of the Spartan government,

that

its

fubfiiling fo

long remains a phenomenon

for politicians and reafoners yet to account for.

Suppofmg

private property to be eiTential, or at

leaft ufeful in the focial ilate, the

How

does this property take

ways

is it

The

acquired

original

its

next queilion
rife,

or

is.

by what

ways of acquiring property may be

reduced to thefe two, (i.) Prior occupation, (2.)

Our, own induHry.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 10.

As
Of

to the

of thefe,

firil

may be
common

it

the things that lay in

man,

85

analyfed thus
for the ufe of

what is convenient for

me and after I have taken it, no body can have a
better right, nor confequently any title, to take it
have a right

to take

^om

me.

But many quellions diiHcult to be refclved arife

from the application of this principle. How far
does this right exLend

Muft I take only what is

moments ? or may I provide

fufficient for the prefent

for future neceflities

and enjoyments

lowers can fufticiently

continent,

able to
utility

thing

and
it

fill

call

in

it

mine, though

many

.ages

muft be the rule in

more

In vacant

what 1 and my pr<ifent foloccupy ? or may I touch 3,

lands, mull I take only

be

I fliajl not

anfwer, commoti

and any

till

we come

all thefe cafes

particular muft be rcferved

law of nations.

to the

Some fay,
ought Ao

that the water in large

be common

and one's uiing

ftiblc,

the uie of others.

it

bays and river*

becaufe

to all,

it is

inexhau-

cannot wafte or fpoil

But the fecm-ity of

for

it

focieties wilt

point out the meafure of property that mull be

all tliofe things.

The

extent or object of property contains three

particulars.
I,

right to the

fullefl-

ufc.

Whatever

perfon's property, he -has a right to do with

pleafes, with this fingle

called fo, that he

others.
lefs

you

may

exception, if

not ufe

it

it

it

is

as

he

may be

to the injury

of

Full property has no other exception, uncall

this

an exception, that

would wantonly deftroy the

'*

H3

if

any

maa

fruits of the earth, or

LECTURES ON

26

Lel. lO.

his habitation
in'that tiafe, though they^ were his
own, people would hinder him, as fuppofmg liim
to be mad, and deprive him not only of that li;

berty, but of all others.

2.

may

We

Property implies a right of exclufion.

hinder others from any

way

intermeddliijg

This feems

with what

is

the idea.

Gi"v^ng a full right to one, implies that

our property.

effential to

others have none.

3. It implies a ,power to alienate

lay,

a right of

during

life,

is faid

to,

There
iiullius ;

walls of

alteration,

That

is

to

commutation, donation

Thus property

and difpofal at death.

be perpetual.
are certain things called

fuch

as,

by

Civilians Res

temples, public edifices, gates and

Temples ufed

cities, &.c.

be faid

to

to

be

given to God, and in the laws of civilized Hates

aitemion

is

paid to this circumftance.

But

the property or ufe, the cafe of them, and of

other things mentioned,

is

very

clear..

as ta
all

the

They

are

under the infpeftion of the magiftrate, or fuch perfons as reprefent the

kept for

common

community, and are by theia

ufe.

LECTURE

IN(i.)thDomeftic,

focial life,

XI

in general,

we may

ecailider,

(2.) Civil fcciety.

The aifl of thefe we mull confider

and made up of leveral relations,

as implying

the chief of

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lel. II,

87

which are, (i.) The relation of marriage, (2.)

That of parents and children, (3.) That of mafters
and fervants.

we ought

In marriage

may be

creatures

faid to

to obferve, that

be propagated

a great degree fimilar, yet there

is

though

among men.

This

in

fomething pe-

culiarly diftinguifhed, dignified, and folemn, in

riage

all

way

in a

mar-

diftinftion is neceflary,

and founded in'reafon and nature.

Human

creatures at

weaker and m.ore

They

alfo

their birth are

a flate

in

helplefs than

any other animals.

much more

flowly at maturity,

arrive

and need by far moft

affiftance

and cultivation.

Therefore a particular union of the parents

is aband that upon fuch powerful

folately neceffary,

principles as will fecure their

riage

ceflity,

common

a relation exprefsly founded

iz

and muft be

fo

conduced

care.

upon

Mar-

this ne-

as to afcertain the

property of the offspring, and to promife the moll

affiduous, prudent,

This

is

But we ought

the public good.

that

man

and extenfive care.

the foundation of marriage

is

other animals

alio

drawn from
to

obfer\'e,

manifeflly fuperior in dignity to the

;

and

it

was intended

that all

liis

en-

joyments, and even his indulgence of inftinftive

propenfities, Ihould

kind than
fexes to

be of a more exalted and rational

Therefore the propenfity of the

one another, is not only reined in by motheirs.

delly, but is fo ordered as- to require that reafon

and

friendfliip,

and fome of the nobleft affedions,

fhould have place.

have,

if

not a

more

And

it

is

certain that thej

\iolent, at leaft a

more lading

LECTURES ON

88

Lecl. II.

and uniform influence, in the married

ftate,

than

fenfual delire.
It

obferved by moral writers, that

fio^ther

is

though beauty and perfonal attraftion

fidered as the

may

be con-

motives, yet thefe are always

firll

-iuppofed to be indications of fomething excellent

in the
in

So that even love of beauty,

temper within.

man,

an attachment to moral excellence.

is

Let a perfon attend with ferioufnefs, and he will

utmoft perfection of form in an

find, that the

known

or one thoroughly
per,

to

really no objedl of defire

is

idiot,

be of a very bad tem-

though in thofe

known, it is apt to prejudice the igwho are

norant and unwary to judge favcurably of the
little

perfon.

The

particulars

which reafon and nature point

out, relating to the marriage-contracl,

low

are as fol-

That

1.

Polygamy

it

is

be between one man and one woman.

condemned by nature for it is found,
;

that the males born are to the females as 13 to 12.

fome fay

or as

as 20 to 19, the overplus being to

fupply the greater walle of the male part of the fpccies

by war and dangerous

occupations, hard la-

bour, and travelling by land and fea.

2,

The fundamental and

contract

is fidelity

diately appear to

union.

Some

and

be

eiTential

chaftity.

part of the

This muft imme-

eflential to the

purpofe of the

writers fay that this

is

efpecially

binding upon the woman, in order to afcertain the

offspring

but every body mull fee the abfurdity

of any diftinlion, becaufe the contract would neither be ecjual, nor likely to be fteadily obferved^ if

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. II.
it

were not mutual.

well obferved,

if

as a late author

Befides,

chaftity

89

be a female

virtue,

has

how

men be unchafle without infringing upon it ?

The contract Ihould be for life, otherwife

ean

3.

would be

fhort, uncertain,

it

and mutual love and in-

dullrj greatly weakened.

4.

man,

If fuperiority

and authority be given to the

much

Ihould be ufed with fo

it

love, as to

make

it

gentlenefs and

a Hate of as great equality as pof-

Hutchinfon and fome other writers fay there

fible.

fhould be no fuperiority, and

tliat

their property,

being common, ihould not be alienated by the one

without the other.

Others think that perfed: equa-

of power in two perfons

lity

order, and the

man

not confiflent with

common intereft, and therefore give

man and the laws of moll nations

authority to the

give the

is

the difpofal of property, with the re-

woman.

fervation of particular rights to the

Some Heathen
life

writers gave thp

and death over the

woman

man power

of

a thing evidently

barbarous and unjuft.

5.

Marriages are fometimes diflblved by di-

vorces,

counts

which our law permits only on three ac-

adultery, wilful and

The

incapacity.
the

New

firfl

obftinate defertion, and

two of thefe are founded on

Teftament, and the

laft

on reafon, being

not fo properly a diflblution of a marriage, as a declaration that

it

was void from

the beginning, and

never took place.

Some

writers of moral philofophy add as caufes

of divorce, contrariety of temper, incurable difeafes,

and fuch

as

would

of them feem of

infeft:

fuilicient

the offspring.

moment. The

But none
firfl

wouW

LECTURES

90

be an evident temptation
feparations

and

by previous

gainft

may

II.

and wanton

to caufelefs

the three

all

Led.

017

be guarded a-

caution.

Hutchinfon obferves,' that in

mar-

all nations,

rying in near degrees of confanguinity or affinity

has been avoided and abhorred

and he adds, that

the natural and general abhorrence of

greater than reafon feems

been conjectured
velation

and

to

to

have beei early

men have

it

has been

Hence

didate.

it

has

tradition or re-

exercifed their invention in

finding out the true reafon or ground of the

pro-

hibition.

One

reafon afligned

becaufe

is,

if

marriage were

lawful to near relations, their frequent intercourfe

would be a ftrong temptation

Another, that

if

to uncle annefs.

permitted,

it

confound or invert the duties of

ting
to

fome above others

whom

would frequently
relations,

by

fet-

they formerly ufed

obey.

A third reafon,
ftaining
tract;

and perhaps the beft, is, that abfrom blood relations in this voluntary con-

extends the facial

ties,

and produces a greater

number of family-relations.
Whatever be the moral reafons,
a llrong fandion in nature

for

it

it is

feems

to

marriage between near relations, efpecially

peated, greatly

As

weakens the human

have

obferved, that
if re-

race.

to the extent of this prohibition,

it

has been

various in driferent nations, but the moil prevailing

has been to forbid

all

within three degrees.

The

degrees are reckoned by the fteps of defcent be-

tween the parties and the common parent.

*nd

child

is

the

iirlt

-,

Parent

child and child, the fecond

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. II.

child and grand-child, the third

children, or

coufins,

firll

9I

and two grand-

when

the fourth,

it

b-*

comes lawful.
Relation of Parents and Children,

The

firft

thing to be obferved

by

is diflinguiftied

that this relation

is,

the ftrongeft inftindl of parental

affedlion.

This feems neceflary, as the education

of children

is

a duty requiring fo

much

time, care,

and expence, which nothing but the moft rooted affection

would fubmit

The
thefe

to.

rights of the parent

two

may be fummed up

in -the children.

2.

right to a grateful return in

due time from the children.

right, as far as

Some
life

it

extends, but

The

firft is

rtiuft

be limited.

nations have given parents the

and death over their children

fifts,

that children, are the goods

fell

a perfect

power of

and Hobbes

may

alienate

them, either for a time or for

But both thefe feem

ill

in-

and abfolute pro-

perty of their parents, and that they

them and

in

Authority, which requires fubjedlion

i.

life.

founded, becaufe they are

contrary to the end of this right, viz. inftruftion

and protection.

Parental

cafes to be limdted

by

right

feems in moft:

the advantage of the chil-

dren.

Children are no doubt to judge for themfelves

in matters of religion,

when they come

to years

though the parents are under the ftrongeft obliga-

them carefully to the beft of their

judgement. Thofe who infift, that, to leave them
their judgement free, they ought not to be taugh;
tion to inftru6l

^2
any
is

LECTURES ON

Le5:. II.

fcheme

principles, ought to confider that their

If the parents do not

imprafticahle and abfurd.

inftru6l

them, they will imbibe prejudices, and con-

trad habits, perhaps of the worft kind, from others.

Children in moil nations are confidered as having

a right, exclufive of their parents, to property given

them by

others.

Many
difpofe

nations have given the parents a right to

of their children in marriage

but this

feems to be carrying parental authority too

it

be made abfolute, becaufe

it

Yet

life.

it

moft

is

whole of

to their happinefs through the

feems very contrary

nature, that children in early

life

if

the power

puts in

of the parent to difpofe of what

far,

effential

their future

to reafon

and

fhould difpofe of

themfelves in marriage without confulting their parents.

Since

we have

death to parents,

it

denied the power of

will be allied,

tion of their authority

redion in early

life,

What is

life

and

the fanc-

Moderate cor-

anfwer.

and, as the very higheft pu-

nifhment, expulfion from their family, or a forfeiture of the privileges

As

which they

defpife.

to the right to a grateful return,

perfeft right,

but of the ftrongeft kind

it is

an im-

fometimes

the civil authority interpofes, and obliges children

If^o

maintain their aged parents.

To

the difgrace of

ferved, that

than

filial

parental

duty.

nature,

affedion

is

it is

much

often ob-

ftronger

We mufl indeed acknowledge the

wifdom of Providence
pulfe

human

in

making

the inllinftive im-

ftronger in parents towards their children,

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lccl". II.

than in children towards their parents

firfl is

good

more necelTary than

when we

yet

becaufe the

the other to the public

bolh as improved

coiiiider

into a virtuous difpofition,

93

by reafon and

duty, there feems to be every whit as

nefs in

ingratitude, as in

filial

a fenfe of

much

baie-

want of natural

at-

fediori.

Relation of Master a'ul Sevjcuit,

This

relation

is

God

ence which

generated by the diiTer-

liri!

hath permitted to take place be-

tween man and man.

Some

are fuperior to others

mental powers and intelledurJ improvement

in

feme by the great increafe of their property, through

tiieir

own

make

or their predecelTors induHry

finding

choice,

their

it

and fome

they cannot

liv-e

otherwife better, to let cut their labour to others

for hire.

Let us

iliortly confider, (i.) Hov>' far tlrs

tlon extends.

As

to the

(2.)
firfl, it

The
feems

fubjcc-

duties on each fide.

be orlj that the mailer

to

has a right to the labours and ingenuity of the fei-<

vant for a limited time,

or at mofi: for

can have no right either

to take

make

it

infupportable

by

away

lie

life.

life,

or 10

exceffive labour.

1 he

fervant therefore retains all other natural rights.

The pradice
barbarous

who were
be made
all

of ancient nations, of

war

prifoners of

for

(laves,

was

making

\\\c'^

altogether unjufl and

though we could fuppofe that thofe

the caufes of an unjuil v/ar defcrved to

(laves

'who fought on

Vol. II."

yet this could not be the cafe of

their fide
I

bcfides, the doing fo

LECTURES ON

94
in

Led.

ir.

in

any

one inilance v/ould authorife the doing

other

and thofe

country,

when

who
The

as thofe Avho

become

pradlice

was

good or

as flaves never are fo

of his

might be taken

unjuftly invaded,

as well as others.

it

fought in defence

alfo impolitic,

faithful fervants,

fo for a limited time

by con-

fent.

LECTURE XIL
OF CIVIL SOCIETY.

CIVIL Society
in the

flate, for their

We

is

diftinguifhed

from domeftic,

union of a number of families in one

mutual

benefit.

have before affirmed, that fociety always

fuppofes an expreffed or implied contract or agree-

Let us nov/ fee what

ment.

this

agreement necef-

farily implies.

(i.)

The

confent of every individual to live in,

and be a member of that

to

A confent
government,
(5.) A

fociety.

fome particular plan of

iriutual

(2.)

agreement between the fubjefts and rulers

of fubjedlion on the one hand, of proteftion on

the other.

Vvery

Thefe are

fociety,

Any

all

implied in the union of

and they complete the whole.

objeftioDs that

are eafily folved.

may

be raifed againft

Ex. gr. Though every indivi-

dual has not given an

al:ual confent,

yet his deter-

mination to live with any fociety implies

if

it

be afked.

how

this

children

come

to

if.

Again,

be n^embers of

Loa.

MORAL PHILOSOrHY.

12.

a fociety

95

anfwered, they receive the benefits

it is

and paiiake of the rights of the fociety during the

whole time of

their education

and

as

they come to

the ufe of reafon, they both claim the privilege

And

and acquiefce in the duty of citizens.

find

any thing infupportable

tiiey

may

alter

it

Have, then,
to

at their pleafure.

all fiibje^ls

remove from the

anfwer, that in
at leaft in

all

a right,

fociety in

war

when they

which they

fee

are

it may be afwho have enjoyed

any fociety

in time of peace, if

be hindered from emigrating

common

fociety, the
-clafles,

is

time, and

at that

pelled to contribute their fhare in

Whatever

Perhaps

time of peace.

may

or danger to the public fhould arife, they

to the

fit,

ordinary cafes they ought to have,

firmed with jullice, that they

the privileges of

they

if

condition,

in their

what

is

com-

neceflary

defence.
the

form of government

members may be divided

in

into

any
two

the rulers and the ruled, the magiftrates and

fubje(3:s.

The

rights of rulers

and accidental

may

be divided into

be veiled in rulers of every- fociety

fuch as

may be

effsntial

the effential, fuch as in general

;

mufl

the accidental,

given to the rulers in fome

focieties,

but not in others.

The
moll

eflential rights

to

of rulers, are what require

be enumerated

and thefe again by fomef

good writers are divided

into greater and lelTer ef-

fentials.

Of

the

firil

kind

(l.) Legiilation.

are,

Taxation for the public expence. (3.)

r the adminiiiration of jufcice.
I

(2.)

7^irifdi6lion^

(4.) Rcprefen-

LECTURES ON

ij6

Left. 12.

name of

or appearing and afting in

tation,

whole, in

the

tranfadlions, with adjacent indepen-

all

making war

dent ftates, chieHy for the purpofes of

cr peace.

The

lefs eilential rights

they are called

more
money,

of rulers are many, and

varied than the others

fuch

be

coining of

as,

managing public

poiTefTing or

may

becaufe they

lefs effential,

edifices, con-

ferring honours on oliicers, Sec.

.

The

rights of fubjecls in a fecial ftate cannot be

enumerated, but they

may

all fummed up in
who have furrendered

be

protectio?! ; that is to Jay, thofe

exped

part of their natural rights,

of the public

arm

to

flrength

the

defend and improve what re-

mains.
It

has been often

faid, that

government

carried

is

on by rewards and punilliments but it ought to be

obferved, that the only reward that a ftate can be
;

fuppofed to beftow upon good fubjeds in general,

is

protedlion and defence.

Some few who have

diftinguiihed themfclves in the public ferv'ice,

be

diilinguiilied

ward

tlie

v/hole

by
is

particular rewards

is to

Vv'hat

it

may be

neceffary

two exceptions.

It is faid

a few peifons,

lavs

it

has beeft faid on the foundation of

fociety, viz. confent, perh.aps

*o mention

may

whom

to

be given.

After

1.

reward

impofilble, becaufe the

muft be levied from thofe very perfons

may

but to re-

by fome,
if

v/ith

apparent reafon, that

accidentally arm.ed

power,

Vv'ith

conftrain a large ignorant rabble to fubmit to

Vv^hich will

admit in fome

be for their good.

cafes, v*^hen there is

This

would

an evident mxacU

MORAL PHtLOSOPHY^

Left. 12.
refs

and diforder

97

and when there

in the multitude,

will afterwards be
is a moral certainty that they
But in gethem.
done
pleafed with the violence
:eral

it

but a bad maxim,

is

we may

that

force

All lovers of power will

think, that even a violent ufe of it is

people for their good.

be difpofed

to

for the public good.

confcnted to

Though people have a^ually

2.

ihcy have been ellenany form of government,

operation of the
tially deceived in the nature and
if

c^ethey are found to be pernicious and

cermay
Itrudivc of the ends of the union, they

laws,

if

break up the fociety, recal the obligation,

and refettle the whole upon a betrer footing.

tainly

Of

the different

As foon

as

Forms of Government,

men began

to conllder

and compare

lorms of government, they divided them into threo

general and fimple ki:^ds, (i.) Monarchy, (2.)

Thefe are called

Ariftocracy, (3.) Democracy.
diflinguilliable
clearly
fimple, becaufe they are

from each other in

their nature

and

The

efFefts.

ancients

generally divided the forms of govern-

iuent in

this

manner, becaufe moft of their go-

vernments were

<".f

one or other of

kinds,

tliefe

xvitli

very little mixture-.

Monarchy

is

when

in a fingle perfon.

chy

may

the fupreme

Mr

power

is

vefted

Hutchinfon fays, IMonai

be either abfolute or limited

an inaccuracy, for limited monarchy

is

but

this is

one of

th<i

mixed kinds of government.

But monarchy mr.y be either temporary or lor

13

9S

LECTURES ON

Romsn

Tlie

life.

Lcl:. 12.

were abfolute

di<3;ators

for

time, and lb long ?s they ccntinued, the government

.

was purely monarGhical, all other powers being

dorm a
Monarch J may alfo be either hereditary or elec-

'.it.

tive.

AriftociTtcy

form of

that

is

government

in

the fiipi-eme

power

is

lodged with a fmali

riumber of nobles.

This

is

capable of the fame

which

variat'.o-Js as

monarchy

and

it

may

be either tem-

porary cr perpetual, hereditary or elective, with

that a

this diiierence,

temporary or elective

pow er

ftocracy alvvays puts fome

ihe

Tlie m^od

people.

complete

in the

ari-

hands of

ariftocracy

i:>

vAicn the ruling party have the power of co-opiatlon within themfclves,

and can

pleafe the vacancies m^ade

fill

by deaths

up

as they

or rcfigna-

lion.

Democracy

isvv'hen the fuprem.e

But

the multitude.

people in a

colle'flive

power

is left

body cannot well meet

gether, Dor could they tranfacl bufinefs with

convenience

they did, they

if

prefentatives, cliofen either

by

in

governments the

as in large

may meet by

the

to-

any
re-

whole or by par-

ticular diflrifts.

From

thofe fimple

complex forms

togcthei', either in

or all tiiefe

may

forms are generated

tvvo of

equal

many

them may be comipounded

or-

be united,

in different proportions,
as in the Britiih

govern-

ment.
'

After pointing out the fim.ple fonriS of govern-

ment,

it

make Tome general obupon government, and apply them to the

will be proper to

fervations

MORAL FHILOSCPKY.

Lccl. 12.

99

various forms, to faew whether any of

them

pre-

is

ferable to the other, and the advaiitaGfcs and defctSls

of each in particular.

There

I.

in a

fite

good

tiiiiijrs tliat

in proportion as

Wifdom

(i.)

to

it

and difpctch

-in

be reaui-

poffeircs or

attains

is

them,

(3.) Secrecj, expediiioa,

carrying meafures into execution.

(4.) Unity a id concord, or that one branch of

the goverximent
to

to

plan proper mcafures for the pub-

public intere ft in view.

And,

fecm

(2.) l^delity to have nothing but the

good.

lic

are four

fyflem of government, and every form

may

not impede, or be a hindrance

another.

Monarchy has

plainly the adva'itage in unity,

Many

fecrecy, and expedition.

cannot fo ealiiy

nor fo fpeedily agree upon proper raieafures, nor

can they expecl to keep their defigns fecret

fore,

fayfome,

if a

man

there-

could be found wife enough,

charge,

monarchy would

be the L^iVform of government.

Accordingly we

and

juft

enough

find, that in the

one

perfon

power

reafons.

is

for the

command
commonly

or army,

fupreme

but this does not apply to ila^s, for m.any

.No man can be found who

ikill fufficicnt, or, if

the

fieet,

intrulled with

of a ihip,

has either

he had, could give attention to

whole departments of a great empire.

in hereditary

for either

monarchies there

wifdom

narchy, though

it

Belides,

no fecurity

at all

or goednefs ; and an eleftive

may fecm

been always found

other,

is

becaufe there

in
is

to

mo-

promife ability, has

experience woife than the

no reafon

to

expect that an

defied monarch will have the public good

a.t

LECTURES ON

ICO
heart

mily

Left. 12.

he will probably mind only private or fa-

interefl,

Ariftocracy has the advantage of

for

wisdom in deliberations

of perfons of the

that

all

the others

fay, a

is to

number

rank muft be fuppofed by

firil

their confultations to be able to difcover the public

But

intereft.

has very

it

^delity or union.

or no profpetl of

little

The moft

ambitious projects,

and the moft violent and implacable

prevail in fuch

Democracy has
for fidelity

fadlions, often

ft ate s.

the advantage of both the others

the multitude colleftively always are

true in intention to the intereft of the public, becaufe

it is

their

They

own.

fame time,

it

has very

But

are the public.

at

the

advantage for wifdom

little

or union, and none at all for fecrecy and expedition

Behdes, the multitude are exceeding apt

to

be de-

ceived by demagogues and ambitious perfons.

are very apt to truft a

man who

with fuch power as that he

able to

is

them

fcrves

They
welJ,^

make them

ferve him.

If the true notion of liberty

is

the prevalence of

law and orde^ and the fecurity of

individuals, none

of the fimple forms are favourable to

Monarchy, every one knows,

for tyranny,

cious

man

is

where the arbitrary

it.

but another name

will of one capri-

difpofea of the lives and properties of all

ranks.

Ariftocracy always
ranlis,

great
folute

makes

who have no hand

commonly j-ule with

monarchs.

from moft of

in

\?^ftals

of the inferior

government, and the

greater feverity than ab-

A monarch

is at

fuch a diftance

his fubjeds, that he does

them

littk

Lc<!n:.

MORAL

11,

injury

lOl

PIIILOSOrilY.

but the lord of a petty feignory

is

a rigo-

unhappy dependents. The

jcaloufy with which the members ol an ariftocratirous taik-mafler to his

privileges,

Example

the Helots

and

the Spartans

tlie,

barons in

all

no fecurity

is

humanity and eafy treatment

at all for

riors.

own

defend their

cal Ibite

to their infe-

their treatment of

the feudal govern-

ments, in their treatment of their vaflals.

Pure democracy cannot

ried far into the

nor be car-

fubfifl long,

departments of

ftate

it is

very

fubjecl to caprice and the madncfs of popular rage.

They are alfo very apt to chufe a favourite, and

him with fuch power as overthrows their own
liberty,
examples^ Athens and Rome.
veft

Hence it appears, that every good form of government mull be complex, fo that the one principle

may check
as

much

the other.

virtue

community

It is

among

as poflible

of confequence to have

the particular
;

but

it is

members of a

folly to expei^l that

in all who have

They muil be fo balanced,
that when -every one draws to his own intereft or
inclination, there may be an over-poife upon the
a ftate fhould be

a Ihare in

upheld by integrity

managing

it.

whole.

n. The

fecond obfer\^aticn upon the forms of

government

is,

that

where there

ferent bodies, as in ajl

always fome nexus

of

them

cafe,

is

a balance of dif-

mixed forms, there muftbe

imperii,

fomething to

necefiary to the other.

If this

make one
is

not the

they will not only draw diiFerent ways, but

will often feparate alto-rether

from each

other.

In

order to produce this nexus, fome of the great eflential

rights of rulers

muil be divided, and diilributed

loa

LECTURES ON

Le<^. 12.

among the diiTerent branches of the

Example in the Britiili government
the power of making war and peace,

legifiature.

tlie

King has

but the Par-

liament have the levying and dillribution of monej,

which

is

a fufficient reflraint.

The

III.

obfervation

third

is,

that the ruling

afl J Hate mult always have confiderable pro-

part of

The

perty, chiefly of lands.

reafon

property has

is,

fuch an invariable influence, that whoever

property muft have power;

fome fecurity

alfo
is

Property in a

poffeflcs
flate is

for fidelity, becaufe iutereft then

concerned in the public welfare.

For
tirely

this reafon, did

by

men

in every

agriculture, an agrarian

ft ate

live ea-

law w^ould be ne-

celTary to liberty, becaufe if a 'vaft proportion of

property came into a few hands, they would foon

take

all

power

to themfelves.

merce fuperfede the

But trade and com-

neceffity of this, becaufe the

great and fudden fortunes

accumulated by trade

aufe a rotation of property.

IV. In a well-formed

ftate,

the fubjefis (hould

not be too numerous, nor too few.

If very nu-

merous, the principles of government cannot exert

their force over the
fell

by

its

own

they are not

whole.

xveight.

fuiticient to fupprefs internal infurrec-

tions, or repel attacks

V.

It is

The Roman empire

If the fubjefts are too few,

from without.

frequently obferved, that in every go-

vernment there

is

fnpreme

irreliftible

power

ged fomewhere, in king, fenate, or people.

lod-

To

power is the final appeal in all qneilions. Beyond this we cannot go. How far does this authotliis

rity extend

We

anfwer, As. far as authority in

a.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Le(5l. 12.

can extend,

fecial flate

other tribunal

and

not accountable to any-

it is

it is

fuppofed in the focial com-

pact, that

we have agreed

There

however, an exception,

is,

IO3

to

fubmit to

power, wherever lodged, come

to

its

decifion.

if the

fupreme

be exercifed in a

manifeftly tyrannical manner, the fubje6ls

tainly, if in their

But

power,

only when,

this is

advantageous

it

to unfettle the

fupreme power, however,

vernment

is

and

is

This

new
it is.

faid

refiftance to the

fubverting the fociety

till

the go-

anarchy and the un-

fettlement

is

preferable to the

refiftance

even to the fupreme

efTentially connected

with what has been

This dod:rine of
is

is

fo corrupt, as that

continuance as

it.

government altogether,

not to be attempted

certainty of a

pov/er

and overthrow

refill

becomes manifellly more

than to fubmit to tyranny.

altogether,

may cer-

on the focial contrail, and the confent necef-

fary to political union.

If

it

be aiked.

Who

muft

when the government may be refifted ? I anfwer. The fubjedls in general, every one for himfelf.
This may feem to be making them both judge and

judge

party, but there

is

no remedy.

ing the privilege altogether, to

It

would be deny-

make

the oppreffive

ruler the judge.

It is

that

eafy to fee, that the ineaning of

any

little

will juftify refiftance.

to

them always,

rable

not,

till

We

muft obey and fubmit

the corruption

becomes

intole-

we might refift legal authoriwe judged it to be WTong, v/ould be

for to fay that

ty every time

inconfiftent with a ftate of fociety,

iirft

t^iis is

miftake of the rulers of any {bciety

idea of fubieclion.

pnd

to the

very

LECTURES ON

504

The

Lecl. 12.

famous controverij on

oi^ce

paffive obe-

dience and non-refiftance, feems now, in our country, to

much over what

ufedto fay was, that

be pretty

for fubmiffion

the advocates

to teach

the

lawfuhiofs of refiiling a government in any inftance,

and

make

to

tion

to

the rebel the judge,

and

all order,

mud

of

fiibverfive

is

fubjecl a ftate to perpetual fedi-

which I anfwer, To refufe this inherent

man, is to eftablifh injuftice and ty-

right in every

ranny, and leave every good fubje^t without help,

as

prey to the ambition and rapacity of

tam.e

ethers.

No

till

fect

make

whole people
and

may

doubt m.en

yet this does not

it ^is

it

abufe the privilege,

void.

Befides,

is

not

any

ef-

it

that reilftance has

rife,

not eafy to fuppofe, that a whole

people would rife againil their governors, ur>iefs when

they have really received very great provocation.

V/hereas, on the other hand, nothing
tural than for rulers to grafp at power,

tuation enables

and

them

infenfible

there are

many

do

to

In

inftances of rulers

partial infurreflions in

by

their

{i-

by dovr

experience,

becoming ty-

very few of caufelefs and

There are occafional and

premature rebellions.

raifed

more na-

and

fuccefsfully

encroachments.

rants, but comparatively

aire eafily

it

is

every government.

Thefe

interefted perfons, but the great

majority continues to fupport order.

VI. Dominion,
faid,

it is

can be acquired

confent.

plain from

juflily

all that

has been

only one v/ay, viz. by

There are two other ways commonly

mentioned, both of v/hich are defeclive,

tance and conqueft.

inheri-

Hereditary power, which ori-

ginally rofe from confent, and

is

fuppofed

to

be

Moral

Lecl. 12.

PfiiLosornr.

105

founded upon the continuance of confent, (as that

of the hereditary power in a limited monarchy),
as lawful as
right
is

anj

from nature

is

is

when they pretend fuch

independent of the people,

it

but

abfurd.

That which

is

called the right of conquell ought

We ihall fee by and

by what is the right of a conqueror in a juft war.
It was his right before, and he obtains pOiiefTioii of
it by conqueft.
But to found any claim merely on
to

be exploded altogether.

conqued,

Upon

is

not a right, but robbery.

the whole,

marks upon the

will conclude with a

and tendency of

fpirit

few redifferent

forms of government.

Monarchical government has a tendency to

and elegance of manners, and generally

1.

politenefs
to

luxury.

The

fubmiflion

and

obfequioufnefs

praftifed at the court of a monarch, diiiufes itielf

through the whole

ft ate.

Ariftocracy narrows the mind exceedingly,

2.

and indeed cannot long

fubiift in a large ftate.

fmall ariftocracy, however,

may

fubiift

as a

form

of government, as long as any other method, or

longer.

Democracy

3.

tends to plainnefs and freedom of

fpeech, and fometimes to a favage and indecent fe-

Democracy is the nurfe of eloquence, bewhen the multitude have the power, perfuafion is the only way to govern them.
Let us now aik this ftiort queftion, V\ hat is the
rocity.

caufe,

X-alue

Is

and advantage of

it

civil liberty

neceflary to virtue

Vol.

II.

This cannot be fuppo

'

LECTURES ON

IC6
fed.

A virtuous mind

fiblc,

and perhaps equally

Lecl. 12.

and virtuous condudl

poflible, iu

pol-

is

every form

of government.
Is

neceflary to perfonal private happinefs

it

may feem

We

fo.

fee

It

the fubje6ts of arbitrary

governments, however, not only happy, but

ver^^

often they have a greater attachment to their

form

of government than thofe of free Hates have to

And

theirs.

contentment be neceifary to happi-

if

commonly more impatience and

The

nefs, there is

content in a free ftate than in any other.

ranny even of an abfolute monarch does not

dif-

ty-

aifecl

with perfonal injury any of his fubjels but a few,

and chiefly thofe

near him.

and the
than

is

mob

in free

it

their

choice to be

governments, the law

do more mifchief to private property,

done in any abfolute monarchy.

What,

then,

1 fuppofe

motion

who make

Perhaps

it

all

is

the

advantage of

civil liberty?

chiefly confifts in its tendency to put in

the

human powers.

motes induftry, and

Therefore

it

pro-

in this refpe6l happinefs, pro-

duces every latent quality, and improves the hum.a;i

ture,

mind.

Liberty

and heroifm.

is

the nurfe of riches, litera-

'

MORAL

Leek. 15.

PHILOSOrilY.

!']

LECTURE XtIL
OF THE

THE

'

LAW OF NATURE AND

next thing in order

called the

law of

to treat of

is,

and

7iaturc

NATIONS.

what
It

nations.

is

has

been before obferved, that feparate and independent

iiates are, with regard to one another, in a ftate of

man

natural liberty, or as

mencement of
flions arife.
is

law

the

civil fociety.

I.

to be enforced

Is there

What

3.

That there

to

man before the

On this feveral

any fuch law

What

2.

is it

is

fuch a law,

from the rea-

plain

is

fons that {hews the obligation

under

qiie-

fandion, or hov/

its

is

com*-

which one man

lies

If there are natural rights of

to another.

men, there are natural rights of nations. Bodies

politic in this view, do not differ in the leaft from
individuals.

and common utility,

law of nature and nations.

fhow

fcience,

The

qucftion,

What

fame manner.

the

it is

am

as diftinguiflied

muft be confidered in

not able to recollect

perfe^l

the

imperfed
rights,

v<e Ihall fee they all

in

rights.

a flate

apply

is

If

ufually
x^o.

lefs

read over

to nations.

but the occafions of exerting

cc-

of natural liberty,

It will alfo appear, that the imperfe6l rights

ply

any

from another, but what be-

longs to nations, fave that there

cafion for the

that there is a

right that can belong to one

perfev^ or imperfel

man,

reafcn, con-

Therefore, as before,

them

are

ap-

mu^h

loS

LECTURES ON

more

For example,

rare.

it is

Led.

more

13.

rare to fee a

nation in a ilate of general indigence, fo as to require a fupply.

Yet

fometimes happens.

this

It

did fo in the cafe of Portugal, at the time of the

great earthquake at Lifbon

.

and the other nations

of Europe lent them affillance.

It is alfo

from

this

principle that Ihips of different nations, meeting at

jTea,

will

do acls of humanity to one another. Some-

times alfo there are national favours that deferve

national

As
tions,

to

But

gratitude.

and, I believe,

this is

it is

no other than a general fenfe of duty,

feiife

fear, that if

of

common

utility, as

makes men

they notorioufly break thefe laws, re-

proach and infamy among

effect,

law of nature and na-

the fanftion of the

and fach a

feldom merited,

feldomer paid.

ftill

all

nations will be the

and probably refentment and indignation by

common confent.
The violation of

the natural rights of

mankind

being a tranfgreflion of the law of nature, and be-

tween nations

as in a ilate of natural liberty, there

being no metliod of redrefs but force, the law of

nature and nations has as

its

chief or only objed:

manner of making ivar and peace.

In war it is proper to confider diftinclly,

the

caufes for
2.

4.

which a

jufl

war may be

The

carried

on.

The time of commencing. 3. The duration,

The means by which it may be carried on.
As to the firfl, the caufes of commencing war

are,

according to the principles above laid down, the

violation of

any perfet right

property of the other

jed:s5 or rellraining

flate,

them

as taking

away

or the lives of

its

the

fub-

in their induflry, ox -hiu-

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lecl. 13.
ilering

There

them

the uie

in

IC9

common,

of things

war

Avhich does not feem to be a caufe of

by which we
t'onal calumny is

have a right to charafter.

that

it

&:c.

only one perfect right, the violation of

is

mean
Na-

fcarcelj a caufe of warj becaufe

cannot be frequent or of great

The violation

elTeft.

of imperfeft rights cannot ufually be a caufe of v/ar

between nations

which even

may

yet a cafe

be fuppofed,

iii.

would be a juft caufe of war.

of any nation fliould go into a port

thefe

Suppofe a fhip

of another, in the greateft diftrefs, and not only

th.e

people in general, but the governing part of the fociety fhould

deny them

all affiftance

This would

be an act of fuch notorious inhumanity, and of

fuch evil example, that
fentment

it

may

and yet even here,

be a demand of juflice

lirft

juftify national
I

re-

think there fhould

upon the

ofFendin^-

perfons, before vengeance fhould be taken

upon the

rtatc.

Thefe are the

to

to

put

itfelf in

the

and legitimate caufes of m.aking

juft

Some add

v\'ar.

them, that w^hen a nation

to

means of annoying

threaten hoflilities, then

till it

we

feen

others, that

in a flate of incapacity

what

is

it

feems

to

are not obliged to wail

hath committed a6lual injury, but

in this, but

is

fuch a fituation as to defence, or as

but there

is

may

put

no other

founded upon the other

it

trutJi
;

for

the prefervation of our property implies, that if

others take fuch meafures as are not to be accounted
for,

but upon the

wronging me,

it is

fuppofition

of an intention of

often eafier and fafer to prevent

and difarm the robber, than

K3

to

fuflcr

him

to

ccm

LECTURES ON

115

mit the violence, and then

him of his prey.

One thing more

is to

This

ral principles

pofed
right

it

two contend-

pleafes of

the gene-

eafily refolved into

is

may

for the injured party

be fup-

go to war in defence of fome perfet

to
J

him and rob

to llrip

be added, that every nation

has a right to join which

ing parties.

Lel. I3.-

and the caufe being

juil, the

imperfe^l right

of humanity, as well as general and coxiimon

utili-

So

that,

ty^ calls for affiflance to the

if

have a right

Vv'e

v/e

may

oppreffed.

to alTocIate

with any nation,

be entitled to protect their property and

rights.

As

2.

to the time of

way

commencing

w^ar,

to

be no

at

any time the injured party pleafes,

received an injury
lire in

it

feems

contrary to natural law, to fay

each party

but accident or

it is

having

utility, or a

de-

the equity of their

m.anifeft

to

after

caufe, has introduced univerfally the cuflom of de-

claring war.

This begun very early, and, though

not of abfolute right, having been generally intro-

duced, mull be continued, though there

more of form than of fubllance

in

it

is

often

for nations

do often begin both attack and defence before declaration, as well as

make

all

the neceffary prepa-

rations for ftriking the moil efFetlual blow.

meaning of a declaration of war feems

upon the injured party

call

tion

to prevent

it

to

The
be, to

by repara-

likcwife, to manifeft to all other Hates the

juflice of the caufe.

3.

The

duration, of a

to natural equity,

drefied,

till

war

fliould

be, according

the injury be completely re-

and reafonable fecurity given againll fu-

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 13
ture attacks

therefore the pralice, too

war

of contimiing a
is

to

common,

for the acquiiition of empire,

be condemned.

fome injury

Ill

Becaufe one

to another,

it

has done
feems quite unreafonable
flate

that they fliould not only repair the injury, but

fabvert and ruin the oiFending flate ahogether

this

would be unreafonable between man and man, if

one had wronged another, not only to repair the
-

wrong, but to take

all the reft that

duce his family

beggary.

reafonable in

to

ft ate s,

It is

becaufe the offenders in ftates

are not to be fuppofed to be the

only the rulers,

he had, and reeven more un-

whole people, but

perhaps only fome

or

indivi-

duals.

Perhaps

it

may

be

What

afxced,

curity againft future injury

is

reasonahle fe-

anfwer. Between

equal independent nations, folemn treaties ought to

be confidered as fecurity

but, if faiih has

often broken, perhaps fomething

quired.

The mutual

complaints of nations againft

each other for breach of

often

demand fuch

been
more may be re-

faith,

makes conquerors

a degree of fecurity, as puts

the conquered altogether in their power.

4.

As

to the

means

legitimate

the war, in general,

it

may

force or open violence.

be

It is

of' carrying 04i

faid in

one word, by

admitted on

all

hands,

may

be ufed againft the perfon and

goods, not only of the rulers, but of every member

that this force

of the hoftile

ft ate.

This

may feem

hard, that in-

nocent fubjefts of the ftate ftiould fuffer for the folly and indifcretion of the rulers, or of other

bers of the fame ftate

but

it is

unavoidable.

whole individuals that compofe a

ftate

memThe

are confi-

LECTURES ON

112

dered but as one "body

an enemy
cent

to diftinguifh

men

and when

own

riik their

LeCT. I3.

would be impoffible for

the guilty from the innoit

fiibmit to a (government, they

pofleffions

on the fame bottom with

the whole, in return for the benefits of fociety.

Open

violence

may

and therefore every

be faid to have no bounds,

method

that can be

invented,

and the mofl deadly weapons of annoyance

feem

be permitted.

to

faid above,

quity, all

may

But, from w^hat has been

and upon the principles of general e-

a61;s

blamed, and

of cruelty and inhumanity are to be

all feverity that

has not an immediate

effeft in weakening- the national ftrength of the

enemy,

certainly inhumanity

is

prifoners

whom

men and

you can keep

children,

burning and

thing that could be of ufe in

The

fuch

fafely,

killing

as,

killing wo-

deftroying every

life.

ufe of poifoned Aveapons has been alfo ge-

nerally condemned, and the poifoning of fprings or

provifions.

To

the honour of
think,

to

modern times, and very prothe honour of Chriftianity,

bably,

there

much more humanity

is

in the

way

of car-

rying on war than formerly.

To aim

particularly at the life of a leader, or

perfon of chief note, feems to have in

it

nothing

more important the

finiihing of the war

unjuft or improper, becaufe the

it does more toward the

many feem to admit, the bribing of
what
but

life,

own

people to aflaflinate

think honourable or

A queftion
is

is

him

privately, I

his

cannot

fair.

often

moved

in morals,

Ho-w

lawful to deceive an' eneniy, cfpecially

far it
if

we

MORAI. PHILOSOPHY,

Left. 13.

hold the general and univerfal

To

this

may

it

obligation of truth.

be anfwered, in the

we may certainly with great

own defigns from an enemy,
generally from friends,

by

think there

conceal our

indeed,

lilence,

we may

and guarding

may

any thing

is

place, that

lirll

juftice
as,,

againfl every circumfLance that

Neither do

II^

betray them.
at

all

blame-

worthy in a general of an army uiing ambiguous

marches of a part or the whole,

figns^ as feigned

putting

up

lights or fuch things, becaufe, after a

declaration of war, he does not pretend to give in-

formation to his

enemy

cxpedled on both

of his motions

nay,

it

is

they will do the bell

fides, that

they can to over-reacji one another in point of pru-

Yet

dence.

can fcarce think

right to employ-

it

people to go to the enemy, and, profeffing to be

dired falfehoods, and deceive them by

fincere, tell

that falfe intelligence.

cuflom of

It is the

all to

fend fpies to difcover

the enemy's defigns, and alfo to bribe

fome of the

enemies themfelves, to difcover the defigns of their

leaders; the

laft

of which

is,

think, at lead. of a

Though

doubtful nature, or rather unjuft.

fpies is
little

by

all

fending

may feem a

approved, yet (what

unaccountable) fuch fpies are always punifii-

ed with Inftant death by the oppofite party,

The

detected.

reafon probably

is,

ing friendlhip, they have a right to confider

as traitors

or, as

they are in an

aft:

when
is

enemy

in

in their power.

Thefe circumftances apply

but there

them

of hoftility,

they kill them, as they would do an

battle,

when

that, pretend-

war in general 5
by civilians into

to all

a diitinftion of wars

LECTURES

114

Led.

OK"

1 3,

two kinds, soUmn and c'rjil. The firfl includes all

the
wars between Hates formerly independent
;

other, internal infurredlions of a

part of one go-

vernment agalnll another.

There has generally been a great

difference in

the behaviour of the oppolite parties in thefe diffe-

In folenin wars there

rent wars.

a prefumption

is

of integrity in the plurality on both fides

lieves his

they are

own

to

caufe to be juft.

On

each be-

account

this

be treated with the more humanity.

In

making

civil wars, the infurgents are confidered as

unjuft refiftance to the ruling part of the fociety,

and therefore guilty of the greateft crimes againfl

Therefore they ate often treated with4

fociety.

great rigour, and,

to

folemn

feme

trial

when taken

in battle, referved

There

and public execution.

reafon for this in

many

cafes,

when

it is

is

in-

deed an unreafonable or unprovoked infurredlion of

diforderly citizens

but there are

many

cafes in

which the pretences on both fides are fo plaufible,

that the war ftiould be in all refpects confidered as
folemn.
It

Ihould be obferved, notwithftanding thehoftile

difpofition, there are occafions,

both in a treaty for

peace and during the continuance of the war,

enemies are under the ilrongeft obligations

rity in their

pofals are

behaviour

made

for

each other

wlien pro-

accommodating the

differences,

to

for a fufpenlion of arms, for an

ers, or
It is

any thing

when

to lince-

exchange of prifon-

fimilar.

worth while

to inquire,

honour and candour in

v'ar,

whether the

with a

ffri6l

greateft

adherence-"

Le^.

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

13.

to all the

laws above laid down, would give any

party a great advantage

ty of

II5

who

them

tranfgrefling

iliould take the liber-

as

for

example,

who

Ihould ufe polfoned weajpons^ fhould fend people to

fliould bribe fubjedls to aflaflinatc

tell falfe flories,

a hoflile prince

no advantage

There

anfwer, that -they would have

at all,

but probably

fubdues the hearts of enemies

rifies

tlie

contrary.

fomething powerful in magnanimity, which

is

them,

army with

nay, fometimes ter-

and particularly

infpireiv a general's

invincible courage.

Befides thefe, fini-

not fo terrible as

fter arts are

news

telling falfe

may be imagined ;

as eafily difcovered as

is

any trick

whatfoever.

Prudence and integrity have no need of any

firtance

enemy

from fraud
to

enemy, are often

as ufeful as

any

Roman

general,

who

way

in

which he

Of Making
already hinted,

purpofe ought to be

Of

all deceits in

making a

a6ls of

all

in

refufed to avail himfelf of

the treachery of a fchool-mafler, as well as

fical in the

As

af-

from

There was fomething very handfome

hoftijity.

the

acts even of generofity,

whim-

puniflied the traitor.

Peace,

propofals tending to this

made with

the utmofi: fincerity.

war, the moil Infamous

is

that of

treaty, or feeking a confidence, only to

take advantage of the fecurity of one party, to deflroy him,

to fight

by

aflaffination, or

by breaking

a truce

with advantage.

The terms

of peace ought to be agreeable to the

ii6

LECTURES ON

Left. 13.

end of making war. Damages fliould be repaired,

and fecuritj given againft future injury.
We have often faid, that nation to nation is as

man

to

man

treaties of

in a ftate of natural liberty

therefore

peace between nations ihould in general

proceed upon the fame principles as private con*

trafts

between man and man.

an exception,

There

bylaw) always

are (at leall

is,

void

when they

Now,

the efFe6l of conftraint upon one lide.

muil not hold

it

in treaties

would always

On

however,

between individuals

that contracls

are
this

between nations, becaufe

furnifli a pretext for

breaking them.

the fide of the conquered, a treaty

is

always in

a great degree the efFeft of neceflity.

however, laid down in moll au-

It is generally,

thors as a principle, that the terms impofed and fub-

mitted to

may be

fometimes

iive, as to juftify the

This feems

they are able.

in point of morals.
to fay, that the

it.

diftance, cannot

fervitude

It

people

not recede from

fomc

fo rigorous

to

me

would be

who made

Their

be very lax

to

the treaty Ihould

however,

be fuppofed bound

this fubjeft

when

better, I think,

pofterity,

by the deeds of their

Let us conclude

and oppref-

injured party in revolting

at

to unjufl

fathers.

by a few remarks on

the lituation of neutral ftates.

1.

Every

flate

has a right,

tending, to remain neuter, and

2.

They have

when
affift

others are con-

neither party.

a right to all their former privi-

leges with both the contending parties,

on their
ufual

traffic

marks of

with both, and

friendfliip to

both

may

may fhew
;

only,

it

carry'

all

the

has been

generally agreed upon, that they are not to trade

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 13.

II7

with anj of them in certain articles fuppofed to be

of confequence in carrying on war,
provifions and

particulaily

arn-'S.

Neutral powers fhould keep their harbours

3.

alike open to both for

an afjlum

to fly to.

common refrelhment, and as

And it is held neceflarj, that

contending powers mufl not carrj on their

the

any

quarrel, nor exercife

ritories

4.

of a neutral

Neutral

ftates

hoililities,

withm

the ter--

ftate.

may

purchafe moveable goods

from any of the contending

parties,

been taken from the

other.

But not

fpect to lands or forts

which have
fo

with re-

becaufe, if the other part^

are able, they will re-take their pofTeflions.

Deeds of a

5.

valid

that is

violent pofielTor are held to

be

to fay, if a conqueror prevails for

a time, and levies tribute from asy country, and

it would
demand the tribute again, becauft the
true ov/ner was not able to give protecrion to the
fubjecls, and what was paid was loft through his

afterwards the rightful pofTelTor prevails,

be unjufl

to

weaknefs.

pendent
to a

The fame

ftate

fupreme

if

ftate,

it

thing

may

owes any money and fervice

and an enemy exaft

the proper creditor cannot juftly

On

be faid of a de-

it

demand

by
it

force,

again.

the whole, thofe things that have been gene-

rally received as the

law of nature and

founded on the principles of equity,

nations, are

and,

when

well obferved, do greatly promote general utility.

Vol.

II.

tECTURES ON

iiS

LtS:, 14.

LECTURE XIV.
JURISPRUDENCE.

JURISPRUDENCE

the

IS

method of ena(9:mg and

adminillering civil laws in any conflitution.

We
vil

cannot propofe to go through a fyllem of ci-

laws

and therefore what

make fome

have

in view, is to

preliminary remarks, and then to point

out the object of civil laws, and the manner of

their operation.

The

I.

firfl

preliminary remark

when

flitution is excellent,

laws

that a con-

fuch, as to have a tendency to prevent of-

is

and make

fences,

men

them when they do

This

is

good, as

much

necefiary in

fome meafure

laws, tkey cannot long fubfiil, even

rigorous execution
is,

as to punifh

evil.

the general difpofition of a people

There

is,

the fpirit of the civil

on the

however, more of

part
this in

when

for,

is

againll the

by

a ftrid and

of

the

fome

rulers.

conftitu-

Scion and Xenophon, as

tions than in others.

well as Lycurgus, feem to have formed their plan

very

much with

of the people in the

make

view, to direft the manners

this

fijft

place,

which will always

the obfervance of particular laws eafy.

But how

fhall the magiftrate

r what can be done

by law,

manage
to

make

this matter

the people

of any flate virtuous ? If, as we have feen above,

virtue and piety are infeparably connected, then to

promote true religion

is

the befl and moll efFe(^ual

way

of

Love

to

making a virtuous and regular people.

God, and love to man, is the fubftance of
;

little to

do.

how
of

a very important dlfquifition^

this leads to

ought to interfere in matters

are very va-

far the maglftrate

Religious fentiments

religion.

and

lious,

we have

given

as one

it

rights in natural liberty, and

to

laws will have

civil

when.thefe prevail,

religion

But

II9

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lect. 14.

be alienated even in

that

of the perfedl

which ought not

that

fociety,

every one

Ihould judge for himfelf in matters of religion.

What the magi0rate may do on this fubjca,

feems

to

be coniined

to the three following particu-

lars.

(1.)

The

magiftrate

(or ruling part of any fo-

ciety) ought to encourage piety

ample, and by endeavouring

of public efteem.
is in

men

Magillrates

make

may

whom

it

own

ex-

an objed

it

will have

it

many

fol-

promote and encourage

of piety and virtue, and they

nance thofe

his

Whenev-^.r the general opinion

favour of any thing,

lowers.

to

by

may

difcounte-

w^ould be improper

to

pu-

jiifh.

(2.)

The

magiftrate ought to defend the rights

of confcience,

and tolerate

all in

their religious

fentiments, that are not injurious to their neigh-

bours.

In the ancient heathen

lefs occafion for this,

ilates, there

was

becaufe, in the fyftem of po-

lytheifm, the different gods and rites v/ere not fup-

pofed to be oppoSte, but co-ordinate and confiftcnt ^

but when there is believed to be but one Cod, the
fentiments about his nature and v/orfliip will often

L2

120

LECTURES ON

be confidered as

efientially

Le<9:. 1 4.

repugnant one to ano-

ther.

The

pretence of infidels, that perfeciition only

belongs to the Chriilian religion,

-the

Chriftian

tuteJ

and

it

abfurd

is

ing, that the gods of the heathens w^ere

At

for

was the firft religion that was perfewas the necellary confequence of fayno gods.

prefent, as things are fituated, one of the

important duties of the magiflracy

i,

moft

to protetl the

rights of confcience.

commonly

It is

faid,

however, that in cafe any

fe6l holds tenets fubveriive of fociety,

and incon-

with the rights of others, that they ought

fiilent

On

not to be tolerated.
tolerated in

this footing

Great Britain

tire fubje6lion to

a foreign,powei', the fee of

and therefore muft be in oppolition

of their

intereit

Popery

own

ilate

is

not

becaufethey profefs en-

to the

Rome;
proper

and becaufe violenc&-

for religion is a part of their reli-

-or perfecution

giou, vvliidi in.'akes their profperity threaten ruin

to others., as

which

well as the principle imputed to them,

tliey den^^,

liereiics.

That

faith is not to be l^ept with

But, however jufl this

we ought

of reafoning,

may

in general to

perfecution on a religious account as

liblc,

way

much

as pof-

becaufe fuch as hold abfurd tenets are feklom

dangerous.

Perhaps they are never dangerous,

but when they

in

be in a

guard againll

Holland,

are.oppreffed.

without danger

Papillsare tolerated
to

liberty.

Ancl

though not properly tolerated, they are now connived at in Britain.

In ancient times,

power

w^tis

in

great ftates, the cenforial

found neoellary to their continuance,

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 14.

which

121

infpefted the manners of men.

It

feems

probable, that fupporting the religiouG feels in

dern times anfwers this end

cipline of each

fed

mo-

for the particular dif-

intended for the corredicn

is

of manners.

The

(3.)

nifliment of

magiflrate

cf

diircrent fentimcnts

by any means

maj

enal laws for the pu-

of profanity and impiety.

a-its

men

The

caght not

in religion

encoui-age or give a fandion to

to

fuch a6ts as any of tlicm count profane.

Many

are of opinion, that, belides all this, the

make

magiflrate ought to

public provilion for the

God, in fach manner as is agreeable to

tlie great body cf the fociety
though, at the fame
all
from
who diflent
it are fully tolerated.
time,
And, indeed, there feems to be a good deal cf rcaworfliip of

fon for

it,

that io inflrudion m.ay

the bulk of

common

people,

be provided for

who would,

inD.:iy

of

them, neither fupport nor employ teachers, unlefs

they were obliged.

The

magiftrate's right in this

cafe feems to be fomeihing like

rent

that cf the pa-

they have a right to inllru6t, but not

to

con-

that

laws

Urain.
2.

The

fecond preliminary remark

is,

fhould be fo framed as to promote fuch principles

in general as are

and particularly

favourable to good government,

tliat

principle,

if there

that gave rife to the confl'tution, and

to

is

be one,

congenial

it.

Such a principle

as I

have in view,

the point of honour in a country

and

is

generally

this

lawgi-

vers and admblHralors of law ihould e.:d:avour to

L3

LECTURES

22

prefen^e ia

whenever

^Higour, for

i.s full

dermined the conilltLiUon goes

Of

Lecl. I4.

Oli

by

to fubfill

un-

and pu-

thefe prisCciples, fobrietj, induftrj,.

Some

blic fpirit, are the chief.

is

it

to ruin.

Hates are iformed

fcbriety and parfimonj, as th^ Lace-

demonians.
Induflry

the prevailing principle in others, as

is

Public

in Holland.

ancient

Rome, and

may

diverliiied

be

fpirit in other?, as in

foinetimes

Greece,

Oiilj public fpirit

Britain.

it

a pailion for

is

acquiring glory and domiruon, as in

Rome

and

fonietlmes for preferving liberty, as in Greece and

Britain.

When

I fay, that, in the

management of a

ftate^

the utmoll atte;ntion fhould be given to the principle of the

gour,

conflitution, to preferve

mean,

and in part tend

much more
bad

ail

to the ruin

at Spa-rta

of a

Any

but to

naony reproachful, and

its

vi-

to

aS:

make

of immorality

poverty and paril-

introduce fine houles and

would have

inftant ruin.

Any
land

in

yet this is

ftate,

furniture, -and delicate entertainments,

been

it

other crimes are bad,

the cafe with crimes againft that prin-

than any other.

ciple,

v/as

though

that

at of

but to

famous than

immorality would be hurtful in Hol-

make
it

is,

fraudulent bankruptcy lefs in-

would immediately deltroy

them.
Sobriety, induflry, and public
alliec',

cther.

fpirit,

are nearly

and have a reciprocal influence upon one an-

Yet

there

may

be a great degree of fome

in the abfence of the others.

of them,
the.e was much

In Sparta,

fobriety and public fpirit, but llule

MORAL PHiLOSoniy.

Lect. 14.

In Athens, indiiilrj and public

induflrj.

but very

J23
fpirit,

parlimony.

little

In oppofition to the whole of

this,

Mandevilk

wrote a book, called The Fahlj of the Bees, which

feems to be levelled againfl ibbriv^ty, induflry, and
.

public

fpirit,

all at

once

vate vices are public

luxury of one

But

man

eafy to

is

it

his poiiiion

hefiejits,

is.

That pri-

and that the waile and

fupplles the wants of another.

overthrov/ his reafoning

though fober and indullrious perfons fpend each

for,
leis

than a profufe perfon, yet fobriety and induftry

tend

much more

to

by

population, and

they are mutually fei%'iceable to each

that

otlier.

means
Lux-

ury and vice only waile and deftroy, they add nothing to the common flock of property or of happinels.
Experience fully julliilcs this ; for, though

from the luxury of one man another may reap

fome gain, the luxury of a nation ahvays tends to
the ruin of that nation.
3.

third

preliminary remark

is, tlixrt laws

be of two kinds, either written, or in the brealls
of magiflrates. In every conftitution of note, there

may
is

fomething of each of thefe kinds.

It is

uncertain,

whether it is better to have many or few fpecial laws.

On the one hand, it feems to be the very fpirit of
a free conliitution, to have every thing as ftrictly defined as poflible,

power of the judge.

multiplicity of laws

and

to

and

to leave little in the

But, oa the other hand, a

is

fo apt to lead to litigation,

end in ambiguity, that perhaps judges of

equity, chofen -by the diilricl in

which they live

and are to ad, and chofen but for a time, would
.

be a more

juft

and equitable method cf ending

dif-

LECTURES

124
ferences.

But the

tion,

always

tial

fo as

difficulty of fettling a conftitu-

to fecure the

made modern

judges, has

Lel. 14.

o?r

imparwhere there is

election of

Hates,

liberty, prefer a multiplicity of \\T:itten laws.

The

4.

man

preliminary r-emark

laft

be

conftitution can

mull be exceptions

fo

that

is,

no hu-

formed, but that there

So that there

to every la^v.

may

be in every nation oppreiTion under form of

law,

according to the old maxim, Siimnium jus^

sumina

This further fhews the

injuria.'

necelTity of

forming the m-anners of a people.

After ha\dng

may

1'j.id

down

thtfe preliminaries,

ohferve, that the obje6l~of civil laws

we

may be

divided into the three following particulars.

To

I;

ratify the

The

the fociety.

moral laws by the fanftion of

tranfgrelTion of fuch

laws are

called crimes y as profanity, adultery, murder, ca-

lumny,
ed by

And

&.C.

or.der

they are profecuted and puniih-

of the public, according to the

fpirit

of every conftitution.
2.

To

lay

down

a plan for all contra<^s in the

man and man

when a contrad is valid, and how to be
The tranfgreffions of fuch laws are called
They chiefly regard the acquiiition, tranf-

commerce
to fhoVv

proved.
frauds.

or intercourfe between

jniilion, or alienation
3.

their

To
own

of property.

limit and dired perfons in the exercife of

rights,

and oblige them

to the interfering rights of others.

the whole of what

try.

And

trespasses.

become

is

to

fhew refpel

This contains

called the police of a coun-

the tranfgreflion of fuch laws

number

illegal^

is

of things in this \aew

called

may

which before weic not immoraU

MORAL fHILOSOPHY.

Ledl. 14.

Of the
In

Moral Laws^
are

puniihments

tranfgreillon of the

moral laws,

polifticd nr.tions, there

all

annexed

Sanction of the

to

the

I25

whether againft God, our neighbour, or ourfelves

',

in the doing of which, the three following things

are chiefly neceiTary.

To

1.

determine what crimes, and what de-

gree of the fame crime, are to be inquired into

by

the civil magiftrate.

It is

of neceflity that, in

a free Hate, crimes ihould be preciiely defined,

that

men may

into

them.

profanity,

not be ignorantly or raflily

drawn

There are degrees of every crime,

impurity,

violence,

ilander,

that

are

blameable in point of morals, nay, even fuch as

fall

under the difcipline of a religious fociety, that,

made cognizable by the civil magi-

if they were
strate,

would multiply laws and

beyond mea-

trials

fure.
2.

To

appoint

tlie

dommifuon of crimes.
ny, in which we are
chara(5ler

methods of afcertaining the

This

ufually

is

by

teilimo-

to confider the nun;iber

and

G^ner^lly through

of the witnelTes.

Chriilendom, and indeed moil other parts of the

world, two witnefles have been efteemed neceflary
to fix

crimes upon, an accufed perfon

not but that

the pol^tive evidence jof one

perfon of judgement

and untainted character

many

in

is,

cafes, fuSicient

to gain belief, and often flronger than two of un-

known

or doubtful credit

lay dow:<

fomc

rule,

and

but

two

it

was neceflary

to

are required,

to

guard againfl the danger of hired eviderxe, and

to

125

LECTURES OV

how

give an opportunity of trying

To

gether.
Si

Led. I4.

many

proof difficuh or impoffible in

It

feems

That

crimes,

fuch

fome

others,

maxim

be a

to

reafon,

they agree to-

have required more v^ould have made

in the cafe of

what

tafes.

and founded on

in law,

are

called occult

murder, adultery, forgery, and

-as

where the nature of the thing fliows

a penury of evidence, tliey fome-

mufl be

that there

times content tliemfelves with fewer witneifcs,

if

there are corroborating circumflances to itrengthea

their tellimony.
,

It

ther

feems
it

to

be a matter not eaflly decided, whe-

be agreeable to reafon and

juftice, in

the

cafe of very atrocious crimes, that, on account of

the atrocity, lefs evidence ihould be fufficient for

more fhould be required. Oa

more atrocious the crime, the
greater the hun to fociety, and the more need of
On the other hand, the more
public vengeance.
co!ivilion, or that

the one hand, the

ctrocious the crime, and the heavier the punifhnient,

feems agreeable to

it

viction ihould be

Lav/yers are feen to take their

dence.

fometimes the one way,

.places,

other.

It

evidence

is

am

fometimes the

to

convid a man of murder,

and other crimes cf a deep dye.

perfuaded, that the appearance

to the greater

fuffered to efcape
is

is

owing

and mere general eagernefs to difco-

ver the perpetrators of fach crimes.

dence

evi^

common

often thought, that in pradice lefs

is fufflcient

forgery, rape,

But

the con-

jullice, that

upon the more unqueftioned

more

eafily

neceffary, bat that it

get at the evidence.

not that
i^

more

Others are

more

evi-

dii^cult to

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lett. 14.

Evidence
direct

may

be diftinguiflied into two kinds,

Diredl evidence

and circumstantial.

when

is

knowledge of

the witnefles fwear to their light or

the accufed committing the crime.

when they

Xlt

Circumftantial,

only fwear to certain fa6ts which cannot

be fuppofed to have exided, unlefs the crime had

been committed

as,

man

found dead, another

found near the place, with a weapon bloody, or

clothes bloody,

&.c.

circumflantial evidence
it

Some have
is

affirmed, that

ftronger than direct

but

muil be taken with very great caution and judge*

ment.

The law

3.

puniihment due

to proportion

is

to

Puniihment in

and appoint the

every crime, when proven.

all

regular Hates,

taken wholly

is

com-

out of the hands of the injured perfons, and

mitted to the magiilrate, though in

cafes the injured party

by way of

claim,

or

mod

magi-

fufFered to join the

profecution, and to have a certain

in the

ilrate

is

many

reparation, as far as that

is

prac-

ticable.

Therefore the punilbment in general mufl con*

of two parts

fill

fcrer

(2.)

The

(i.)

The

reparation to the fuf-

v indict a pub lie ay which has fome-

times two ends in view, to be an example to %thers,

and

to

reclaim and reform

tlie

offender, as in cor-

poral puniihment lefs than death

fometimes but

one, the good of others in the example, as in capital puniihments,

The kind
wholly

and baniihment.

of puniihment, aad the degree,

to different lawgivers,

ferent conllltutions.

PimiihiTient

is

Public

and the
utility

fpirit
is

is left

of dif-

the

rule.

not always proportioiicd to the atro-

il^

LECTURES

eioufnefs of the crime in

the frequency of

ON"

Le<^.

point of morals, but to

and the danger of

it,

14.^,

prevail-

its

ing.

Some
er

nations require, and

fe verity in

The

fome

fame, or fimilar condud, often produces

oppoiite effeds.

Severe

lav/s,

and fevere

ments, fometimes baniih crimes,

When

the contrary.
often

will bear, great-

punifliments than others.

makes

they fear

it

ofteiv

laws are very fanguinary,

the fubjefts hate the

and the

punifli-

but very

tranfition

hating the law, to hating thofe

with the execution of

is

it

law more than

very

who

from

eafj^,

are

entrufted

Such a Hate of

thin o
threatens infurreclions and con\'uliions, if not the
dilTolution of a

it.

government.

Another ufual efred of exceffive feveriry

is,

is

not willing to lend

public

aid to the difcovery and

its

convidion of offenders

in lav/s

The

that they are not put in execution.

itfelf

0^5

fo that in

becomes a m.ere hrutum

time the law

fulmeiiy

and

iofes its

authority.
I may make one particular remark, that, though
many things are copied from the law of Mofes into the laws of the

modern

nations, yet, fo far as I

know,* none of them have introduced the

nis in the

/^a;

talio-

cafe of injuries, an eye for an eye, a

tooth for a tooth, cc.

and yet perhaps there are

many inftances in which it Tvould be very proper.

The equity of the punifhment would be quite mawould be

nifeft,

and probably

ftraint

from the commiiTion of injury,

it

as efFedual a rcas

any

that

is

but

could be chofen.

f he

concluding remark Ihall be, that

it

MORAL PHlLOSdPHY.

Left. 14.

29

feldom that very fevere and fanguinarj laws are of

.

fervlce to the

good order of a

have been fixed

,vlth as

ftate

much

tion as poffiblfc, the execution of

ftrid and rigorous.

but, after laws

equity and modera-

them inould be

Let the laws be

and the

juil,

magiftrate inflexible.

LECTURE XV.

THE

fecond objet of civil laws being to regu-

late the

intercourfe

making of

and the whole

between man and man, relating

flcquiiition, poflellion,

we

coiitrafts,

and

alieiiation

to the

of property,

mull Gonfider carefully the nature of

Contracts.

A contrail

is

a llipulation between two parties,

make fome

Ibefore at liberty, to

alteration of pro-

perty, or to bind one or both parties to the perform-

ance of fome fervice.

Contracts are abfolutely necelTary in focial

Every

tranfaftion almoft

may

life.

be confidered as a

contrad, either more or lefs explicit.

The
is

principal thing

confent.

which

conilitutes a contradl

But, in fome kinds of contrads, viz.

the gratuitous, the confent of the receiver

fumed.

In the tranfmiffion of

or teftament, this

Yoh. IL

is

prefumed

eflates

is

pre-

by donation

and thoie

who

are

LECTURES ON

"

130

Le6l. I5,

incapable of giving their confent through infancy,

may,

notvvithftanding, acquire property and rights.

When

man comes

chafes property, he

fuppofed, belides every other

is

part of the bargain, to purchafe

and fubjed himfelf

ditions,

and pur-

into a fettled country,

to

under fuch con-

it

fuch laws as are ia

force in that country.

Contradts are faid to be

of three

point of fulnefs and precifion.

(i.)

iirmation of a delign as to futurity

to

any one,

row

many

fed, that

go

that I fhall

to

may

things

my refolution.

Yet

when

and

man

his purpofes,

till

he

This

not

is

(2.)

doing fome favour to me.

in law", nor does

ufually

it

fuppofes that the

it

objed of good-will, may, by

title to it,

or that

much more

incon-

altering his behaviour, forfeit his

the perfon promifing

there-

well determined.

is

made binding
the

alter

will be cautious of declaring

perfect- right, becaufe

who was

perfon

fuppo-

it is

a frequent alteration of pro-

gratuitous promife of

convey a

fay

make me

occur to

fefTed purpofes gives the character of levity

fore a prudent

in

fimplc af-

fuch a place to-mor-

properly binding

this is not

as

degrees,

may

find

it

venient, cofily, or hurtful to himfelf, than he fup-

pofed

In the

what was intended

or, laftly, that

vice, if

lait cafe,

binding

every one muft fee that

but in the two former,

it

in confcience,
it

becaufe

make

though

it

binding in law.
it

is

may

cannot be

apprehend, that

in all ordinary cafes, a diftant promife

make

as a fer-

performed, appears plainly to be an injury.

is

binding

not be necefTary to

I fay, all

ordinary cafes,

eafy to figure a cafe in

wh

ch

may

a promife to aiiother, and fuch tircumflances

L^a.

may

I3I

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

15.

afterwards occur, as

am

conndent, i

quite

prothe perfon knew, he would not hold me to my

concomplete
a
is
degree
mife.
(3.) The thud

and obligation

trad, witli conCent on both fides,

upon one

The
lid,

or both.

effentials

of

a.id an)^

of a contraft which render

which being wanting

it

It

is

va-

void,

are as follow.

That
4,

it

be, i. Free.

Careful.

5.

With

2.

Mutual.

3.

a capable perfon.

Poffible.
6. For-

mal.

Ttmuftbe

1.

Contracls

free.

made by unjuH

in
force are void always in law, and fometimes
force,
unjuft
be
however,
mull,
It
confcience.
as
becaufe, in treaties of peace between nations,

feen before, force does not void the conand even in private life, fometimes rnen arc

we have
trad

forced to enter into contrats by the order of a

magiftrate, fometimes by the threatening of legal
profecution,
2.

which does not make them void.

They muil be mutual,

that

is,

the confent of

the one as well as that of the othar muft be had.

become void, either by

by elTential error. If any

Contrafts in this view

fraud on one

man

fide, or

contrives a contraft, fo as to bind the other

party, and

keep himfelf

nullifies the agreement

free, this fraud certainly

or if there

is

an cflential

error in the perfon or the thing, as if a perfon

ihould- oblige himfelf to one man, fuppofing him
to

be another.
3.

fible,

Contrads

fiiould

and probably

in

be of things evidently pofour, power.

Contrafts

by

LECTURES 0

I $2

LeSl. I5.

which men oblige themfelves to do things impofare, no doubt, void from the beginning j

fible,

but

the impoilibility

if

was known

to the contraft-

ing party,
dulent,

by the

jible

own
lefs

it muft have been either abfurd or frauWheTi things engaged for become impof-

operation of providence, without a man's

fault, the

as if a

is

guilt-

is

fhould covenant to deliver, at a

and time, a number of

certain place

when he

and he

contra<3; is void,

man

cattle

and,

almofl at the place of dellination, they

fhould be killed by thunder, or any other accident

out of his power.

Contrails muft be of things lawful.

4.

gagements

ginning void

All en-

do things unlavoful, are from the be-

to

but

by unlawful muft be

the violation of perfe6l nghts.

himfelf, for a reward, to

underftood'

If a m.an oblige

commit murder, or any

kind of fraud, the engagement

is

void

but

it

wa$

criminal in the tranfa6ting, and the reward ought

to

be returned, or given

many
able

contrails,
in

to public ufes.

There are

however, which are very blame-

making, that muft, notwithftanding, be

kept, and muft not be

made void

in

law

as rafti

and foolilh bargains, where there was no fraud on

If fuch were to be voided, great
The cafes of
would be introduced.

the other fide.

confufion

kind are numerous, and

this

may

be greatly diver-

fified.

3.

Contra3:s

son, that
\j, 6ic.

is to

muft be made with a capable per-

fay, of age. underftanding, at liber^

It is part

of the civil law, or rather

nicipal law, of every country, to fix the

life

mu-

time of

v/hen perfons are fuppofed capable of tranfa-^l-

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 15*

Some time muft be

ing their

own

otherwife

it

difficult to

be decided.

affairs.

would occalion numberlefs

woman

maj

and a

who

can alienate their property

at

twelve,

fixed,

difputes,

A man at the age

teen,

of four-

chufe guardians,

but, at the age of

twenty-one, they have their eftates wholly in their

own

hand.

Contrads mufl be formal.

6.

The laws

of every country limit a great

many

circumllances of the nature, obligation, extent^ and

duration, of contracls.

Having pointed out fomething of the

characters of all lawful contracls,

may

foliitc

but fuch as are

effential

to

(1.)

conditional.

are fuch as are fufpended

efTential

obferve, they

be divided two different ways.

tracts are either abfolute or

Con-

The

ab-

upon no condition,

every contraft v/hich

have been mentioned above.

pcrfon

makes

referve, then,
jther

it

Such as, when a

upon another, without
whether he behave well or, ill, whea fettlement

be convenient or inconvenient,

it

muft be

Conditional contrails are thofe that arc

[fulfilled.

I33

fufpended on any uncertain future contingency, or

fome performance by the oppofite party. Of this
lafl

fort

are

commerce

almoll

all tranfaftions in

which leads

to the

(2.)

the

way

way

ding contrads, into beneficent and onerous.

firi;

is,

when one

of

of divi^

The

freely brings liimfelf under an

obligation to bellow any favour, or do any fervice

as donations or legacies,

and undertaking the

office

of guardian of another perfon's eflate.

The

onerous contrad

is,

M3

when an equal

value is

LECTURES

J54

Let. 15.

0}f

fuppofed to be given on both

fides, as is the cafe,

for the moil part, in the alienation of property, and

tlie

tranfaftions between

man and man, and between

fociety and fociety.

To

place belongs the queftion about the

this

lawfulnefs of lending
eonlider

money

money upon

we

If

intereft.

an inftrument of commerce, and

as

giving an opportunity of

making profit,

there feems

plainly to be nothing unjuft that the lender fiiould.

from his own pro-

ihare in the advantage arifing

perty.

The

chief thing neceffary

is,

that the ftate,

governing part of the fociety, fhould

of intereft, and not fnffer
ceflity of the poor,

If

it is

not fettled

it

fettle

or

the rate

depend upon the ne*

to

or the coVetoufnefs of the rich.

by law, ufury

will be the certain

confequence.

The law

of Mofes does not feem to have admit-

ted the taking of intereft at all from an Ifraelite,

It is thought,

this

however, that the main reafon of

muit have been drawn from fomething

conftitution, as a ftate
for,

if it

had been

that rendered

in itfelf

All known
the figns and

and

in their

improper

immoral, they would

not have been permitted to take

Of the Murh

it

it

of ftrangers.

or Signs of Contracts.

intelligent

marks of confent arc

means of completing

contracts.

The

chief x>fthefe, however, are words and writing, as

Words
being found the moft eafy and ufeful.
for
proper
and
natural
moft
the
are, of all others,
giving immediate confent, and writing to perpetuate

MORAL PHILOSOPHT.

Lel. 15.
the

IJ^

memory of the tranfalion. There are, how.

many other figns that may be made ufe of,

ever^

and wherever there

a real purpofe of lignifying

is

our intention, by which others are brought to de-

pend upon

it,

bound

confcience,

in

the

engagement

and we are

is real,

law in every

though the

country muft of neceffity be more limited.

whole

on the obligation

refts ultimately

The

to fincerity

in the foclal life.

This obligation
confcience, and-

from the tellimony of

arifes

from the manifeil

utility,

and even

neceflity, of fincerity to focial intercourfe.

Signs

are

divided

into

and

natural, instituted,

Natural figns are thofe which have

customary.

either a real likenefs to the thing figniiied, or fuch

known

arxd

univerfal relation to

mufl: naturally be led

a picture

is

from the one

it,

that all

men

to the other,

as

a natural fign, becaufe a reprefentation

of the thing painted.

An

inflamed fallen counte-

nance and fiery eyes, are natural figns of anger,

becaufe they are the univerfal effedls of that paf-

&on.
Inftituted figns are thofe that

have no other con-

nexion with the thing fignified, than what has

as, if two perfons Ihall
been made by agreement
;

agree between themfelves, that if the. one wants to

fignify to the other at a diflance, that

him

to

upon

come

to his afliftance,

a certain hill, or

hang out a

tain pinnacle of his houfe, or

Words and

he wifhes

he will kindle a
flag

fire

upon a cer-

fome part of

his fhip

writing are properly inftituted figns, for

they have no relation to the thing

fignified,

but

LECTURES ON

136

what

Led. Ij,

original agreement and long cuilom has given

them.
Cuflomarj^ figns are no other than inftituted figns

which have long

prevailed, and

whofe

inftitution

has either been accidental, or has been forgotten.

apply the word customary

It is alfo ufual to

figns as

There

ticular countries.
tures,

to

fuch

depend upon the mode and faihion of parare

which, though they

fome

and pof-

figns

may feem

perfectly ar-

bitrary,

have obtained very generally, perhaps uni-

verfally

bending down the body, or proftra-

as,

tion, as a fign of refpet

up

and reverence

ktieeling,

the hands, as a fign of fubmiffion

and
and fuppllcation.
lifting

Perhaps both thefe are natural^

as they put the perfon into the fituation leafl ca-

pable of refinance.

Sometimes there
ftituted figns

as,

is

a mixture of natural and in-

if a

man

fends a pair of wings,

or the figure of them, to a friend, to intimate his

danger, and the neceflity of fleeing.

In the ufe of

figns, the great rule of fincerity

is,>

wherever we are bound, and wherever we

profefs to communicate our intention, we ought to

that

ufe the figns in the leaft ambiguous

fible.

When we

no obligation,

to

manner pof-

have no intention, and are under

communicate any thing

to others,

it is
it is of fmall moment what appearances are
their bufinefs not to make any unneceflary or uncer;

tain inferences.

A light in a houfe,

in the middle

of the night, will perhaps fuggeft moll probably,

to a traveller

6me body

accidentally pafifmg,

fick in that houfe

that there is

yet perhaps

it is

ex-

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 15.

I37

traordinary ftudj or bufinefs that keeps feme per-

awake.

fons

Nay, when there is no obligation to give, noy

any reafon for the party to expec>, true information^
it

is

held generally no crime at

all to

ufe fuch

we have reafon to fuppofe will be miRaken

when one who does not defire to be dillurbed,

figns as
as,

keeps his chamber

conclude he

army

puts a

is

when

keep a

to

in the

And

or retreat.
faulty,

not there

fire

fhut,

clofe
;

when

camp,

was an apprehenfion of
burning in a chamber,

fome who place

are

march

probably none would think

them to fuppofe the whole family

There

a general of an

to conceal his

there

light

may

people

that

va^ve phrafes, when there

is

not at

is

it

thieves,

lead

to

reft.

fame rank, e-

in the

an apparent intention

fpeak our mind, but no right in the other to

to

obtain

Such expreilions may be

it.

and yet there

ftridlly

tme,

probability that. the hearer will

is all

mifunderftand them

as,

if

one Ihould aik

if

perfon was in any houfe, and Ihould receive for

anfwer, he went

away yefterday morning

perhaps, he returned the fame evening.

upon

thefe

evafions,

when,,
I

look

however, as very doubtful,

-

and, indeed, rather not to be chofen, becaufe they

feem

to

contain

a.

profeffion of telling

our real

mind.

Some mention

ironical fpeech as an exception to

the obligation to fincerity.

objection at

Truth

lies

ufe of

them

his

words

all,

But

properly no

is

it

becaufe there

is

no deception.

not in the words themfelves, but in the

in

as figns.

Therefore,

if

man

fpeak

fuch a tone and manner, as the hearer-

LECTURES ON

X38

Leift. I5.

immediately conceives they are

be taken in

to

an oppofite fenfe, and does really take them in the

fenfe the fpeaker

means them, there

is

no falfchood

at all.

Mr

Hutchinfon, and fome others, allow a vo-

luntary intended departure from truth, on occafion

of fome great neceility for a good end.

apprehend

is

This

wrong, for we cannot but confider de-

ception as in itfelf bafe and unworthy, and there-

good end cannot

fore a

pofe

it

were

fion, to violate truth,

in general, and

There

are

its

two

would

it.

_i-reatly

ufe in the fecial

forts

no doubt they are

interefted lies,

juftify

Befides, to fup-

men's power, on a

in

occa-

luflicient

deilroy

force

its

life.

of falfehood, which, becaufe

aggravated than malicious

lefs

many admit

of,

but

think without

fuiHcient feafon.

Jocular

1,

lies,

when

there

is

a real deception

intended, but not in any thing material, nor intend-

ed

to continue long.

feem,
is

reckon they are

uling too

truth.

However harmlcfs
to be

much freedom

And

as to

may

blamed, becaufe

it

with fo facred a thing as

very often fuch perfons,'as a righteous

punifhment in Providence, are

ther,

thefe

left to

and either to carry their folly

become contemptible,

proceed fur-

to fuch excefs,

or to go beyond folly

into malice.
2. Ofiicious lies, telling falfehoods to

or fick perfons, for their good.

dom

anfwer the end that

the reverence for truth

gard

to children,

is

children

Thefe very

propofed.

They

fel--

leflen

and, particularly with re-

are exceedingly pernicious

for,

as they muft foon be difcovered^ they lofe thejr

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Le6l. 15.
force, and teach

thority are

them

methods

I39

Truth and au-

to deceive.

infinitely preferable, in

deal-

ing with children, as well as with perfons of riper

years.

LECTURE XVI.
Of Oaths and Vows.

AMONG
tracts,

An

oath

is

the figns and appendages of conare oaths and vows.

an appeal

hearts, for the truth of

God,

the

Searcher of

what we

fay,

and always

to

expreffes or fuppofes an imprecation of his judge-

ment upon

An

us, if

we

prevaricate.

oath, therefore, implies a belief in

his providence, and indeed is an

and

name.

Its

Lord Gody and shah swear by

ufe in

when managed with

and

plied,

i^ndeed has

human

affairs is

judgemient.

common

very great,

may be

It

been commonly ufed,

the contraiSls of independent ilates,

was

of worihip,

a<5l

accounted in fcripture, as in that exprefTion,

fo

'^hou shah fear the

Us

God, and

In ancient times,

earthly fuperior.

This form

is

is

always fuppofed

to

it

by lau-

not fo comrfion in mo--

dern times, yet the fubftance remains

peal

In

who have no

ufual always to clofe national treaties

tual oaths.

ap-

i.

for an ap-

be made to God, againft

the breach of public^faith.

2.

It

has been adopted

by

all

nations, in their

t40

LECTURES ON

Led.

l6.

adminiftration of juftice, in order to difcover truth.

The

common and

moll

uniyerfal application of

it

has been, to add greater folemnity to the teilimony

of witnefTes.

It

alfo

is

fometimes made

life

of

with the parties themfelves, for conviftion or pur-

The laws

gation.

of every country point out the

which oaths

cafes in

public judgement.

common

are

required or admitted in

It is,

however, lawful, and in

praftice, for private perfons, voluntarily,

on folemn occalions,
oath.

often obliged

make

to

they fay

to confirm ^Vhat

Perfons entering on public

offices,

by

are alfo

oath, that they will faith-

fully execute their truft.

Oaths are commonly divided into two kinds,

and promissory

sertory

under the
haps,

firfl

j-,

thofe called purgatory fall

There

of thefe divifions.

neceffity

little

per-

is,

for a divifion of oaths,

they do not properly ftand by themfelves

for

they

are confirmations and appendages of contrafts, and

intended as an additional fecurity for fmcerity, in

commerce between man and man.

tire

Therefore oaths are fubjeft

lations as

ful

when they

ful contradt.

What,

elfe.

make any

confirm
is

it

by an

contraft, o-

made binding by an

unlawful contraft,

much

lefs to

oath.

eafy to fee the extfeme abfurdity of our

being obliged to
J

but there muft be a very great caution ufed

not to

-oath

law-

therefore, voids the one, will

therwifc unlawful, cannot be

It

fame regu-

are in aid or confirmation of a law-

void the other, and nothing

oath

to all the

contracts, or rather oaths are only

for

it

fulfil

a criminal

would imply,

engagement by

that out of reverence to

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lecl. l6.

God we

ought

can be

more abominable than

thofe

who

to

break his commands

it is

grofs injuftice

by

have

but nothing

of

principle

the

fafelj take an unlawful

not binding

aggravating

this is

deliberate profanity.

faid, that

ful contrails

may

thej

tliink

oath, becaufe

I4I

oaths are appendages to

law-

all

but in afTertory oaths, which are only

confirmations of our general obligation to lincerity,

it is

neceflary, not only that

but that the oCcafion be of

what we fay be

God.

quire or juftify a folemn appeal to

On

common

occafions

is

true,

fiifncient njoinent to re-

Swearing

unneceflary, rafh, profane,

and deftruftive of the folemnity of an oath, and

its

real ufe.

From
lawful

the general rule laid down, that oaths are

when

applied to lawful contrals,

it

will

become unlawful only when the

of them would be violating a perfe(fl:

follow, that they

fulfilling

right

but perhaps an additional obfervation

Contrafts mufl be

ceflary here.

they violate
oaths

may

an imperfedl right

fulfilled,

whereas fome

to

imperfect rights

example, fome perfons bind themfclves

they

that

their children,

never fpeak

w^ill

who have

fo evidently criminal, that

an imperfel right.
in

nobody
it is

the

law would oblige them

Vol.

II.

This

is

perfons, however,

property, to

by contrads which

to fulfil*

by

or forgive

will plead for its

alienate their

the prejudice of their children,

as for

but the violation of

The fame

many ways

to,

raflily

offended them.

being obligatory, and yet

might

ne-

when

be found criminal and void, though

they are only contrary

oath,

is

LECTURES

142
In vows, there
perfon himfelf
fon,

Mr

much

Lel.

0?T

1 5.

no party but God, and the

is

who makes

the

For

vow.

this rea-

Hntchinfon relaxes their obligation very

fuppofing any perfon had folemnly

vowed

to give a certain part of his fubftance to public or

pious ufes, he fays,

if

he

finds

nience to himfelf or family, he

I apprehend,

Men

too lax.

is

tious in m.aking fuch

it

is

ought

engagements

hend, that w^hen made,

if

inconve-

a great

not bound.

but

This,

be cau-

to

appre-

not direftly criminal,

they ought -to be kept.

Of. the Use of Symhoh in ConU-acts.

Besides promifes and

oaths, there

is

fometimes,
called

in contrafts, a ufe of other vifible ligns,

fymbols

common among

the moft

snd fealing

a written deed.

There

us are, figning
is alfo,

places, the delivery of earth and ftone in

over land, and fundry others.

was

The

In ancient times,

ufual to have folemn fymbols in

mutual

facrifices,

gifts,

of

intention

Vs'herever they
It is to afcertain

tranfaftion.

all

fuch things,

it

treaties,

up pillars.
whenever and
is

the fame.

and keep up the memory of the

They were more

Of the
flnifli

frequent and folemn

now, becaufe before the

vention of writing they were

Before we

all

feafts, fetting

have been pra6lifed,

in ancient times than

be proper

in fome
making

in-

more neceflary.

Value of Property,
the fubjeft of contradsy

to fay a little of the nature

it

may

and value of

Led.

MORAL

l6.

property, which

PHILOSOPPIY.

Nothing

the fubjet of them.

is

has any real value, unlefs

man

14^

it

be of fome ufe in hu-

we may

fay, unlefs it be
becomes the objed
of human defire ; becaufe, at particular times, and
in particular places, things of very little real im-

perhaps

or,

life,

fuppofed

be of ufe, and

to

fo

portance acquire a value, which

great value in fome

is

places

perhaps there are

fome more baubles highly valued

But, though

is

it

their ufe

things their value in general,

that thofe things

commerce.

add

in

in

every place.
gives

that

life

does not follow,

it

which are of moll ufe and necef-

are therefore of greatell value as property, or

iity,

ia

commonly tem-

Shells and baubles are of

porary and changeable.

Air and water, perhaps

may

Vv-e

are of the greateft ufe and neceffity

iirc,

but

they are alfo in greateft plenty, and therefore are

of

little

value as a polTeflion or property.

the

demand

for, it

Value

is

commodity, and

in proportion to the plenty of any

the one taken in the inverft,

and the other in the dired proportion.

Hence:
lue.

money

foUovv's, that

it

It is

is

of no real va-

not wealth properly, but the fign of

it,

and, in a fixed ilate of fociety, the certain m.eans

of procuring
ried on

it.

In early times,

by exchange of goods

traffic

was

car-

but,

being large,

not ealily divided or tranfported, they

became very

troublefome.
to fix

Therefore,

upon fome

by which

Any

common

foon became neceffary

{ign of wealth, to be a Itandr.rd

to rate different

thing that

it

is fit to

i^gn of wealth,

commodities.

anfwer the purpofe of a

mufl have the following

N2

LECTURES ON

^44
properties:

It

mud

be,

i.

Left. l5.

Valuable;

that

have an intrinuc commercial value, and

therwife
2.

Durable,

hand

otherwife

hand.

to

rare, o-

could have no comparative value at

it

3.

4. Portable,

it

all.

could not pafs from

it

Divafible, fo that

in larger or fmaller

is,

it

might be

as are required.

quantities,

muft not be of great

lize, other-

wife it would be extremely inconvenient.

Gold and filver were foon found to have

thefe

all

properties',

and therefore are fixed upon as the fign

of wealth.

But, befides being the fign of the va-

lue of other commodities, they themfe>ves are alfo

matters of commerce, and therefore increafe or dein their value,

;reafe

by

their plenty or fcarce-

nefs.
It

may

feefh to belong to the ruling part of

fociety, to fix the value of gold

of the value of commodities

do

fix it

they

nominally

are obliged to

in their

be

and

filver,

any

as figns

and, no doubt, they

But

dominions.

in this

ftri6lly attentive to the

value

of thefe metals as a commodity, from their plenty

or fcarceneis, otherwife their regulations will be

of

little

force

other nations will

pay no regard

the nominal value of any particular country

even in internal commerce, the fubje6l would

to

and
fix

a value upon the figns, according to their plenty.

It

is

as prejudicial

to

commerce

to

make

the

nominal value of the coin of any country too fmall,

as too great.

yVe
ing a

ihall clofe this part of the

little

of the

fubjed, by fpeak-

MORAL

Lel. 16.

PHILOSOPHY.'

Rights of Necessity, and

These

are certain

45

Rights,

powers aiTiimed both bj

vate perfons and communities,

to

Common

pri-

which are fuppofed

be authoriied by the neceiTity of the cafe, and

by

fupported

There
which

the great

will

law of reafon.

remain a great number of

cafes, in

thofe rights of neceflity are to be ufed, event

regulated civil fociety, and after th

in the beil

mature deliberation and forefight

moll

bable events, and proviilon for

of pro-

hy

tlieni

fpecirlo

laws.

Were

man

perilling with Imnger, ar.d denic.l

food by a perfon

who

coulJ eaiily afford

here the rights of neceiiity would juilify

king

it

by

V/ere a city on

violence.

it

hini,

him

in ta-

fire,

blowing up of an houfe would fave the far

think themfelves juHified in doing

would or

not.

Piluch

urgent neceflity,
otiiers,

upon

more

make

Vv'ould

it

whether he

men,

free with the

greatei:

men would

though the owner was unwiUing,

part,

and th

in cafes of

property of

without alking their confent, but prefumiiig

it.

own government, where, by the love of

among the people, and the nature
conllitution, as many particulars have been

In our

liberty general

of the

determined by fpecial laws, as in any governmei't

in the
fity

ther
I

world

yet inftances of the riglUs of necel-

occur every day.

If

upon the high-way,

or

fee one

am

man

rob ano-

informed of

it,

it"

have courage- and ability, I purfue the robber,

-

N3

LECTURES ON

146

Left.

6.

and apprehend him without any warrant, and carry him before a magldrate, to get a warrant for

what

mon

Nothing

have already done.

is

more com-

in Britain than to force people to fell their in-

heritance, or a part of

much

not fo

The

to

it,

commodious.

ftraight or

make

In

inflance,

it

is

neceility as great utility.

moment

quellion of the greateft

Whether

a road or ftreet

this

here

is.

thefe rights of neceflity

the eflabllfliing

does not derogate from the perfeftion and immuta-

moral laws

bility of the^

may break
of

in

upon

If

good

evil, that

from the
itate,

and

at

to

an-

of par-

life

in the

focial

be held only in fuch

to fuch a degree, as to

and fubfervient

iiftent w^ith,

be infeparable

eflablifliment of property
is to

have in general

molt the

feems

it

that our property

manner, and

And

maxim.

may come

rights of neceflity

property as,their objeft, or

perfons

we

true, that

not this admitting the exploded

utility, is

That we may do
fwer, That thefe
ticular

be

it

the laws of juftice for the fake

to,

be both con-

the good of others.

therefore, thefe extraordinary cafes are agree-

able to the tacit or implied conditions of the focial

contract.

In rights of neceffity,

we

are to confider, not

only the prefent good or evil, but for

all

time to

come, and particularly the fafety or danger of the

example.

Where

the repethion of the thing in

milar circumilances v/ould have a fatal

ought not

to

be done.

If a city

fi-

effeft, it

were under

all

the

miferies of famine, and a fhip or two fliould arrive

with grain, the owner of which would not

but

at

a moll

e;>:orbitant

price,

fell it,

perhaps equity

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Left. 16.

might admit

that thej fliould be

any fuch thing were done,

from going near

it

compelled

but

if

would prevent others

that place again.

would be of no confequence

It

I47

determine thefc

to

by law. If the law defcribed

what might be done, it would be

rights of neceflity

eircumilantially

no longer a right of

neccffity, but a legal right.

them by law wouU be either ineffectual,

or it would abolifli them altogether, and deprive
the fociety cf the benefit of them, when the cafes

To

forbid

Things done by the

fhould occur.

fity

by

are,

fity,

fuppoiition, illegal

may

be puniilied.

If I

rights of necef-

and

who

them

aiding in pulling

down

a man's houfe, on pretence of flopping a

makes

it,

lead occalion for

it,

afterwards

necef-

if the

pretends

does not excufe, the perfon

am

fire,

if

ho

appear, that there was not the

or that

took the opportunity of

I,

being his enemy,

this pretence to injure

him,

he will obtain reparation.

As

property, or at

rights of necefiity,

moH

flill

life,

is

concerned in the

the moral laws continue in*

Whatever expreffes an evil difpofition of

mind does not fall under the rule, becaufe it can

force.

The

never be neceffary to the doing of any good.

pretence of

its

being neceffary in fome cafes

nerally chimerical
cefTity

and even were

could not juflify the crime

it

is

ge-

real, the

ne-

as,

robber, very profane, fhould threaten a

fuppofe a

man

with

would blafphcme God, or curfc

death, unlefs he
his parents, &.c.

There are

certain things, called

which the public

member

the

is

common

rights,

fuppofed to have over every

chief of them- are,

i.

Diligence,

LECTURES ON

X48

As
to

man

make laws

community have a

eat, the

ir.uft

compel him

be ufeful

to

Lel. 164

to

Thej have

fuicide.

agaiiiil

right

and have a right

2.

right to the difcovery of ufeful inventions, provided

an adequate price be paid

They have

a right to

human

long to the dignity of

pay refped

tions

no reafon for

it,

to

but

to the

difcoverer.

upon fuch

infill

Thus

nature.

all

it,

na-

dead bodies, though there

we

tliat

and belonged

is

cannot help affbeiating

with the body, even dead, the ideas which

from

3.

things as be-

to the v/hole

peifon

arife

when

a-

live.

The

3.

and

third

objecl of civil laws

lail

li-

is,

miting citizens in the exercife of their rights, fa

that they

may

that the public

not be injurious to one another, but

good

This includes the

arts

promoted.
diredlions in

givi.ig

may

and commerce

flates

may be

what way

be carried on, and in fome

extends as far as the poffeiTions of private

perfons.
-

It

includes the whole of

of a community

the

cularly, the police fliows

It

its

Thofe things

mutable,

what

arifes

is

times do things in a

2.

Men

way

it is

in general

make

few

of thofe laws.
are arbitrary

no morality

from comm^on

ed by law, and yet

fpirit

in themfelves

for there

all

power.

will only be neceflary here to

remarks on the nature and

1.

called the police

travelling, build-

and commerce, parti-

in arts

is

and manner of holding

ing, marketing, time

forts of aflemblies

what

manner of

utility.

and

in 'them, but

We may

fome-

better than that appoint-

not allowed.

have but a very

liglit fenfe

of

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

Lecfl. 16.

I49

the malignity of tranfgrefling thefe laws, fuch as,

running of goods, breaking over a fence, &,c.

3.

In the beft conilitutions, fome fanftions are

appointed for the breach of thefe laws.

a ftate

fuch laws are

with

Wherever

founded upon the principles of liberty,

is

made with

feverity,

and executed

flrictnefs.

Finally,

man

of real probity and virtue adopts

God

thefe laws as a part of his duty to

and

ciety,

fubje^l,

is

and the

fo-

not only for wrath, but alfo

for coiifcience fake,

RECAPITULATION.
Having gone through

the three general diviiiorrs

of this fubjeft, Ethics, Politics, and Jurifprudence,

I

fhall

conclude with a few remarks upon the

whole, and mention to you the chief writers

have diftinguilhed themfelves in

this

who

branch of

fcience.

You may plainly perceive, both how extenhow important moral philofophy is. As
extent, each of the diviiions we have gone

I.

five,

to

and

through might have been treated

length.

Nor would it
many

fuller difquifition of
left to

at

far

greater

be unprofitable to enter into a

points

but this mufl be

every fcholar's inclination and opportunities

in future

life.

Its

importance

this circumftance, that

nal duty, but

tive life.

is

The

it

is

manifell from

not only points out perfo-

related to the whole bu^nefi of ac-

languages, and even mathematical

LECTURES 0^

ISO

Le^.

and natural knowledge, are but hard words

l6.

to this

fuperior fcience.

The

2.

evidence which attends moral difquifi-

tions, is of a different

kind from that which attends

mathematics and natural philofophy

mains

as a point to

At

uncertain or not.
thors differ

but

be difcuifed, whether
firll

re-

it

more

it is

appears that au-

fight, it

much more, and more

on

effentially,

the principles of moral than natural philofophj-.

ing moral philofophy as

when men, treatNewton and his fucceffors

may

arrive at greater precifion.

Yet perhaps

a time m.aj come,

Jiave done natural,

always

It is

in our reafonings, to trace

fafer,

upv/ards, than to reafon

seal principles.

by

An

fafti

downwards upon metaphy-

made

attempt has been lately

Beatty, in his Effay on Truth, to eftabliih cer-

tain impreffions of
firft

common

fenfe,

as

axioms and

principles of all our reafonings on moral fub-

jeds.
3.

The

differences about the nature of virtue are

not, in facl, fo great as they

fame thing

to nearly the

in the iffue,

come

ticulars of a virtuous life

4.

The

appear

to

they amount

when

the par-

be enumerated.

different foundations of virtue are

many

of them not oppofite or repugnant to each other,

but parts of one great plan

They

felf-love, &.C.

virtue

all

the authority of

God,

fcience, public happinefs,

as benevolence

and

confpire to found real

the dictates of con-

and private

intereit,

all

coi ;cide.
5.

There

is

nothing certain or valuable in moral

philofophy, but what

the faipture,

where

is

perfe6lly coincide^it with

the glory of

God

is

the

firil

Lea.

15^

MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

16.

principle of aftion, arifing

the creature

from the fubjeaion of

where the good of others

objea of duty, and our

own

is

intereft the

the great

necelTary

confequer.ee.

men began to
The great inquiry
^Tite and difpute about virtue.
summum boamong the ancients was, what was the
In the

dawn

firft

of philofophy,

feems, they took it for grantwere the fame thmg.

happinefs
ed, that virtue and
the ftoics and ewere
The chief combatants here,

mm ?

by which,

picureans.

The

summum bonum,
pain no evil

num
was

infifled

firil

that virtue

was

the

and
that pie afure was no good,

the other faid, that the

confifted in

virtue;

it

summum

bo-

pleafure, or rather that pleafure

went a
the academics and Platonifts

middle way between

thefe.

among
not fenfible that there is any thing
mothe
with
the ancients, that wholly correfponds
difpute upon the foundation of virtue.
I

am

dern

Since the difputes arofe in

feventeenth centuries,
able

authors, chiefly

the

fixteenth and

feme of the mofl confiderBritifh,

are,

Leibnitz,

his

InquiTheodicee and his Letters ;--Hutchinfon's

his
and
Virtue,
into the Ideas of Beauty and
ries

Syftem-

;Wollailon's

Religion of Nature delinea-

Liberty ; Nettleton on
ted ;-Collins on Human
David Hume's ElTays
;
Virtue and Happinefs
Theory of Mo;-Smith's
-Lord Karnes's Effays
;

Inquiry ;-Balfour's DeAnalogy and Serlineation of Morality ;~Butler's

Agreeable
Balguy's Traas ;-Theory of
ral Sentiments

mons

;Reid's

from the French ;-BeaUy on Truth

^Effay on Virtue and Harmony.

Senfations,

LECTURES ON,

15 2

To
ters,

thefe

maj

be added the whole

and the anfwers written

Some

View

dehliical wri-

each of them in

to

which may be feen

particular, a brief account of

in Leland's

Lecl. l6.

&:c.

of the Deiflical Writers.

of the chief writers upon government and

politics are, Grotius, PufFendorf,

Cum-

Barberac,

berland, Selden^ Burlamaqui, Hobbes, Machiavel,

Harrington, Locke, Sydney

and fome

Montefquieu's Spirit of Laws

late

books,

Fergufon's Hiftory

of Civil Society

Lord Karnes's Political Effays ;

;
Grandeur and Decay of the Roman Empire ; Montague's Rife and Fall of Ancient Republics
guet's

Rife

Sciences.

and

Progrefs of Laws^

Arts,

Goand

I.ECTUI1ES
ON

ELOQUENCE.

Vol. n,

LECTURES
ON

ELOQUENCE,
Gentlemen,
"T

T TE are now to enter on the ftudy of eloquence,

^ ^
the

or, as

manner

in

perhaps

pofition, Tafte,

Eloquence

when

ought to be called, from

it

which you

is

will find

It

but, if I

power

treated,

Com-

undoubtedly a very noble

art,

and

polTelTed in a high degree, has been, I think,

in all ages, one of the moll

lents.

it

and Criticifm.

is

the talent

admired and envied

has not only been admired in

am

among

not miftaken,

univerfally

felt,

all

all

ranks.

ta-

ages,
Its

and therefore probably

more univerfally efteemed than

either ge-

nius or improvement in feveral other kinds of hu-

man excellence. Military Ikill and political wifdom have their admirers, but far inferior in num-

03

1^

LECTURES

who

ber to thofe
imitate,

him

Lecl. 1.

OK"

admire, envj, or would wifh to

that has the

power of

perfuafion.

Plato, in his Republic, or. Idea of a well-regulated State, has banifhed orators, under pretence

power over the minds of men is dangerto abufe.

Some moderns havfe
adopted the fame fentiments.
Sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, I believe,
(though I am not certain), has embraced it. But
this is a manner of thinking and reafOning altogethat their

and liable

ous,

ther fuperficial.

ry

human

sure,

It

would

militate equally againft

of the mind, and indeed againft eve-

all cultivation

They
may be, abufed by men
But how {hall this be pre-

excellence, natural and acquired.

and have been, and

of vicious difpolitions.

vented
acted

It is

impofTible.

Only by

affiiling

How fliall

it

be counter-

the good in the cultiva-

and then the fame weapons

tion of their powers,

will be ufed in defence of truth and virtue, with

much

greater advantage than they can be in fupportl

Learning in

of falfehood and vice.

by

feffed

bad man,

is

geiteral, pof-

unfpeakably pernicious,

and that very thing has fometimes made weak

people fpeak agaiafl learning
furd, as

if,

in the confines of a

but

it is

juft as

hoflile inroads, the inhabitants iliould fay,

build no forts for protection, becaufe,

get into pcireilion of them, they will

means of annoyance
fence
will

for,

if

the

it

may

we

will ufe

if

V/e will

the

enemy

become the

no arms

enemy take them from

be turned againft

Perhaps

ab-

country expofed to

for de-

us, they

us.

be proper to take notice of what

(he apoftle Paul fays, in his

iirft

epiftle to the

Cc

Lea

ELOQUENCE.

1.

rinthians, in feveral

l$y

And I,
beginning of the 2d chapter,
&:c. and in the 4th chapter, nth verfe,
**

fpeech and

mentioned

my

from the

places, particularly

brethren,'*

And my

"

preaching was not," &c.

to prevent

this,

have

any of you miftaking,

or being prejudifed again{>, the fubject, and

obferve upon

meaning of the

that the

it,

and other fimilar paffages,

this

is

fiiall

apoftle in

comprehend-

fully

ed in one or more of the following particulars

That he came not

I.

fentiments.

made

ufe of to varnifh over their foolifu

That he came not

2.

did, not

to

to fet

ed

his ikill

many

of

own

talents.

That

3.

the

had to communicate needed no ornaments

them

to the

ihew

difcover or communicate truth,

but to difplay their

truths he

to

and agaiufl any thing, as

in fpeaking for

them

Corinthians with au

eloquence, fuch as the fophifls oi

artful delufive

thofe days

the

to

and were not by any means adapt-

oif,

proud

fpirit

any means attempt

to

And,

of the world.

he would ufe the greateft

recommend

Thaf

4.

and not by

felf-denial,

hiim^elf as a

maa

of ability and learning, but content himfelf with the

hwmble and fimple do6lrine of

truth

is,

after the higheft

And

th<'

in the

art

the crofs.

improvement

of fpeaking, there mull: be the greateft referve and

felf-denial in the ufe of

it,

otherwife

own purpofe. Rhetoricians do

among the very precepts of the art,,

its

in earneft,

of

tlie

and
as

and

audience

this

when

to

it

to

appear

have the fubje6l or the

at heart,

and not their

can never be attained to fo great

there

is

will defeat

ufually give

it

be

interei^

own fame
perfe<Si:ion,,

the humility of a true

03

to

difciplfi|,

1^8

LECTUx^ES 0?f

Led.

I,

and the diPmterefled zeal of a faithful minifter of

That

Chrift.

this is not contrary to the

mofl

dilir-

gent application for the improvement of our powers,

is

manifeft in

ciples,

Timothy and

Titus,

Tim.

iv.

I come, give attendance," &.c. and ver.

ditate,"

my

young dif13. " Till

15. " Me-

&c.

know

not whether any apology

undertaking

manner of

fpeak on

to

treating

it.

is

neceffary for

this

fubjedl, or the

Some may

expect, that dif-

courfcs on eloquence fhould be diftinguiihed

ples of the art of w-hich they treat.

be pleafed

juft

.fimple

to

well as every other

is

thefe

may

neceffary in teaching

No

art.

doubt, a juft-

nefs and precilion of exprelTion, will be

benefit in

exam-

Such

obferve, that a cool, plain, and

manner of fpeaking,

this, as

msmy

and appears from the

itfelf,

exhortations of the fame apoille to his

diicourfes

of great

but there will be no

need of that high and complete poliih that might

be expected in what

Nor

prepared for publication*

is

w^ould the fame brevity and concifenefs be any

advantage to difcourfes once delivered, that would

be reckoned a beauty in what

hands, and therefore

may

Before entering on the

cuflion of the fubje^t, I

courfe

by two

is

in every body's

be often read.
ftridt

and methodical

or three preliminary difcourfes, con-

taining fuch general obfervations as

intelligible,

what

Ihall

The

dif-

have commonly begmi the

and

may

may

ferve to prepare the

be moft

way

for

be afterw^ards introduced.

fubjeft of the

firft

preliminary difcourfe

ihall be the following (jueftion

Whether does

ai^

LtSl,

ELOQUENCE.

l)^

or nature contribute moll to the produ^ion of a

complete orator

This

upon

faid

of very

little

abfurd.

order

in

fide,

the one, and

yet, to difcufs

to

decifion

it

things

as a

mat-

favour

in

prejudice of the other,

of

take to be

confcquence, or rather improper and

feems

It

it

and adduce the arguments on

ter of controverfy,

each

many

a queftion often afked, and

is

have been

to

be

juft as if

pofe an inquiry, whetlier the

one

pro*

fliould

the climate, or

foil,

the culture, contributes moil to the production of

the crop

Therefore, inilead of treating the que*

ilion as if
falfe,

one fide of

I fhrJl

make

it were true, and the other

few obfervations on the in*

fiuence of nature and art, in order to your formingjufl

in

apprehenfions of the fubjel, and to diredl you

your future conduct and

1,

Some degree

lludies.

of natural capacity

is

evidently

neceflary to the inflruftion or Itudy of this

order to produce any

A fkilful

effect.

art,

in

labourer

may

fubdue a very llubborn, or meliorate a very

poor

foil

but

when

there

is

no

foil at all,

on a

as

bare and folid rock, his labour would be impoffiblp

or fruitlefs.

There mull

dome capacity,
this
is

in general,

therefore, doubtlefs, be

and even fome turn for

very branch of knowledge.

In this fenfe,

ij

true of every other art, as well as oratory, that a

man mufl

be born to

There are fome

it.

fo deflitute of oratorical

that nothing can poffibly

will be flrange, however, if this

covercd by themielves, and

the lludy as unpkaiant as

powers,

be made of them.
is

if it

It

not eafily diC-

does not

it is difficult,

makt

fo that

they

LECTURES

i^o

will fpeedily give

o>r

Le(fb. I.

have known fome

over.

it

examples, but very few, of minifters, whofe prindefe6b

cipal

This

number
as

it is

was mere barrennefs of invention.

exceedingly rare, becaufe the far greateft

is

of bad fpeakers have enough to fay, fuch

and generally the more abfurd and inco-

herent, the greater the abundance.

When

fpeaking on this obfervation,

one remark, that a

branch of fcience,
capacity

great

total

We

another.

great mathematicians

Nay,

muft make
for one

not inconfiftent even with a

is

for

want of capacity

who make

fometimes fee

miferable orators.

reckoned by feme of the beft judges^

it is

The

that this ftudy is unfriendly to oratory.

finite precision

of methematical ideas, which

de-

may

all be ultimately referred to menfuration, feems to

be contrary to the freedom and boldnefs of imagination, in which the ilrength of oratory lies. There

are,

however,

exceptions

Dr Barrow, two

Clark, and

mathematicians of the
orators

laft

that is to fay, the

this, in

to

Dr

fa6l.

of the moft eminent

age,

firfh

were

alfo

eminent

was a very accurate

writer, the other a very fervent preacher.

have only further

to

many have

obferve, that

thought academical teaching not to be favourable

to

oratory

that

is

to

to the cool difpaffionate

cuftomed
ing, ufual

and neceflary in the inftrudlion of

which

which
is

are

of fo

fire

they might naturally

much importance

ac-

manner of fpeak-

frequently lofe a good deal of that

tuofity

who

fay, thofe

youth.,

and impe-

pofTefs,

and

in fpeaking to

large and promifcuous affembly.

2.

To make what

Ls

called a complete

orator;5,

Le^t.

ELOQUENCE.

I.

l6l

very great natural powers are neceflarj, and great

The truth is, when we fpeak

we generally form an idea

cultivation too.

a complete orator,

of
of

perfeftion fuperior to any thing that ever exifled,

by aflembling together

the excellencies of every

all

kind that have been feen in

we

that

are able

an imagination
of thefe

perfons, oi

diiFerent

from what we have feen

We

of.

to

form

can eafily enumerate

many

for example, great penetration of

great literature, and extenfive knowledge,

mind,

a ftrong

and lively imagination, reined in by a corredlnef?

of judgement, a rich invention, and retentive

mory, tendernefs and

me-

fenfibility of afFcd:ion,

an ac-

quaintance with the world, and a thorough

knew*

ledge of the
all

human

To

heart.

external perfections,

thefe

we mull add

an open countenance, a

graceful carriage, a clear, articulate, ftrong melo-

dious voice.

There

is

not one of thefe but

is

ca.

pable of great improvement, by application and

ftudy, as well as

by much

whom we

great orators of

have been an imion of natural

as Pericles,

ikill,

In

practice.

all

the

read, there appears to

talents,

and acquired

Demofthenes, Cicero, Hortentius-

To thefe you may add all the fpeakers mentioned

by Cicero and ^uintilian, taking their talents and
performances to have been as related by thefe authors.
3.

Perhaps the moft extraordinary appearances

in this, as well

as in other branches,

from nature wholly, or but with

little

fpontaneous produclions are as fo

It is

commonly

at the firlt

have beea

ftudy.

many

Thefe

prodigies.

believed, that the orators and fages

formation of focicty, were more pow^r#

LECTURES ON

l62
fill

more

in their elocution, than in

This, however,

am

LeSt, I,
polifhed times.

in fome deThere might be more

apt to think,

gree founded on a miftake.

is

extraordinary effe6ls of eloquence, becaufe the ig-

norant or fuperftitious herd were then more eafilj

moved

but this was as

much owing

to the

Hate of

power of the fpeakers. The

fame fire that would burn a heap of dry brufh,
would not make any impreffion upon a heap of
green logs.
It might alfo be owing to another circumftance, which I Ihall have occaiion afterwards
the audience, as the

more

to explain

and the ufe of

upon

fully, the

figures,

narrownefs of language,

which have

fo great

an

eifedl

the imagination*

But, allowing very great force to uncultivated

prodigies of genius in every kind, I

think

lefs

it is

in oratory than in poetry.

It

to

why

i.

That

in fuch a poet, a

unbounded fancy mull be the prevailing

charafter

mind.

has been an old fay-

the poetry of nature, without art, feems

be much admired,

ftrong

apt to

There are two rea-

ing, Poeta nascitur et nonjit*

fons

am

powerful, comparatively fpeaking,

It

and

this

is

what

chiefly captivates the

muft be a very ftrong inward impulfe

that induces a

man

to

become

a poet without ex-

ample, and without inflru61ion.

fadl, that the

knowledge of

2. It is

found in

the rules of art, fome-

how cramps

and deters the mind, and retrains that

boldnefs, or

happy extravagance,

general delight.

It is

that gives fuch

an obfervation of an inge-

nious author, that in no polifhed nation, after the

rules of criticifm
iindcrftood,

was

were fully

and generally

fettled,

there ever any great

work of ge-

ELOQJJEVCS.

Let. I,

16$

This, however, mufl be under^

nius produced.

what

flood chiefly of

are called the higher fpecies

of poetry, epic poety, and tragedy

reafons jufh

mer

is

now

given,

it

mufl be

the great poet of nature

thought, that there

greater

is

and

and, for the

fo in

generally

him than in
when the

in

fire

Ho-

them.

it is

Virgil, jufl becaufe he lived at a time

The fame
own country

were unknown.

tules of writing
is faid

of Shakefpeare, of our

thing

and

perhaps the late-difcovered poems of Oflian

may

be confidered

per-

as another

After

example.

haps the comparifon made between the

nature and art,

all,

efFe6ls

of

bottom wrong, and that they

is at

produce beauties of different kinds.

A wild uncul-

tivated forefl,

or water-fall,

a vafl precipice, or fleep cataral:

is

fuppofed to be an objedl more au-

gufl and flriking, than

human

fkill.

The

any ornaments produced by

order and fymmetry, however,

of architecture and gardening, are highly pleafing,

and ought not properly

to

be compared with the

other, as pleafing the imagination in a diflferent de-

gree, fo

The

much

as in a different kind.

effedls of the

poetry of nature, therefore, in

one view, are very great, and continue to be fo in

all

way,

ages, becaufe they touch the foul in one

which continues

to

be univerfally

much whether eloquence

cellence,

felt

ever arrived

at

without confiderable fludy,

previous patterns on which to form.

great poets

were before

even the polifhing of

all

criticifm,

human manners

but

doubt

much

ex-

or at leafl

The

firfl

and before
but the

firfl

great orators appeared in improved, civilized flates^

LECTURES ON

X&4

LeiEt. I,

and were the confequence of the knowledge of

mankind, and the ftudj of the human heart.
4.

When

meanly qualified

perfons are

natural capacity for any art,

to attempt to

them

inftrudl

difficult to inftru6l thofe

is

it

in

It

it.

who have

in point of

not very proper

not only

is

a radical inca-

pacity for any ftudy, but fometimes they are

the worfe for application

a courtly drefs upon a clown,

tafte for

times even

and

him un-

renders

Some who

fpeakably ridiculous.

of

much

juft as fine clothes,

are utterly void

fpeaking, after long ftudy, and fome-

by

great literature,

become more ob-

fcure, more tedious, and more given to fwelling

and bombaft, than the moft uncultivated perfon in
The want of a fund of good fenfe and
the world.

genuine

tafte,

makes ignorant perfons

A plain

man

fools,

and

you of
taking a purge, or a dofe of phyfic, and you neiA quack of
ther miftake him, nor laugh at him.
fcholars pedants.

ft

phyfician will

tion, to

tell

will tell

you of a mucilaginous decoc-

fmooth the acid

particles,

and carry

acrimonious matter that corrodes and

off the

irritates the

internal coats of the ftomach.

5.

In the middle regions of genius, there are

often to be found thofe

fit

who

reap the greateft bene-

They improve

from education and ftudy.

their

power by exercife ; and it is furprifing to think

what advances are to be made by the force of refolution and application. I might give you many examples of

this in the annals

one moft fuited

to

himfelf isfaid at

of literature

our purpofe

firft

to

infuperable difficulties

is,

that

but the

Demofthenes

have laboured under almoft

it is

faid he could not even

ELOQUENCE.

Lti^:. I.

pronounce

at

iiid

all

165

the letters of the

phabet, particularly the letter R, the

his art, as the critics

have called

Greek

firfl

al-

letter

of

it.

Perfons of the middle degrees of capacity, do

perhaps generally,

alfo,

important ftations in
genius,

dered

is

little

and

ufeful

very great

wonmeaccom-

fervice either for food or

A very great genius

dicine.

life.

often like a very fine flower, to be

but of

at,

mod

the

fill

human

is

alfo

often

panied with certain irregularities, fo that

we only

confider with regret, what he might have been, if

the lively fallies of his imagination

had been reined

and kept under the direction of fober

in a little,

judgement.

On

the whole,

you may plainly perceive what

great encouragement there

is

for diligence in

your

lludies,

and be perfuaded

to

tions to

be given you, on

this fubje6t in particular,

\vith affiduity

attend to the inftnic-

and care.

LECTURE

IN

this,

which, as the former, I confider as a pre-

Iftiiinary

you

all forts

fo properly
I.

Ihe

difcourfe, I will

fon^e general rules,

equally to

11.

endeavour

to

give

which, as they belong

of writing, would not

under the divifions of

tlie

come

in

fubjedl.

Study and imitate the greateft examples. Get

moft approved authors for compofition, read

them often, and with

Vol. II.

care.

Iiritation

is

what

l66

LECTURES

Cjommonlj give us our

bj example

It is

LeSl. 2.

0?T

upon any

ideas

firll

that ambition

is

fubjeft.

kindled, and

to
excel.
It is by remarks
upon aftual productions, that criticifm itfelf is
formed.
Men were not firll taught by mailers to

youth prompted

fpeak, either in oratory or poefy

but they

felt

firfi

the impulfe, and did as they could, and their reflec-

by making

tion and obfervation,

found out what was

of precepts,

made

it

is

And

bell.

by examples

that precepts are

An

acquaintance with

plain and intelligible.

mean

authors, will alfo be the befh

what

is

of determining

your own turn and capacity, for you will

probably moll
ner, that

For

the comparifon,

after the exillence

you

this purpofe, let the bell authors

critics

and

be chofen,

A controverfy has often rifen

ancient and modern.

among

man-

thofe writers, and that

relifh

are bell able to imitate.

men

of letters, upon the prefe-

rence being due to ancient or modern writers. This

queflion

was debated,

and fome very great

ex prcfesso, in the lafl age,

men engaged

mous M. Fenelon, Archbilhop

written a treatife

Poets

called.

it,

Books

The Wars

fubjecl.

in St James's Library,

reckon

it is

tive in fuch a controverfy,

it

The

it.

fa-

has

of the

and Dean Swift wrote his account of the

Battle of the

fame

upon

in

of Cambray,

to excefs

on both

fides.

wrong

to

be opiniona-

and very,eafy

No

on the

to

puili

doubt, the few re-

mains of remote antiquity have furvived the wrecks

of time, in a great meafure
itfelf,

and therefore will

standards.

And

as

by

alwaj'-s

their

excellence

be ccnfidered as

they are chiefly works of ima-

gination that have been fo preferv^ed, and true tafte

ELOQUENCE.

Lel. 2.
is

the fame in

fteem

and

iS'J

ages, they mufl deferve real c-

all

be fomewhat augmented, by

this will

the veneration felt for their antiquity

mer

is

whom
in

the

the highefl

(meaning

chiefly

vcrsate diurna

*'

'*

to

commendations have been given

Horace

every age.

Ho-

itfelf.

and great pattern of writing,

firll:

Homer)

Mr

and

Greca

fays, Foj exemplaria

iiocturna vcrsate

Pope

Be Horner's works your

inanity

fays,

ftudy and delight,

Read bim by day, and meditate by night."

Now,

Homer we

the beauties of

are eafily ca-

pable of perceiving, though, perhaps, not his faults.

The beauty of a defcription, the force of a iimiliwe can plainly fee but, whether he always
adhered to truth and nature, we cannot tell, becaufe we have no other way of knowing the man-

tude,

ners and cuftoms of his times, but from what he

has written.

The powers
the fame in

may

all

of mankind, however, are certainly

ages, but change of circumftances

create diverlity in the appearance

tion of genius.

duce excellence of diiferent kinds.

and almoft exceliive

flights

cultivated times, give

nature,

to

and produc-

Thefe circumftances tend

order,

way

The

pro-

to

boldnefs,

of imagination in unto beauties of a different

judgement,

and precifion.

mafterly judgement will endeavour to underftand

the reafons on both lides.
that there are great

It

is

however,

certain,

and excellent patterns

upon, both ancient and modern.

Pi

And

it

to
is

form
very

LECTURES ON

l68

Left. 2.

proper for young perfons to read authors, after they

have heard critcifms and remarks made upon them.

Thefe critic ifms you may take at iirfl either from

Try

books or converfation.

if

you can obferve th

genius, or peculiar and charafteriftic turn of an

author, not only his excellencies, but wherein they

are peculiar to him, and different

Cicero

others.

from thofe of
fome-

flowing, fervent, ornate

is

what vain and oftentatious, but mafterly in

way. Demoflhenes is iimple, clofe, nervous,

his

ra-

pid, and irreiiilihle.

Livy has a bewitching knack

of telling a ftory

is

tiv^e,

he

fo expreffive

and

defcrip..

that one cannot help being pleafed with

it,

even after fever al times reading.

Sailufl excels in

ftrikes

oft

marks.

giving

characters,

Tacitus

is

chiefly

remarkable for judicious

and fagacious obfervations on human

Xenophon

which he

in fingle epithets, or very concife re

is

life

and

fuperior to almoft every author, ia

dignity, elegance, and fweetnefs in the narration.

Of modern
Addifon

is

authors in our

own

language,

Mr

a noble pattern of elegance, dignity,

and limplicity.

Swift, in his political pieces, writes

with great llrength and force, and

is

perhaps a pat-

which has fcarcely been exceeded

time.
Hervey, in his Meditations, has a

tern of ftyle,
iince his

great deal of very lively and animated defcription

but

it is

fo

highly ornamented, that

Dr

dangerous in the imitation.

it is

fomewhat

Robertfon, in his

Hiftory, has as juft a mixture of llrength and ele-

gance, as any other author

language.
againll one

know

in the Engliih

you
modern author of fome eminence, JohnI

cannot

help

here

cautioning

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 2.

fon, the author of the

young per-

named.

upon

who may be

a particular author,

moll agreeable to a

and perhaps

tafte,

fludeiit's

may fpeak fo) to his capacity. It

common to fall into this without defign,

congenial (if
is

and

has been given fometimes as a rule, to form

one's felf

pretty

by

is fo ftiff

the worft pattern for

is

fons that can be

It

He

manner, and fuch a lover of hard

abftrafted in his

words, that he

Rambler.

l6^

a natural propenfity.

It

is

faid, that

Demollr

henes wrote over the hiilory of Thucydides eight

times, that he might the

recommend
to give to

more efFedually form himI cannot fay I would

Hyle and manner.

felf to his

this,

it

ieems to be too

any one perfon.

of idolatry of any kind.

many

ledge of

number

much honour

v.ould not be guilty

comprehenfive knov>"-

authors, or at leaft a confidcrablo

of the bei>,

is

If

certainly far preferable.

there Be any advantage in particular imitation,

is,

that

formed

it

is

the eafieft

flyle.

One

of an author wiih

whom

and of

he

is

way of coming

to a fixed

;':

c r

will foon rtm into an imitatLo.i

whom

he

is

much

admirer

a great

converfant,

and, in this

view, to fome perfons of moderate capacitv,

it

may

not be an improper method.

But perfons of real

and original genius, (hould be rather above fucu
a pradice, as

it

will certainly

make them

fa!l fhovt

of what they would otherwife attain.

To

this

we may

add, that particular imitation

liable to feveral very great dangers,

to

Such perfons often may

fervility of imitation.

be faid

to

is

(i.) It leads

borrow the piece, inftead of

P3

imitating''

LECTURES

ifO

When

the pattern.

which

Even

pifed.

a fervile imitation

always will be,

it

it

manner ever

Le6t. 2.

OIT

is

is

perceived,

certain to be def-

fo excellent, if

merely

And

a copy, brings no credit to a fpeaker.

if

writer retail the very fentiments and language of

another,

it is

confidered as an abfurdity.

vile imitation leads to

ther

is,

from

(2.) Ser-

There

copying defects.

nei.-

nor ever was, any fpeaker or writer free

defei^s,

or blemilbes of

fervile imitators

never

well as beauties.

who made

fail to

I lliould

fome kind.

Yet,

copy the defers a

fuppofe, that any one

Cicero his particular model, would very

probably transfufe a proportion of his vanity and

oilentation,

and probably more of that than of his

fire.

But of
is

all forts

of imitation, the mofl dangerous

the imitation of living fpeakers, and yet to this

young
iign,

fcholars are molt prone, fometimes

and fometimes quite infcnfibly.

in the higheft degree with the difadvantage

pying defects.

by de-

It is attended

of co-

In living fpeakers, there are net

only peculiarities of flyle, and blemifhes in ccnipolition, to copy, but in looks, tone,
It is a

catch the blemifhes

And

and gefture.

matter of conftarrt experience, that imitators

it is

to

eali eft,

and retain them longed.

be obferved, that defeats, when they

are natural and undeligned, appear very inconfider-

able

when they are copied, and adopted vowe cannot help defpifing the folly and
of one that judges fo ill.
Further, when

but,

luntarily,

abfurdity

defeats are occalional and undeligned, they are ge-

nerally inconfiderablc

but

when they

are copied,

they arc commonly aggravated and overcharged,

ELOQUENCE,

Le(fl. 2.

and

I7I
This

appear quite monflirous.

fo

be

miifl

manner looks

for even the very bell

imitator, although jull and graceful in the

fo

the

(illy in

origi-

n?l.

An excellent general rule

2.

and much

felves early

accuftom your-

compofition, and exer-

to

Pradice

pronunciation.

in

cife

to

is,

neceffary

is

fomething

to

in

There

order to learn any thing to perfe6lion.

is

be learned from praclice, which no

inftruftiou can impart.

well

as

art

this

as

and in navigation

It

geometry^

you have learned the

after

in every otlier

fo

is

mathematics,

theory in the moil perfetl manner, there

is

ftill

namelefs fomething, which nothing but experience

can bellow.
ilers

You mud

of the rules of

them

art,

not v/ait

ma-

are

Exercife mull go hand in hand

in praclice.

with inftrut^ion, that the one

and direction

force,

you

till

before you begin to put

may

to the other.

give meaning,

mean

do not

you Ihould be fond of entering very foon upon

you Ihould be cifTiduor.s in preparaThis is a rule given by Cicero, in
tory exercifes.
his book De Oratore^ which he reclvons of great
importance Scribendum qunm plurinmrn ; and he

that

real life, but that

declares

Since
tion,

it

it

to

have been his

we are upon
may perhaps

which

it

may

it firfl

te:

.'.

here.
to

you a clearer view of

fome of the various ways

give

be feparately

tried in tranflation

praftioe.

private exercifes of compofi-

the matter, to mention

in

own

perhaps

Tranilation

tried.

it

v^ill

may

It

to try

accuilom you

the various idioms of language,

uaderiland the genius of ycur

rnay be

be bcil

to at-

and to

own language

for.

LECTURES

I7

when

tranflating,

you

will fpeedily find, tKut to ren-

der out of any one language int

htim,

be

Left. 2.

0?T

another ad ver'

would be very forry compofitlon.

This,

tried alfo in narration.

It

may

think, Ihould

be the next Hep to trandation, to learn to give a

naked account of fa6ls with limplicltj^ and preciThis,

fion.

though certainly in

alfo,

itfelf

more

obvious, and eafier than fome other kinds, yet

is

by no means

fome imagine.

fo eafy as

tion of a particular palTage, or compolition of

author,

by

perhaps be the next in order.

ftand

what

this is,

or

in poetry,

Mr

Pope's imita-

this

comes

defcription, paint-

Then argu-

drawing characters.

And,

it

under-

into an ad-

Horace, beginning, ^uce virtus

After

Si-C.

ing fcenes,

mentation

in

To

you need only look

mirable example of
tion of a fatire

quanta^

fome

writing upon fomething quite fimilar,

may

et

it

Imita-

laftly,

perfuafion.

believe

it

would be a great improvem.cnt of the laudable

pra6tice in this college of daily orations, if they

were chofen with more judgement, and better fuited to the performers. Almoft all the pieces we
have

to us, are

deli\'ered

kind,

warm

wonder

that

have never

paflionate

of the

or highcil

lall

declam.ations.

fome fhould perform

tried the plainer

thefe

It

is

ill,

no

who

manner cf limple nar-

Suppofmg a ftudent to have tried all thefc

ways of compofition for his own improvement,
would he not be by that means fenfible in what
ration.

way he is m-ofl able to excel ?

made trial of them feparately, he
vary his

dltSlion,

upon a general

and give compafs

fubjeft.

as
is

alfo

having

mxore able to

to his difco-;'-fe

Thefe are like an analy-

ELOQUENCE.

Le6t. 2.

or fimple divifion of compofition

lis,

who have been

fons read beft,

folve

words

ters,

fo

is

begin

to

In fuch exercifes,

mend

it

a certain patience

ve,

of any ta

means recom-

all

you, early to acquire, and always to pre-

to

which

way

let-

in this order.

me by

let

and as per-

and fyllables into

into fyllables,

73

taught to re-

firft

the ealieft and completeil

compofition,

fet

you

will enable

and refolution of mind,

to apply with vigour, not

only for a time, but to review and correal your

them

pieces, and bring

and your

tion,

To

tafte

explain this a

to

fome degree of perfecfome degree of a'^curacy.

to

there

little,

equally contrary to

it,

are

three

and perhaps equally

things
preju-^

(i.) Mere weaknefs, and want of courage^

which finding one attempt unfuccefsful, will hardly
dicial.

be brought
fon

he
is

make

another.

finds the thing fo

apt to confider

There
which

is

When

it

uncouth and

difficult, that

pleafcd with any thing

own

its

think

life,

young per*

as altogether impofijble.

it

does, as nei-

it

the beginning

a great pity that any of their pro-

duclions Ihould be blotted or erafed.

be fuppofed, that they will

make

knowledge or

There

tafte.

(3.)

It is

dlflin<^

fultory

difpofition,

fo

not to

great progrefs in
is

another

from both, wlio are of a

perhaps

fort,,

loofe, de-

unftayed, that they cannot

fpend long enough time upon any thing to do

weU, or fometimes even

fion.

he

(2.)

nor be willing to hear

faults,

There are fome, who, from

them.

a fault contrary to this, a vanity of mind,

is fo

ther to fee

of

to

goes to 6xercife himfelf in compofition,

firft

They

will

to

bring

it

to a

it

conclu-

begin an eflay upon a fubject.

LECTURES ON

174

Le6l. 2.

but are prefentlj out of conceit

fore will do

it

ed muft away

cy more

wltli

to another,

and there-

it,

very carelefslv, or before

finilh-

it is

which llruck

their fan-

lately.

That fteady application which I have recommended, fome of the ancients were very remarkable
Some of them indeed feemed to carry it to
for.
an excefs. They would fometimes fpend as much
time in polifhing an epigram, or little trifling panegyric, as might have been fufTicient for the produc-

work of

tion of a
is

is

when he

cules this difpoiStion,

and fomewhere

the bane of

glorious poet,

boafting

made, or could make,

fays,

com-

how many

ridi-

Detur nobis

he brings

elfe,

this

running over a

Horace, with his ufual elegance,

pofition,

&c.

error

way,

great deal in a fuperficial

cus,

However,

exteniive utility.

common

the moil

not

lo^

in a vain-

verfes he

while Handing upon

had
givft

foot.

LECTURE
this difcourfe,

INin

the

rules to

laft,

form the

HI.

intend to

viz.
tafte,

laying

finifli

what

down fome

began

general

and dired the conduct of a

Hudent.
3.

Be

careful to acquaint yourfelvcs w^ell, and

be as perfe6t as poffible, in the branches that are

Thefe, befubordinate to the ftudy of eloquence.
t-o

canfe they ought to be learned in the earlieft ftages,

if

they are then neglefted, fome are unwilling or

ELOQUENCE.

Lefl. 3*

175

What

afliamed to go back to them.

in

view

chiefly,

have here

grammar, orthograpy,

the

are

and pun6luation of the Englifh language.

uncommon

both in the pulpit

arid at

It is

not

of confiderable name,

orators

to find

the bar, far from being

This

accurate in point of grammar.

evidently a

is

ed, in

Perhaps it may be occafionfome meafure, by the Engliih feldom or

never

being taught

very great blemifh.

But

thofe

grammar,
fhould be

more ready

^uem
we mufl

fentiment.

It is

grammar

that

ul-

But
est, &:c.
meaning of the

is

received and efta-

You

the beft v/riters.

and

is

or pronunciation of

which

they alfo guided by practice

;

am

with regard to which,

will fay.

do thefe writers determine themfelves

meafure

not the cuftom of the \^lgar that

any language, but

by

it.

of every langage

attend to the

eftablifiies either the

blilhed

of

penes arbitrnum

fays,

even here,

attend to

to

grammar

by cuftom

timately fixed

children.

the principles

learned

Greek and Latin languages,

the

in

fenfible, that the

Horace

grammatically to

who have

it is

They

How

Are not

are in a great

generally faid, that the practice

of the capital of a nation, or of the court in that

grammar. This muft in fubftance be agreed to, yet judgement and analogy

capital, fettles the

will frequently fuggeft improvements, and intro-

duce a good, or abolilh an

not fuppofe, that

all

ill

cuftom.

You

muft

the phrafes of the vulgar in

London, are therefore agreeable

to

of the Englifti, or even that at court

the

grammar

all

the nobi-

lity,

male and female, fpeak with perfeft proprie-

ty.

It is in

the laft refort, the

men

of literature,

LECTURES ON

Ij6

who, taking cuflom

particularly the authors,

^ve

general rule,

their reafoning

Mr

fee

as a

by

the direction they can,

and exam|)le.

To make you
you

all

it

Led.

underfland this by fome inftances,

Dean

Addifon,

have endeavoured

Mr

Swift, and

Englilh language, to fliew where

Pope^

genius of the

to attend to the
it

was

harfli

and

nnpolilhed, and where improprieties might be cor-

reded
fure.

and they have fucceeded in a great mea-

It

was obferved by

the Englilli, and

harfh,

by

all

all

thofe great

numbers of confonants meeting with-

the

out intervening vowels

therefore, that

barbarifm to flrike out the vowels that

in

words,

thefe

thefe
I

don't,

can't,

it is

we

words

may

3-

et

a great

have, as

wouldn't,

didn't,

rebuk'd, drudg'd, fiedg'd.

fliouldn't,

men, that

the northern languages, are

Several of

be heard in fome places, and

have even feen them in print

in

America

but

no good fpeaker or tolerable writer would ufe them

in

Great Britain.

give another example

when

the fenfe and analogy of the words fuggells the im-

Averfe and averfion, were often for-

provement.

merly ufed with

he

to or at ;

he has a great averfion

at

it.

perly fignifies turned away,

provement

to fay, averfe

very averfe

to

it

But, as averfe pro'

feems an evident im-

from.

this obfervation, is to turn

remarks,

it

is

your

What

mean by

attention to fuch

when you meet with them

in reading or

converfation.
I will

make

an obfervation or tv/o mors.

fome iniportance to attend

to the ufe of

related, or in

fome degree fynonymous.

uncommon

hear people fay, a

to

man

It is

of

Words nearly

is

It is

not

incident to

ELOQUENCE.

Lel:. 5.

fuch and fuch a thing

1^^

the evil

incident to the

is

perfon, the perlon liable to the evil, or fubjeft to

it

may

this

be feen by the original meaning of

the word, of Latin derivation, and fignifics, to fall

The word

upon.

blic, that

of
it

this,

we

known)

or inform

The

fliould fay, notify

him of a

verb

thing,
in

consist,

any thing

You

to the public.

acquaint

Engliih,

agree or correfpond>

conlifts with

my

knowledge.

compofe or make up a
vvith in or

lands,

of ;

&c.

is

it

make

(t>r

advertife a perfon,

meaningS) and two conftnidions

to

wrong, par-

noti/y is often ufed

America theyfpcak of notifying the puis to fay, making known the public; inftead

ticularly in

him with
two

has

when

figniiies

it

joined to with.

When

it

it.

diilin6l

It

fignifies to

conftnided either

total, it is

as, his eftate confifts

of or

This and that, and these and

in

houfes,

when

iho?ey

together in a fentence, are ufed with diftinaion

this

and

these for the neareft,

and that and

those, for

the moft remote antecedent; but otherwife, these

and

those are ufed

indifcriminately, but those

frequently; as, those authors

who

more

are of different opi~

fiions.

In

all

matters doubtful, you ought to obferve

the current of good authors go.

So

been able

words

to obfer\^e, colleftive

far as I

how
have

in Englifh

are indifferently conftruded, either with a verb fm-

gular or plural, as number, multitude, part

number were

prefent,

ihould prefer the

As to

but that a

he

laft

orthography,

man may

cannot fpell

Vol. IL

or

was

prefent

a great

though I

it is

of the utmoft

be fuppofed

moment

to fpeak,

not

though

but becaufe a public fpeaker

5^

"

178

LECTURES ON

Led.

3,

muft be always in fome degree converfant in puband then bad fpelling is exceedingly re-

lic life,

proachful.

not only neceflary to underftand,

It is

own

in all ordinary cafes, the orthography of our

language, but a fcholar and

be able

made

to obferv^e the variations

in fpelling

from time

I think,

critic,

that

have been

Between thir-

to time.

ty and forty years ago, an attempt

fhould

was made

to alter

the fpelling of the Englifli language very coniiderably,

ing

by bringing
but

it

it

nearer to the

way

of pronounc-

did not fucceed, being oppofed

by fome

of the greateft eminence, as likely to deftroy or

hide the etymology of words.

There have fome

fmall alterations obtained a good deal in

away

brance, fuch as taking

There

ecclefiaftic, Stc.

making

to

is alfo jufl

now an

attempt

change the fpelling of feveral words.

have feen an example of

it

Middleton's Life of Cicero

explane

my remem-

the final k in public,

honor,

in a very late edition of

fuch

as, revele, repete,

This feems
upon the principle of bringing words nearer to their
favor, candor, &:c.

Latin derivation.

Punctuation

is a- thing

to underftand a

little

tlemen or fcholars
ters
is,

who

that a fcholar fhould ftrive

though there are few genufe

it

or in their compolition.

that

it is

It is

The

either in let-

reafon of this

looked upon as too formal, and uhne-

ceflary to ufe

Hop.

much,

it

in writing letters, except

a fuU

always the befl language that has

need of points Xo be underftood.

lieve, a

modem

vention

of printing

leaft

Points are, I be-

invention, fubfequent to the in;

very ufeful,

however,

in

teaching young perfons to read with proper paufes.

Another reafon

why

points

ai'e

little

ufed in pri-

ELOQUENCE.

Le6l. 3-

vate writing,

is,

that fuch papers as are fent to the

do not need them, the printers

(in Britain),

profs,

179

themfelvcs underftanding that matter at leaft as

well, if not better, thap
4.

to

any writer.

a good rule, to obferve earlj, and ftudy

It is

guard againft fome of the

mifties in writing

into
It is

by

mod

remarkable ble-

and fpeaking, which are fallen

defign or accident, and continued

by

habit.

not difficult for any perfon, as foon as he be-

gins to obferve

others

and

to

reflecV,

difcover thefe in

and as he will perceive the abfurdity clear-

ly in them, let

him be very

whether there

not fomething of the fame kind in

is

careful to find out

That you may underfland what I mean,

I will mention fome particulars.
Such as hax^re nothing in
I. Peculiar phrases.
them but what is juft, and decent, and proper,
liimfelf.

when ufed
fpeaker

once, or

falls fo into

now and

then

when a

but

any of them, thst the practice

is

knov/n for his own, and he isJvnown by it, they become

unfpeak^bly ridiculous.
fomething of
in

common

this

It is
;

very

difficult to

avoid

there are few, if any, but

difcourfe ufe

fome phrafes more than

A cautious perfon, as foon as he perceives

others.

a habit of ufing

deavour

kind

any one coming upon him, will en-

to alter or avoid

are not wholly free

from

ved of Cicero, that

esse

it.

Even the

this defedl:.

greatcfl
It

is

vL^eatur occurs in

men

obfer-

almoft

every three or four fentences, be the fubjefl what.

it

will.

nerally

knew a preacher that uftd the word

very frequently, that he was called ge-

sedate, fo

where he was known, by the name of the

l8o

LECTURES OM

sedate preacher,

I faj the

Left. 3.

fame thing of particular

if they be in any degree

motions and geflures, which

out of the way, are a great blemilh in a fpeaker

both the one and the other of thefe are commonly

taken up as graces, and retained fo long in

at iirft

that \iew, that they acquire an irrefiflible

from

power

habit.

Another blemifh of

2.

per epit

young

cially

This

ts.

is

this kind, is

very

common

ufmg improfome, efpe-

perfons, are apt to think a difcourfe

number of

lean and poor, unlefs there be a great

epithets

and as they will

without an adjedive,

fome

them

of

it

no fubftantive go

let

a great chance

is

are improper;

thai?

they cannot fay

the Iky, without the azure fky, or the lofty Iky,

or the wide expanded Iky
epithets

may

and though

belong to the Iky, they

all

may

thefe

not be

equally proper in the place w^here they are intro-

duced.

rough

no mean rank

certain gentleman, of

Great Britain,
to his

in

ift

drawing an addrefs from a bo-

Majefty, on the peace, told him, that

the terror of his arms had fpread to the moil diftant parts of the terraneous globe.

globe

be certainly true

that/ the

was exceedingly

ridiculous to

looked as

Majefty were a

if his

is

tell

themfelves were boys, who had

lefibn in

it

terraqueous,

it

king

it

t|ie

boy,'

rough-magiftrates were teaching

firft

Now, though

or

they

learned the

geography, that the globe

confifts

land and water, and therefore were defirous of

ting
3.

it

be known that they were

Another

vilible

blemifh

and the bo-

him
jull

fo

of

let-

fo far adi^anced.

is,

a multitude

of

unneceffary words of any kind, particularly the

Some do
phrafes.
vain repetition of fynonymous
enough,
round
and
not think their fentences full

But' though k
without a number of thefe phrafes.
of a fentence, and the
true, that there is a fulnefs

be

claules of a fentence,

the ear, yet

it

is

ihape with what

common of
which men are

moft

which

but an

ill

is

neceffary to pleafe

way

to

make up

without fenfe or force.

is

the

The

kind are the double epithets,

this

led into

by

the introdudion of

or Gretk, mto
words derived from the Latin
Thefe words dliFering
riic Er^gliOi language.

together, as it diilerent
found, arc often coupled
and felicity, fruihappinefs,
in meaniag alio As

magnihcence,
and enjoyment,-greatnefs and
end and
manner,
eafe and facilityway and
and libountiful
couclufion, fmall and minute,
fpeakers,
Sometimes, from your lofty
beral, &.C.

tion

wc hear

whole

llring

ference in meaning,

perceive

it.

orand, capital,

of words, of fo little difto

it is almoft impofliblc

that

have laiely heard, '* This

;''
important, and fundamental truth

Thus

of them
lall proper epithets and though any one
well as
as
would have made the difcourfe nervous,
them all it becomes fvvelW
juft, by the addition of
;

ed and

* List

lilly *

of Symnymoiis

Teh-msfretjuc?ii!y to be met with.

Speakers and writers,

Worth and

Motives and arguments,

LaQiiig and abiding,

Benefit and advantage,

Command

JSmall and minute,

Order and appoint^

value,

and order^

LECTURES ON

1?2
4. Vulgarifms.

Left.

have been furprifed

to

fee

fome peiTcns of education and charader, introduce

the mere vulgarifms of difcourfe in the pulpit, or
at the

bar

fuch

who

author,

I an't, I can't, I flian't.

as,

entitles his

An

book Lexiphanes, and has

very fucccfsfuUj expofed Johnfon's long and hard

words,

let flip

for which^he

cafe

feverelj handled

Between you and

ers.
;

and

own

a vulgarifm into his

was

if it

were

to

/.

there

be ufed,

it

difcourfe,

hy

the review-

is

a governed

ihould be, Be-

Bountiful and liberal,

Sin and guilt,

Right and

Chearfulnefs and alacrity,

title,

Order and method,

Greatnefsand magnificence

Sharp and acute,

Pain and

anguilli,

Joy and delight,

Fruition and enjoyment,

Moment

and importance,

Juft and righteous.

Joy and pleafure,

End and defign.

Open and explain,

Profit and advantage,

Lading and durable.

Refolution and purpofe,

Clear and manlfeftj^

Delight and fatisfadlon,

Jullice and equity,

Marks and

Truth and

Plain and perfplcuous,

fincerity,

Wealth and

riches,

Penury and want,

Eafe and

End and

figns,

facility,

conclufion,

Odious and hateful,

A final Iffue,

Poor and Indigent,

Motives and

prder and regularity,

Dimlnlihed and leflened.

reafons,

Rules and Regulations,

Excellence and perfe<^Icny

Caufes and Reafons,

Benevolence and good-will.

Uleful and profitable,

Demon ftrate and

Amiable and

Cover and conceal,

lovely,

Wife and prudent.

roolilli

prove,

^nd UQwife,

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 3.

tween you and me.

But the truth

the phrafe i$

is,

and therefore not

altogether a vulgarifm,

S3

to

be

ufed, except in particular circumftances, defcribing

There are

familiar chat.

which come

alfo certain cant phrafes

and ufe

into repute

and

in the courfe

the changes of fafliion.

Thefc have been

expofed by Swift

fufiiciently

and Addifon, and therefore

fayjiotliing at

lliall

further on them, at prefent, as an opportunity

all

will afterwards occur of mentioning

them

to

advan-

tage.
5.

The

mention,

and

fifth
is,

given, and

to

general rule I

laft

follow nature.

greatly

inlifled

Every body has heard of

it,

^This

rule often

on by the

ancients*

nay, fometimes thofe

who have

not heard of it will fpeak

and fay, " This was quite natural

to undCrfland.
to art.

But

it

Nature feems
Is

ignorant perfons

citos,

and Phrases

Happifying,

in

al-

difficult

rule to

this

be

following nature, then, to do

make

tonneled difcourfe

fomewhat

is

as untaught perfons generally

Therms

had,

as if they

This was

together unnatural."

oppofed

jufl

fliall

is a

do

Will the

moH

the moll plain and the bell

Will they

tell

to be notedfor

fufceptive,

a llory with

remarks,

fellow- country man, feli"

to be found in the Monitor.

**

Unfexed thy mind,"

"

Senfibilities," Aikin's

in a

Pcem.

Magazine, Ocl.

vol.

i.

468.

469.

" Thefe commendations

mnke you

\vill

not, I

am

perfuaded,

vain and coxcotnica/y

Kaickknackically, fimplify, domellicate, pultpitlcally.

LECTURi^s r>s

184.

Lect. 3.

the mOil genuine limplicity, and at the fame time

"with perfpicuity

Perhaps

it

We

would be bed

find

or following that w^hich

quite otherwif(.

is.

it

to faj,

it is

and plained, and

is eafieft

probably would be followed by

following truth,

all,

but for affec-

tation.

On

this fubje-fi:

you would
ftate

dcfcrlbe, and put yourfelf in the very

him whofe

of

were bid

it

expreffions,

invention.

to

to fludy a fabjeft abftradly,

with great
to

difcin^l

a great aiTiilant

is

you would fpeak.

fentiments

make

Clear conceptions
reality

can think of nothing fo good

and fuppofe you faw the thing

as to fay, Realize

difiiculty that things

would come

into

proper and fuitable

your mind.

yourfelf were in the iituation that

fed, the fentiments pertinent to

it

and

you
would be
If

it

is

But
to

if

you

be fuppo-

would crowd upon

you immediately. Let me try to make this famiby an example Suppofc I were to aik any of
youjuil now, what are the eircumftances that aggravate lin, or make it- more heinous, and deferving
liar

of fevere punifiiment

It

is

highly probable he

would either be at a lofs altogether, or at leaft

would omit many of them. But if any of you had
received an injury from another,, in explaining of
it,,

he would not

He would
him
it,

fay

fervice,

i'i

fail to

come over them every

was unprovoked.

he would not

fail to

one.

If he had done

upbraid

him

v.'ith

and nothing would be forgotten between the

two

that could aggravate the crime.

Suppoiing the reality of every thing,

particularly to deliver a fpeaker

alfo, ferve-.

from a^e6ted or-

namentSj, and every thing in language or carriag<5-

Lea.

ZLOQUENCE.

3.

that is

improper

you were pleading the caufe

capital crime, it would be beft

If

of one accufed of a
to fuppofe that

185

you yourfelf were the accufed per-

and that you were fpeaking for your own life.

This would give an earnellnefs of fpirit, and a juft

fon,

nefs and corre6tnefs to the

tant

from

manner,

infinitely dif-

pomp, w^hich is fo prodeparture from the fimplieity cf

that theatrical

perly faid to be a
nature.

S33"

LECTURE

IV.

HAVING given

you feme preliminary difcoiii>

fes on fuch points as I thought wouldTerve
to prepare you for wha;t might be afterwards faid^
I proceed to treat the fubjed more methodically^
and more fully. There are various ways of dividing the fubjea, which yet may each of them be
faid to take in the whole, in" one

way

or other.

Several of thefe muft be combined together

is

not fufficient to
If

ftation.

as

it

view a building only from one

you would underftand it thoroughly,

it from different ftations, and even

you mull view

take

it

in profile, and learn not

appearance,

thod
to

me

but

its

have refolved
as

only

its

inward ftructure.
to

outward

The me-

follow, and which feems

complete as any

coiild fall

upon,

is

this

L To

treat of

language in general,

its

quali-

LECTURES

it
and powers

ties,

and pradlices

To

II.

eloquent fpeech and

confide r oratory as divided into

their characters

fublime

their

^fimple

diftinftions

and

thre

its

mixed,

their beauties

their ufes.

To

III.

parts

hiftorj

its

as an art.

great kinds, the

and

Lel. 4.

OlT

confider

invention

and

it

as divided into

difpofition

ftyle

geflure.

IV. To
formation

confider

de

it

as

ohjet

its

ui.r: miration

its

conftituent

pronunciation

in-

is different

perfuafion

entertain-

ment.

V. As
bar

its

fubjeft

and the fenate,

VI. To
portion

VII

and

or

different

the

pulpit

the

any deliberate aflembly.

confider the ftru^lure and parts of a par-

difcourfe,

ticular

is

their order,

connexion

^pro-

ends.

Recapitulation,

and an inquiry into the

principles of tafle, or of beauty and gracefuluefs,

^s applicable not only to oratory, but to

other

(commonly

In the
in

firft

general

fpeech

and

called) fine arts.

place, then, I
qualities

its

its

the

all

sm

and

to treat of

pov/ers

language

eloquent

hiftory and practice as an art.

Language is, what in a great meafure diflinguifties

man from the inferior creatures. Not but that almofl all animals have certain founds by v^hlch
they can communicate fomething to one another.
But

thefe founds

foiXietimes fiingle

ture

are evidently only fimple, and

exertions, differing in one

from another, according

formation of their organs.

to the

crea-

different con-

Articulate fpe,ech has a

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 4.

multitude

vail

ideas

fpeech

we may even

is

lefs

fimple

as

fay, that articulate

extenfive than thought

itfelf,

any idea that can be formed but

In this there

:ated.

a wide and manifeil dillinc-

is

between the rational and

Articulate language

is

irrational creatures.

intended to communicate

This

our fentiments one to another.

by faying

[idered as fiilly explained,

formation

its

it

and extended

ihe true original

Dommonly

it

my
ma-

perceive, and feel

They may be

as I feel.

afterwards

called the

Eloquence

is

of perfuafion, but the

art

other muft be taken in.

;

am-

but theie two particulars fhew

purpofe of fpeech.

we can perfuade

be con-

includes in-

excellence confilts in

king another perceive what

towards

may

conception in

and perfuafion.

mind, wheii fpoken,

plified

exprefs

be expreffed, and by that means communis

may

tion

to

well

as

perhaps
little

able

is

complex,

of

there being hardly

it

and

compafs,

greater

far

187

We

mull inform, before

any fuch thing as

or if there be

perfuafion without information,

it

is

only a blind

impulfe.
Articulate fpeech
arbitrary founds
Dr

is

by

reprefenting our ideas

that is to

fay, there

is

no real

natural connexion between the found and figni-

what

ication, but
lU this,

or

is

the efFeft of

natural

foimds,

as

which more afterwards)

anger

natural
^un

and

alphabetical
is

figns

writing

(of

from hie-

fignify

but language, in general, has

connexion with
7710071

may

its

meaning.

might have had

ufe.

from

diftinguifhed

Natural founds

roglyphical.
fear,

compa6l and

articulate fpeech is diftinguifhed

different

joy,

no fuch

The words
meanings,

LECTURES ON

l8S

The word

and ferved the fame purpofe.

Hebrew,

in

oi/ko:x

LeBi, 4,^

Greek, domus

French, and hcuse in Englifh, though

different, are equally

beit/j

in Latin, 7naiso?i
all

in

of them

proper for fignifying the fame

when once they are fixed by the cuflom of

feveral nations.
Some have attempted to re-

thing,

the

duce the original words of a fuppofed original language, and even the

of the alphabet, to a

letters

natural refemblance of the things to be fignified

but their attempts have been

lous.

It

was

fruitlefs,

in ancient times a pretty general

gination, that there

was a

was

original and natural to

firll

language in ufe

ima-

certain language that

man

that this

and that

and ridicu-

was the

men were

if

not

taught another language by example, they would<

all

fpeak

trial

this language.
But experience, after
had been made by feveral curious perfons,

fliowed this imagination to be vain

for thofc

who

were brought up without any communication with

men, were always dumb, and fpoke none

at

all^

except fometimes imitating the natural founds of

fome

beafts or birds,

ly hear.

which they might occafional

Herodotus's ftory

is

either a fable, or

it

proves nothing, of a king of Egypt having two

by

children nouriflied

word BeCy or

Bcccos,

goats,

and pronouncing

which,

tliey

faid,

tlie

fignified

bread in the Phrygian language.

This was a thing

merely accidental,

any

if true

yet, at

rate, of

very

doubtful authority.

The words
arbitrary; nor

in articulate fpeech,
is

otherwife, for words are only founds

it is

pofTible in

therefore, are

there any poilibility of their *being

;

fome few particulars

and though
to

fix

upon

ELOQUENCE.

LeS:. 4.

words

a natural relation

\vith

189
example,

as for

perhaps the names of animals might fometimes be

given them, with fome refemblance of found to

the natural founds

even

this

which

animals utter

thefe

with difadvantages,

make

perceive, by trying to

word

that

yet

may

any body

as

re-

fliall

femble the neighing of a horfe, the lowing of a

But

bull, &LC.

as to all inanimate vifible obje61s,

impoffible to reprefent

it is

and found, the eye and the

rent in kind.

any

light

being totally

diffe-

can recollect nothing that

difficulty in this matter, unlefs that

How

fay,

making

modulation to found

may

*'

of

paffiage

Mr

Pope,

who

difficulty

pronouncing

of

As

Homer, Ton men

in the fa-

Tissiphon

If words are arbitrary,

firil

into

may

it

ufe

in

way

moment.

Some think

it

was

is

how
opi-

the

not of

in the

it,

8z:c.

be alked,

which

nions are various, but the controverfy

eat

or,

exemplifies the rule in giving

*Tis not enough, no harftinefs gives offence,"

language came

in

this is

be a refenr^blance to (lownefs and

labour, or their oppofites, or both

in

But

and in the quantity of the

and eafe or

them, there

In fome cafes, the paffions give a

eafily refolvcd.

mous

may

and other defcriptions,

the found an echo to the fenfe

fyllables,

makes

fome

then do you find place for that particu-

beauty of poetry,

lar

them by found
ear,

any

fame

as other creatures exert their natural powers,

man by

tom.

came to the ufe of

meaning of words by cufOthers think that this would either never

liave

happened, or have taken a very long time.

that

fpe^ech,

and

Vol. IL

praftice gradually

fettled the

LECTURES ON

igt

fuppofe that their

?ind

fome degree of

waj

to a

more

Le^i. 4.

Maker

taught them at leafl

which fhould open the

praftice,

And

extenfive ufe of the faciihy.

the confideration, that founds in language are arbitrary, in

caufe

it

fome degree favours

may

this fuppoiition,

be-

be obferved, that as mankind are ca-

pable by inftruclion of the greateft and moft mul-

improvement,

fo

without inilru6lion they

are capable of doing leaft.

A human infant, when

tifarious

brought

iirll

forth,

is

more

helplefs,

helplefs, th-an other animal that

not feem to be of

much importance

terminate opinion of this quellion.

the very fame w^ay again, and

upon the fame

principles,

and longer

we know^

may

to

It

form

does
a de-

occurs in

It

be reafoned

whether alphabetical wri-

was an invention and dlfcovery of man, or revealed by God.

Thofe who hold the laft opinion
obferve, that hieroglyphic writing, or writing by
and that
iigns or pictures, was before alphabetical
the improvement of hieroglyphics does not lead to,
but from alphabetical writing That the one confifts
ting

of natural emblems, and viiible figns of fentiments,

and the other of arbitrary or

artificial figns for

fimple

more complex you make the

hieroglyphic, you diifer the mere from the alphafounds

fo that the

It feeirxs

bet.

probable, that
of

radical principles

all

brought out by accident, that

dence
our

tlierefore

firfl

growth,
upoD,

parents,
all

it

is

this,

and indeed the

great difcoveries,
is

to fay,

God

g-ive to

in a Itate

of full

probable, that

who were found

were

by Provi-

the inftrudion necefifary for proceeding

and exercifing the faculty of fpeech, the

length that was neceflary for the purpofes of hu-

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 4.

man

providence, that he
the

probable, from the analogy of

It is alfo

life.

human powers,

ipi

left as

much

to the exercife

as convenience

of

and application

could conveniently fupply.

I will not

by

much

enter

confl:rulion of

number

a certain

into the

formation and

language in general.

formed

It is

of fimple founds, which,

when

variouflj combined, produce that variety of words,

which, though certainly not

been

liitherto

The

world.

inexhaulled
letters are

confonants, the

ftrictly infinite,

by all

that in the

info

vowels and

having a found of themfelves,

iirfl

Some

the languages in the

divided

and the other only giving a

that found.

yet have

fort of modification to

great philologiils are of opinion,

Hebrew, and

feveral other ancient lan-

guages, their whole letters are confonauts, tending

to

mark

the different configurations of the

organs

of found at the beginning of pronunciation, and

the vowels are the founds themfelves,

fay

men were

taught to adopt

by

which they

habit,

firfl:

in

fpeaking, and then in writing, and afterwards were

by marks or figns, for the fake of

Hence the controverfy about the Hebrew

dillinguifhed
readers.
points,

and indeed reading the dead languages in

general,

which

particularly

is

from

attended

vmh

great uncertainty,

following

the

circumftances.

Vowels have in general been but five or fix in

number, which fhould exprefs all the fimple founds,
and yet they do not
language

in

and perhaps there

which there

is

matter, than our own, which

exceedingly

difficult for a

is

not

greater confufion in this

makes

the Engliih fo

foreigner to attain. Several

LECTURES ON

Xg2
Englifh. vowels

have three or four

as Sheridan

and,

of five

/ has

LeSi. 4,

three

different founds

fome of them the length

fajs,

one word,

in

Thefe things not being necelTary

to

viz.

my

infiiite^

main pur-

them without enlarging.

It is plain, that in whatever manner languages
were firft formed, we can ealily fee that they came
An eminent
flowly and by degrees to perfection.
pofe, I only point at

French author. Father Lamy,

language was perfeCl in
vances no proof of

the

fays,

original

Hebrew

but he ad-

but fhowing indeed by ver^

remarks and

juft hiftorical

brew was

this,

its

HeGreek ;

criticifms, that the

anterior in point of time to the

vv^iting, the letters were taken from

Hebrew, and employed in the Greek. Hiflory fays, that Cadmus was a Pheniclan, and he has
generally among the Greeks the honour of introdu-

and that in

the

cing letters.

alfo obferved, that as the let-

It is

ters of the alphabet were ufed in exprelling numbers,

the Greeks, after they had in procefs of time altered or left out the letter vau in
flands iixth in order, they put a
fix,

that the reft

might

plainly fhews, that the

than the Greek, as

But, for

my

it

Hebrew, which

new mark

s for

which
Hebrew alphabet was older
retain their

now

o-wn part,

powers

flands.
I

do not underftand th^

meaning of faying, that the Hebrew language was

it might be fitted for all the purat firft
pofes of them that ufed it firft, and is probably at
perfed

this

goes

day
;

as

bat

good
it

is

languages of the
limple.

as

any other language,

plain, that this

firft

and

fo far as

all

it

the other

ages were narrow, Ihort, and

They muft have been

fo

from the natuvQ

Lea.

I93

ELOQUENCE.

4.

of the thing

moft probably they confilled chiefly

What

of monofyllables, reprefenting fimple ideas.

complex or compound words,

occafion had
when they had few, if any, complex or compound
ideas ?
This appears very plainly from the flate
they for

of the
tals,

It

of the other orien-

Hebrew language, fome

and the language of

all

uncultivated people.

holds likewifie in the cafe of the Chinefe lan-

guage, which, though the people are not uncultivated, properly fpeaking, is yet in an unimproved
ft ate,

from

their

tives,

intercourfe with

little

All fuch languages have few ad-

other nations-.
je6lives

having had

and when they do ufe words as adjeccommonly figurative. There is an

they are

ingenious

and probable deduclion

how

a fcanty

narrow language might be firil ufed in Shuckford's

They might exprefs qualities by the
Connections.
name of fome animal remarkable for them as a

lion-man,

to the

wholly agreeable
guage.

man.

for a violent or fierce

The Hebrews

genius of the

God

Hebrew

is

lan-

defcribe every thing that is

very great, by adding the name of

the trees of

This

the river of

God

God.

to
It

it,

as

follows,

that in all uncultivated languages, the figures arc

frequent, and very ftrong.

The

Indians in

Ame-

have a language full of metaphors. They take

up the hatchet, for going to war and they brighten

rica

the chain,

Hence

when they
it

confirm a peace.

appears, that in the earlieft times, if

was the effecl of necefiity, raBut what men did at firft out
orators afterwards returned to from

they ufed figures,

it

ther than choice.

of neceffity,

R3

LECTURES ON

194

Lel. 4.

choice, in order to increafe the beauty or force of

make
They are

In fa6l, figures do

their diiSlion, or both.

the greateft impreffion on men's minds.

feniibie,

city

and therefore level to every man's capa-

fame reafon they make a ftrong im-

for the

They

preffion on the imagination.

likewife leave

a great deal of room for the creative power of fan-

make

cy

to

by

a multitude, on a fubje<Sl that

carries the

additions.

iign,

or fymbol, feen
is

underftood,

contagion of enthufiafm, or rage, ex-

In the 19th of Judges, you fee the

ceedingly far.

Levite took his concubine, and cut her into twelve

parts,

and fent them

Roman

which he

to all the tribes of Ifrael.

The

holding up the flum^p of his hand

alfo,

loll in

the fervice of the public, pleaded

for his brother with a

power

any

vailly fuperior to

language whatever.

LECTURE

HAVING

V.

given you a ihort view of language

in general, if

it

were not too long,

would

confider the ftru6lure of particular languages

ilead of which, take the

marks
I.

many
the

in-

fiiort

re-

The

nature

of the

grammar

there

few following

is

of

things neceflarily

ways of fpeaking, which

fuggefls

conftitutes

of a language, and in every language

nearly the fame aumber of parts of fpeech^

ELOQUENCE.

Lcct. 5.
as

I95

they are enuinerated in the Latin grammar

noun, pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, pie;}G{iinterjection, conjunction.

tion,

In the ufe of thefe, there

2.

Nouns,

ty.

fame way
Greeks

the

is

a very great varie-

be fure, are declined nearly the

to

in alJ,

by

and numbers

cafes

in this difFer a little,

uQng

though

three

num-

bers inftead of two, having a particular infle&ion

when

the word,

of

meant

two perfons

are but

there

and another for the plural or more

in the verbs, there is a

and

adive

very great diverfity

fignification,

paflive

they

but

in the

generally

by termina-

agree, but fome exprefs the perfons

and fome by pronouns and nominatives ex-

tions,

Some have moods, which others have

The Greeks have an optative mood the

preffcd.

not.

have gerunds

Latins

differences of

the

Hebrews, with fewer

moods, have conjugations that carry

fome variety of ligniflcation to the fame word.

one word, maser, (he delivered), there
this

and

its

ligently,
liver

another, he

befldes the a<5live and paflive, have

of which
lince

perhaps the ufe

fome of the

doing a think
myfelf.

In

not only

but another, he delivered di-

paflive,

and the paflive

another, he delivered himfelf.

is

befl:

is

made to deThe Greeks,

a jnedia vcx-^

not fully ui:derfl:ood

grammarians fay

to one's felf

Tupsomai^

it

figniflcs

I fliall llrike

Moll of the modern languages decline

by inflexion of the termination,

Greek and Latin, but by auxiliary verbs,
Englifli and French.
The Chinefe language

their verbs, not

as

the

as the
is

perhaps the

leafl:

improved of any language that

this probably is ov/ing
3

has fubflfled for any time

LECTURES

196
to their

Left. 5,

OJ^

want of alphabetical writing

every word

among- them had a charafter peculiar to h, fo that

letters

and words were the fame

language

this

rendered

among

underftand" their writing

quite impolhble

in

number

in their

of immenfe difficulty to

it

to foreigners

themfelves,

and

but they were vall-

ly furprifed to find, that the Jefuits from Europe,

that

came among them, could

language by our alphabet

fame word

write their

eafily

and

they ufe the

as

in different tones, for different

way

thefe fathers alfo foon found a

ing thefe in writing,

by

meanings,

of diftinguifh-

marks and accents

it was to be dif-

certain

placed over the word, differing as

ferently taken.
3.

Some have amufed themfelves with inventing

grammar as might

a language, v/ith fuch a regular

be

eafily

underftood,

brought into general

this kind, in

and having

We

ufe.

this

language

have a remark of

Father Lami's Rhetorique, in French,

and he fays the grammar of the Tartar language

comes nearell

to

We

it.

fchemes and propoiitions of

it

feems wholly chimerical.

ther, that

language

this

fome few have imagined,

itfelf

was

originally,

perfe6t language, and that

to

had fome

only obferve furthat the

Hebrew

and v/hen complete, a

we now have
it.

it

only maim-

Thefe fuppofe the

be generated thus, by taking the

of the alphabet, and

gularly

alfo

kind in Englifh, but

I fliall

ed, and but a fmall part of

language

have

firfl

going through them re-

by two, and then by

aha, abhy &:c.

letters

three, ab, ag, ad, &.c.

All thefe fchemes ire

idle,

becaufe

no perfon can poffibly lay down rules beforehand,

ELOQJJEKCE.

LcS:. 5.

may

for everj thing that

fpoken

when they

be exprelTed as thofe

our, they will

iiiil

be hereafter thought and

and therefore,

Ig'j

occur Ihall incline

are brought

whom

to

and cullom will

they

finally fix

them, and give them their authority.

Leaving thefe things, therefore,

more

as matters of

curiofity than ufe, I proceed to fpeak of elo-

quent fpeech, and

its

hiflory as an art.

that in the progrefs of fociety,

human

life,

It is plain,

and the commerce

would foon appear,

it

fome

that

fpoke with more grace and beauty, and fo as mcie

incline

to

others

hearers to their fentiments,

the

neither

is it

be early in repute.

hard to perceive, that

In the

who had

thofe

the

tivated focieties,

power of

it is

fo Hill

man

fachem or wife

The

to

human

other
the

v-ailed

all,

in an Indian tribe,

direfts their

councils.

where the

the proprefs of

gradual, and in proportion

arts,

encouragement given

It is to

left,

manby

In uncul-

perfuafion.

faft, like

ftate

to its exercife.

it,

but not otherwife.

be obferved here, that by the confent of

and by the memorials of antiquity

tliat

poetry was more ancient than oratory

perhaps

we may

rather fay, that the

of genius in eloquent expreffion

in profe.

pre-

It

of things, and conflitution

government, favoured

of

aflbciations of

progrefs of oratory towards perfection mufl

have been evidently, in

all

than

would

they muil have been chiefly governed

<Lind,

the

firfl

it

It

why

or

exertions'

were in poetry, not

has frequently been

critical inquiry,

firft

are

made matter

of

poetry was prior to oratory,

and v/hy fooner brought

to

pcrfedtion

do not

perceive very clearly what great; advantage there

LECTURES ON

198
is

ill

determining this queftion, fuppofing

upon the

hit

Left. 5

true reafons

one reafon

we

Ihoul

take to bv

that the circumftance in poetry that gives generally

the higheft pleafure, viz.

fancy,

lead indebted

is

or time, for

its

a llrong and vigorous

to application,

perfedlion

inftrudtion,

therefore poetical pro-j

duftions in general, and that fpecies of them

particular,

which have moil of

ir

mui

that quality,

be as cafily produced in uncultivated times, as anj

other

and, for fome reafons given in a former

mud

cGurfe,

Whereas,
of the
the
is

appear then w^ith the greateft

to

fuccefs in

human

ways of men,
plain

is

poetical

oratory,

heart, and

dif-

eiTedl,

fome knowledge

even fome experience

neceffary

Another

ii

difFerenc<

having generally

produftions

pleafure or immediate entertainment as their defignJ

may

produce that

effeft in

any age

whereas,

th<

circumftances that rendered the orator's difcourf

interefling, are all gone.

Perhaps

to this

we may

add, that the incitement

more general.
poet pleafes, am
obtains fame from every iingle perfonwho reads 01

to poetry are

hears his productions

but an affembly, bulinefsj

and an occafion, are neceffary

lafl is

to the orator.

likewife limited in point of place and

Oratory could not thrive

tion.

bitrary

power

Thij
litua-

in a flate v/here ar-

prevails, becaufe then there is no-

thing left for large affemblies, and a diffulive public,

to

to

determine

whereas poetry

perfons, under any

is

pleafm^

form of government what-

ever.

Thofe who have given the hiftory of oratory,

have rather given us the hillory of the teachers

oJ

Le^.

ELOQUENCE.

5.

that art, than

progrefs and effedls.

its

obferved, however, that in

try, criticifm

genius.

It is

is

199
It

muft be

as well as in

this,

poe-

the child, and not the father of

the fruit of experience and judge-

ment, by refleftion upon the fpontaneous productions of genius.

Criticifm inquires

what was the

caufe of things being agreeable, after the eiFe6l has

Ward

been feen.

fhow

brings a citation from Cicero, to

that the orator's art

The

war.

was older than the Trojan

purport of this

is,

that

Homer

attributes

force to UlylTes' fpeeches, and fweetnefsto Neftor's;

perhaps

alfo

as fimple,

he has chara6lerifed Menelaus' manner

There

and unadorned.

fliort,

however, any certainty in

this art

being

is

not,

much

llu-

died or explained in thefe early times from this citation

for

inimitable

ment,

it

is

Homer

though

fire

is

an excellent poet, of

and great ftrength of natural judge-

not certain that he kept fo perfeclly to

propriety, as to defcribe only the

manner and

ilyle

of things at the time of the Trojan war, which was

250 years before

his

own.

I fliould

be more apt

to conclude, that he had defcribed manners, characters,

and fpeakers as they were in his

little air

We are,

own time, with

of antiquity.

however, told by Paufanias, that the

fchool of oratory in Greece

was opened

of Thefeus, the age preceding that war.

be any certainty in

this, its

If there

being taught in Greece

has been very

ancient indeed

fabulous times,

fcarcely to

it is

firll

in the fchool

but thefe being

be depended upon.

However, it is certain that oratory flourifhed early,

Many cirand was improved greatly in Greece.
cumllances concurred

to

produce

this effe(5l.

The

LECTURES

200

and capacity of the people

fpirit

duction of letters
tion

Lel. 5.

OJT

the freedom of their ftates

public afiembiies

There

cifions.

city of the

the early intro-

but chiefly their

and the
much

is

Greeks

importance of their de-

faid of the fpirit

for all the arts

their climate, fo ferene

is

caufe of

rekon

The

but

a language

Vvdth that

and as they

advantage, they had

However, the

much more powerful

ail is

the former, though perhaps literature

to

be joined with

As

it

is

than both
necelTary

produce any great

to

fome of the other

to

be fure

confiderable.

the bell opportunity of improving.

lafl

and capato

neceflary to the improve-

ment and perfe6lion of

.were early blelTed

and

can have

much more

introduftion of letters

and temperate, might have

all the eiFe6l that a climate

the two other caufes

political iitua-

the frequency of

arts,

effect

particularly painting

ftatuary, an eminent modern critic fays, the

Greeks could not but excel, becaufe they, of all
others, had the befl images from nature to copy.
He fays that the games in Greece, in which the

and

beft

formed bodies

for agility

and ftrength in the

whole country were leen naked, and

ftriving

and

exerting themfelves to the very utmoft, muft have

prefented to perfons of genius originals to draw from,

fuch as in moft oth^r nations never are to be feen.

If this

remark

is juft

in the other arts, the influence

of eloquence in the public affemblies of thefe free

ftates

muft have had a fimilar

eflPed

in the art of

fpeaking.

The

art of

feem

to

he

faid to

is

have

fpeaking in Greece, however, does not

rifen

high

have been

till

fo

the time of Pericles, and

powerful an orator, that

ELOQUENCE.

Lev^. 5.

he kept up his innuencc

-20l

much hy

in the city as

eloquence as tyrants did hy their power.

a palTage of Cicero, which feems

his

There

to fay that

is

he was

and
firft who prepared his difcourfes in writing
fome have been fimple enough to believe that he
read them but nothing can be a more manifeft miftake, becaufe action or pronunciation was by all the
the

ancients confidered as the great point in oratory.

There were

be feen in Cicero and

to

times, orations faid to be of Pericles

great orators

feem

to

the great fame of

very eminent

critic,

might be miflaken

The

all

men

for a

very

in that particular

may

man fame

amples,

Mr

in

influence in public alTem-

we have two very

this

be the work of a very

grace of elocution and the power

fpeaking, but keep up his

Of

come up
Bayle, a

fays juftly,that thefe great

of alion might not only acquire a

blies.

to

Mr

feem

his eloquence.

indifferent compofition

great orator.

Qiiintilian's

but both thefe

be of opinion that they were

not his, becaufe they did not at

to

great Brirfih ex-

Whitfield in the pulpit, and

Mr

Pitt

in the fcnate.

After Pericles there were

Greece, and indeed
till

the time of

all their

many

its

perfeftion.

praiies of this great fpeaker are to be fo

nerally met with, that

all,

ir>

Demoflhenes, when the Grecian

eloquence feems to have attained

The

great orators

flatefmen were orators

I ilisll

not

infift

ge-

upon them

further than reminding you, that thougli

at

no

doubt eminently qualified by nature, he needed and

^received great improvement from art.

The Roman
Vol. II.

eloquence was of much Ihortcr dura*

EECTURES ON

i2i

Le^,

5,

It is true that the Roman ilate being free,

and the aflemblies of the people having much in

tion.

power,

their

been

feems, according to the principles

it

we have gone

upon, that public fpeaking muft have

efteem

in

but there

The Romans were

Valour

unpoliflied people.

and therefore, though

fomething peculiar.

is

many

for

ages a plain, rough,

in

war was

their idol;

be fure from the

to

earliefl

times the affemblies mull have been managed in

by

their fpeakers, yet they

were

concife and unadorned, and probably confifted

more

their deliberations

of telling them

their ilory,

which was of frequent

any

and fhowing their wounds,

among them, than

The firfl fpeak-

practice

artful or paflionate harangues.

any eminence we read of

ers of
hiftory,
little

mention even of them.

were

the

firfl

celebrated

were but

-and they

in the age

Cicero himfelf, and

Roman

in the

makes
Anthony and Craflus
orators among the Romans,

were the Gracchi. Cicero,

from

I believe,

immediately before

his time

it

rather fell

mto

<lecay.

I have faid above,

'before criticifm.

we

tliat

This

genius and excellence was

is

very plain

read of fchools and rhetoricians

for
at

though
different

times and places, thefe are confidered by the great

mailers as perfons quite contemptible.

kind there

is

clamator,*' &.c.

late

The

Greece was

in
as

this

" At hunc (fpeaking of Pericles) non de-

Brutus,

-critic

Of

a remarkable paffage in Cicero, in his

the time

himfelf was the

Romans.

firfl

jufl

Ariftotle,

and truly eminent

who

of Demofthenes
firfl

eminent

critic

flourifhed as

and Cicero
among- the

Ariftotle has laid open the principles of

Lel.

ELOQUENCE.

5^.

203

eloquence and perfuaiion as a logician and philofopher, and Cicero has done

manner,

man

and

it

in a

ftill

more mafterly

as a philofopher, fcholar, orator,

I

confefs, unlcfs

to confult that

we know

he has had

nothing

his

of,

and

many

llatef-

authors

judgement

and penetration are quite admirable, and his books

De Oratore, &c. more finifhed in their kind than

any of

As

his orations themfelves.

they have been and

to the eflfefts of oratory,

are furely very great; but as things feen through a

mift, or at a great diltance, are apt to be miflaken

in their fize
credible,

am apt

many

to think

fay things in-

and make fuppofitions quite contrary to

and therefore

nature and reafon,

Some fpeak and

write as if

all

to

probability.

the ancient orators

had a genius more than human, and indeed by their

ftrain feem rather to extino;uiili than excite

whole

an ardour to excel.

upon a

Some

alfo

feem

to

me

to

go

fuppofition as if all the people in the ancient

republics had been fages, as well as their ftatefmen.

orators.

There

is

a remark to be found in many-

upon a ftory of Theophrailus the philofopher,

from which they infer the delicacy of the Athe-

critics

nians.

That philofopher^

it

feme thing of an herb- woman,

accent not to be a

it

lived there thirty years.

buy

and fhe

i:i

But we are not even cer-

him ftranger implied any more

unknown to her. Befides, though
that Ihe difcovered him not to be an

tain that her calling

were true

fl.:ll,

fecms, called

than that he was

it

him ftranger.
ihows that flie knew him by his
native of Athens, although he had

her anfwer to him,

This, they fay,

feems, went to
at

S2

LECTURES ON

iC4
Athenian

Left. 5.

no more than what happens

"born, this is

in every populous country, that there is fomething

in the accent

which

man

will determine a

to

be of

one country or province, rather than another; and I

am

fomething of opinion, that

this

would be more

Greece than any where

difcernible in

dialeds of the Greek tongue were not

different

reckoned reproachful,
in Britain,

many

as

local differences are.

which therefore people

will endeavour ta

lid themfelves of as Well as they can.

take
in

In

(hort, I

for granted, that an affembly of the vulgar

it

Athens w'as

people

The

elle.

among

an alTembly of

juft like

us,

and a fenate

at

common

Athens in under-

flanding and tafte was not fuperior to the fenate X>

Great

mobs

and that fom of them were but mere

Britain,

and that they were very diforderly,

is plain,

from what we read of Plato being pulled dov/n froift

the delk, when he went up to defend Socrates*

The mofl remarkable

ftory of the effeft of oratory

power over

is that told of Cicero's

This

oration for C. Ligarius.

told

by fome

is

Caefar, in his

very pompoufly

Cafar came

critics, that

to the judge-

ment-feat determined to condemn him, and even

took the pen in his hand

but that he

and

v^^as

at laft fo

to fign his

interefled

moved

that

by

condemnation

;.

Cicero's eloquence,

he dropped the pen, and

granted the orator's requeft.

But fuppofmg the

am

very doubtful of the

fa6ls to

have happened,

juftnefs of the

cian, and as

authority

vanity

remark.

we know he

by mercy,

determined

to

it is

Cacfar

was a

great politi-

did attemj^t to eftablilh his

not unlikely both that he

pardon Ligarius, and to

flatter

Cicero's

by giving him the honour of obtaining

it.

In

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 5,

3^5

chief power in promifcuous affemblies, and there it reigned of old, and reigns

fliort,

Hill,

oratory has

by

its

its vilible

effea

LECTURE

WE

now proceed

to

VI.

confider eloquence as

kinds the

divided into itsthree great

This

blime, the fimple, and the mixed.

is

fu-

very

itylc
unhappily expreffed by Ward, who divides
Low
fublime.
into the lov/, the middle, and the

word which, in itsfird and literal fenfe, fignifiea

never is
fituation, and when applied metaphorically,

is

any inflance ufed in a good fenfe, but always

or bafe and confignifies what is either unhappy,
finances
temptible, as we fay a man's or a ftate*s
We fay a man is in a low ftate of health.
are low.

in

We fay

he

guilty of low,

is

alow, mean,

mean praaices
It

paltry llyle.

was

has

therefore con-

veying a very wrong idea to

of the

different kinds of llyle.

that

make low one

You may obferve

manner fomehave introduced this diftindion in a

They
different from him and other authors.
what

confider

it

as a divilion of

%le.

choofe rather to

great kinds, into

fay, There are three different
be divided.
may
compofition
and

eloquence

which

The

style, which was ufed

reafon is, I believe, the word
but ef; ec ally the
both by the Greeks and Romans,

latter, has, like

meaning.

At

many

lirll it

others, gradually
fignified the

changed

manner

its

of viti^

IICTURES oy

2c^

ting in general, and

even foraetimes ufcd

is

but more commonly

now

Nothing

the diftion.

Led.

in Englifh

fo ftill^

confined to

it is

more common than

is

6.

to fay,

fublimity in fentiments and ftyle, fo as to diflinguiHi

from the

the one

other.

and mediocrity
turally

enough

upon the

am

this confined fenfe there

language

in

fall to

feniible that

even in

a fublimity,. fimplicity,.

is

itfelf,

which

be explained; but

them

whole,, to confider

will na-

it is

better,,

as different kinds

of eloquence, for feveral reafons..

Sublimity in writing

many

particularly

Sometimes

of ftyle.

that they

all ftyles,

owe a

tli<ey

are fo far

from lonng by

great part of their force to

That remarkable example of fublimity

ture, is
**

wholly

and

lies,'*

Some

*'

**

in the fimple.

and there was light."

in fcripture
'*

There

The gods

"

and

in the utmoil fimplicity

examples of fublimity are

it,

with

confifts

of the highefl and moft admired

Let there be

are alfo

it-

in the fcrip-

many

light,.

others

of the Gentiles are vanity

am that

am."

of the other kinds alfo, even the fimpleft^

do fometimes admit great force of exprefllon, thouglv

more

rarely

and there

is.

fimple manner of writing,

a great danger in the

by admitting

The

prefiSons to fwell into bombaii.

lofty ex-

mixed, kind

frequently admits of fublimity of ftyle, and indeed

is

called mixed, as confifting, as

it

were, alternately

of the one and the other, or being

made up of

proportion of each.

The

fublime kind of writing chiefly belongs to

the following fubjefts

tions

Epic poetry, tragedy, ora-

on great fubjeds, and then particularly the

pexoratioa.

Nothing can be too great

for thefe

ELOQUENCE.

Le6t. 6.

fubjeds

07

and unlefs they are treated with fublinntj,

The

they are not treated fuitably.

limple kind of

writing belongs to fcientitic writing, epiilolary wri-

whole inferior

effay and dialogue, and to the

ting,

fpecies of poetry, paftorals, epigrams, epitaphs,

The mixed kind

controverfy. The

fort

firfl

mufl be always fublime

The

in fentiment or language, or both.

may

&-

belongs to hiilory, fyftem, and

be often fublime

in fentiment

fecond

fometimes, and

The mixed admits of

propriety, and may be often

very rarely, in language.

both

with

forts

full

fublime both in fentiment and language.

Let us

now

confider thefe three great kinds of

Gompofition, feparately, in the order in which I

have named them.

Of

I.

very

the fublime

difficult to

manner.

writing.

very remarkable, that

It is

fubjeft,

this

manner of

to explain

it,

rical expreffions.

all

writers

when

on

tliey

have ufed nothing but metapho-

It is,

however, certain in general^

metaphor fhould be kept as much

that

is

not excepting thofe of the greatefl

judgement, accuracy, and precilion,

come

This

defcribe or treat of, in a critical

out of definition or explication*

as polTibie

Thefe

all

agree-

ing, therefore, in this circumflance, feems to fliow^

that fublimity

is

a fingle or fimple idea, that cannot

be refolved, divided, or analyfed, and that a

for

is,

it

The

critics

prifes,

tafle.

good m.afure, a feeling of nature.

tell us, that fublimity is that which far-

in a

ravilhes, tranfports

quently applied to

its effedls

thefe are

upon the

words

fre-

hearers,

and

greatnefs, loftinefs, majefly, are afcribed to the fen-

timents, to

tlie

chaxader, to the perfoa.

An ora,^

LECTURES

20
tion,

or the fublime

compared

03T

Left. 6^

parts of a

poem, have been

to the voice of thunder, or penetration

lightning, to the impetuoiity of a torrent

of

this lafl

is one of the bell metaphorical expreflions for fub-

limitj in eloquence, becaufe

carries in

it

not,

it,

only the idea of great force, but of carrying

away

every thing with

way.

That may be

that oppofes or lies in

it

faid to

irrefill-

on the hearers, and when examined

ible influence

carries it in the idea of great

the fpeaker

its

be fiblime, that has an

yet even this

power and

abilities in

not fuificient,

is

it

has

the charafter of greatnefs, as dillind from that of

Burke, on the Sublime,

beauty, fweetnefs, or ufe.

has endeavoured to Ihow, that fublimity and beauty,,

though generally united in our apprehenfions, are

diftincl

qualities,

Of

fource.

always
terror

head

and to be traced

allied to fuch things

but of this

approbation,

more

will fpeak

common

fources of the fublime.

2.

rangement of words.

5.

all

than

fully

upon a

which

in

other arts.
five

different

Greatnefs or elevation,

Pathos or paflion.

Noblenefs of language.

3, Figure.

4.

Compofition, or ar-

lafl two of
moment, and greatly con-

But thaugh the

thefe are of confiderable

tribute to

and

lefs
i.

it is-

principles of tafle or

firft

to this

Longinus mentions no
of mind.

different

as raife the paffion of

have referved foe that purpofe

propofe to inquire into the

augment the force

as well as beauty of a

difcourfe, I do not think they are

to

to a

fublimity in particular, he fays

f that nature as.

be confidered upon the fame footing with the

other three.

Therefore, leaving what

is to

be

faid.

ELOQUENCE.

Lecl. 6.

Upon them
occur,

will properly

it

conlider the others in their order.

I Ihall

Greatnefs or elevation of mind.

I.

deed the

man

fefles

thefe

is

and his concep-

great,

it

as an advice, that a

man

to great thoughts.

But

what are great thoughts

unable to explain

am

afraid

it,

fhould

myfelf

I confefs

you

if

and unlefs the feeling

is

na-

impoflible to impart

yet

it is

it

feems to be pretty generally underftood.

common

ist

can hardly exprefs himfelf meanly.

Longinus gives

tural, I

in-

It

and, on the other hand, he that pof-

accuftom his mind

aik me,

is

to attain to fublimity of

compolition, unlefs his foul

tions noble

This

and radical fource of fublimity.

iirft

quite impoflible for a

it

when

next head,

to the

2O9

to fay, fuch a

another has a

mean

afpires in its hopes

is

man

or

It is

has a great foul, or fuch

little

foul.

not ealily terrified

great foul

by enemies,

r difcouraged

by

confider a

the effet of a man's outward clr-

little

The mind,

cumftances.
ly

difficulties.

made by any

to

It is

be fure, cannot be wholSentiments and

circumflancesa

Many

ftate are different things.

a great

been in narrow circumftances, and

rafcal has

been a king

have a fenflble
imagine

effedt

at

upon men

when
fame time men

the

mind has

many

little

yet education and manner

have obferved, that

have been

worth while to

in general.

perfons of rank

of real genius^

they have generally excelled in majefly and dignity

of fentiments and language.
tage generally enjoyed

by

This was an advan-

the ancients

whofe writ-

having but their own language

ings remain to us
to iludy, and being early introduced into public
;

life,

and eveu into the conduct of the grcatefl

affairs^

LECTURES ON

210

LeV. 6^

Xeno-

they were led into noblenef^ of fentlment.

phon, Domoflhenes, Cicero, Csefar, were

all

of them

them great generals, as

In modern times, there is a more

great ftatefmen, and two of

well as writers.

complete partition of employments, fo that the

ftatefman, general, and fcholar, are feldom found

united in the fame perfon

in fad, that

when

yet I think

make, 'upon the whole, greater

writers, than thofe

who

remark has

orators and nobler

are fcholars merely, though

In every

of the greateft capacity.

ever, this

appear3

it

ftatefmen are alfo fcholar s, they,

place, that

it is

how-

ftation,

of importance

to fublimity in writing, to endeavour to acquire a

large and liberal

am making
you

manner of thinking.

ufe of this language, I

Whilft I

would caution
mind

againft thinking, that pride and vanity of

are at all allied to greatnefs, in this refpe61:.

is

men

a fet of

to arrogate to themfelves a lai-ge

There

who are pleafed

called free-thinkers,

and liberal manner-

of thinking; and the generality of them are aj

little

creatures as any on the face of the earth*

Mr Addifon compares them to a fly, which lighting

upon a great building, and perceiving the fmall
interftices between the ftones, cries out of vail
chafms and

irregularities,

which

wholly owing to

is

the extreme littlenefs of his light, that

fee the dignity and grandeur of the

When

am upon

fubjed of

this

is

not able to

whole building*
greatjiefs

and

elevation of thought, as one fource of the fublime,

you

Ihould give fome

I Ihall

begin with fome

will naturally expefl that

examples

to illuftrate

it.

out of the fcriptures, where indeed there

.greatelt

number, and thefs

th-e

is

the

noblell that can well

be conceived.
there

am God

alone, and beiides

and thorns againft

me

Who will

in battle ?" &.c.

two paflages inimitably grand.

alfo

me

darkeneth

this that

is

hy words without knowledge

counfel

fet the briars

See

'

no Saviour.'Who

is

2H

ELOQUENCE.

Lecl. 6.

Ifa. xl.

12. and ver. 21. and onwards.

To

mention fome of the fayings in heathen an-

tiquity,

Alexander's

faying to Parmenio

is

cer-

tainly of the great kind, yet perhaps with a confider-

Eble mixture of pride as well as greatnefs.

menio

told

him,

if

Par-

he were Alexander he would a6l

Anfwer
So would I, if I
That of Porus, the Indian king,
When
to Alexander, however, was much greater.
he was Alexander's prifoner, and was afked by that

in a certain

manner.

were Parmenio.

prince
ed.

how

he expefted

Like a king.

vidif met,

to

Caefar's

be treated

he anfwer-

famous faying of

P^eni,

has often been quoted as a concife and

noble defcription of the rapidity of his conquefts

yet I confefs

only an

air of

intended and

we

think

it

very dubious

it

had not

improper vanity, but looks like an

filly

play upon the words, and what

They

call alliteration.

fame length, the fame

ning and ending.

tenfe,

are three

words of the

and the fame begin-

Cicero, in one of his orations, I

believe in that for Marcellus, has a veiy noble

compliment

to Caefar,

given nothing
fiiew

mercy.

there

is

to

men

But of

when he

fays, the

gods had

fo great as a difpofition to
all

great fayings on record,

none that ever made fuch an impreflion

upon me as
He had been

The king

that of

AylifFe to

king James III.

detedcd in fome of the

faid to

him,

Mr

AylilFe, don't

&c.
you know

plots,

LECTURES OK

lit
it is in

mj

power

know

it is

in

ture

to

pardon you

your power, but

Le6l. 6,

Yes, (fays he), I

not in your na-

it is

put you in mind, in reading

It IS necefTary to

books of

criticifm, that

when examples

other ancient writers, that

te taken

all

of greatnefs

Homer and

of fentiment are produced from

the

circumftances mufl

order to form a juft opinion con-

in, in

We

cerning them.

muft remember his times, and

the general belief of his countrymen with regard to

theology, and

many other fubjels. There muft

to make a thing natural, otherwife

be a probability
it is

Homer,
Her feet

not great or noble, but extravagant.

in defcribing the goddefs DIfcord, fays,

were upon the

that

earth,

and her head was covered with

He makes

the clouds.

Pluto look up and affirm,

Neptune would open

hell itfelf,

llffht to

fhine into that dark abode.

of thefe

tiiat

himfelf

appear to

fuch

if all the other

as,

me

and

make

There

are

fufpicious even in

the

fome

Homer

wlien he makes Jupiter brag, that

gods were

to

hang

chain, and earth and fea, and

all

at the

bottom of a

along with them,

tofs them all up as eafily as a ball. Howwas with regard to him, who was taught to
believe in Jupiter littlng upon Mount Olympus, or

he would
ever

it

quaffing Ne6lar in the council of the gods,

modern

and Chriftian writers and fpeakers fhould be careful

any thing

to avoid

lous, or

that

is

extravagant and ridicu-

even fuch allufions to the heathen theology

as could only be proper to thofe

There

is

the

more reafon

believed in

upon

it.

this, that

commonly a great obparticularly with young perfons,

as grandeur and fublimity

jed of ambition,

who

to infift

is

ELOQUENCE.

Lecl. 6.

2x5

they are very ready to degenerate into bombafl.

You

always

ouglit

ought

to

remember,

that the language

be no higher than the iubjecl, or the part

to

of the fubjecl that

th^n immediately handled.

is

See an example of the different ways of a fimple

and a turgid writer, upoii the very fame fentiment,

where the Roman empire was extended to the wefSextus Rufus fimply

tern coail of Spah^c

Hispanias per Decitnum

thus

(t usque

ad Gades

et

lofty flight,

aliquant

&c,

have only further

tells it

ohtinuimus^

oceanum pervenwius,

taking a more
totius,

Brutum

Florus,

Decimus Bi-utus

fays

fublime

to obfervc, that, In

defcriptions, great care Ihould be taken that

be

all

of a piece, and noticing unfuitabie

Longlnus juftly blamed the poet

into view.

that after he

had

faid

every thing he could,

ley
jglit

b:

.efiod,
to

ren-

der the goddefs of darknefs terrible, he add^, that a

{linking

humour ran from her

higlily difgufting, but

nofe

way

no

LECTURE

COME

now

which

lime,

a circumftancc

terrible.

VII.

to the fecond fource of the fubis

pathos,

more commonly called

is, the power of mo-

in Englilli the pathetic, that

ving the paffions.

the fubjed

This

is

a very important part of

a power over the paffions

utmofh confequence to a poet

an orator.

Vol.

and

This every one will perceive,

II.

is

it is all

if

of the

in all to

he only

LECTURES ON

114
what

recollels

upon

influence paffion or fentiment has

words, inclination upon

in other

reafon, or,

He

practical judgement.

the

Lel. 7.

'

that polTefles

this

high degree has the higheft capacity of

Ipower in a
ufefuhiefs,

and

mifchief.

Sublime fentiments and language

is

like wife able to do the greatcfl

may

be formed upon any fubjeft, and they touch the

heart with a fcnfe of fympathy or approbation; but
to inove the paffions of others, fo as to incline their

choice, or to alter their purpofe,

defi gn of

The
upon

chief paffions eloquence

are, rage, terror, pity,

general

is

particularly

tlie

eloquence.
is

may have

occafion

In a heroic poem,

every affection.

every affeftion

may

be faid

work

defire in

though occafionally he

to introduce

intended to

and perhaps

to take its turn

but the

different fpecies of oratory, or the different objecls

and fubje6ls of

it,

may be

faid to divide the paffions.

fpeaker in political or deliberative alTemblies

may

be faid

of rage

he

to

have

may

it

view

in

to excite the paffion

naturally defire 'to incenfe

his

hearers againil their enemies,- foreign and domeflic,

reprefenting the

firft

and the other

worthlefs, to excite contempt.

you have
Orations,

and dangerous,

as terrible

excite averfion and hatred

An

weak

to

or

example oflhis

of Demofthenes's

in the great fubjecl

Philip,

as

king of Macedon

another

in

Cicero's difcourfes againil Catiline and Anthony.

Pity

is

the chief paffion attempted to be raifed at

the bar, unlefs in criminal cafes, where indignation

againil villainy of every
accufer.

much

to a

Terror and

its

kind

is

the part of the

attendants belong very

fpeaker in the pulpit

rage he has no-

Led.

ELOQULNCE.

7.

tiling to

do with but

in

and fleady,

a llrong

But

againft evil.

215

an improper
but

even,

fenfe, to raife

unifofin,

tliis

indignation

a fpeaker from the

pulpit fhould endeavour to convert into compaflion

and wretchednefs of the guilty perfon.

for the folly

Pity feems to be the lingle objcl in tragedy.

One

talent of great

defcriptive

and objects

moment towards

raifing the

and clear imagination, and a

pafTions, is a flrong

manner of fpeaking, to paint fcenes

ftrongly, and fet them before the eyes

of the hearers

to

fele6l fuch

circumftances as

will have the moll powerful efFeci, and to dwell

We

only upon thefe.

lifh a finer

have not any where in Eng-

example of the

pathetic, and the choice

and ufe of circumftances, than the fpeech

w'hicli

Shakefpeare has made for Anthony, in the tragedy

of Cafar.

It

againll thofe

who

raife the fury of the

killed Csefar

could hardly fele6t better

we have

than thofe

AnRomans

appears from the hiilory, that

thony did fuccefsfully

and,

think, he

images and language,

in the Engliih poet

" But yefterday," &c.

I.

To

railing

penetration and
celfary.

the paffions with

fuccefs,

knowledge of human nature

Without

this,

every attempt muft

much
is

ne-

fail.

In

confirmation of this remark, though there are per-fons

much

better fitted for

it

by

nature than others,

the moft powerful in raifing the paffions have

nerally been thofe

who have had

ance with mankind, and pradice in

ge-

mucli acquaintlife.

Reclufc

LECTURES OH

2l6

Ltd:. 7.

and profelTed fcholars,

iludents,

difcover truth, and to defend

will be

able

precepts with clearnefs and beauty

to

moral

or to write

it,

but they are

feldom equal for the tender and pathetic, to thofe

who have been much in what is called the world

by a well known ufe of that word, though al-

moft peculiar

to

There

the Englilli language.

is

perhaps a double reafon for perfons well verfed in

the wriys of men, having the greateft

and therefore
hearts,

likely,

is

it

power upon

They not only know others better,

how to touch them, but their own

the pafiions.

have been agitated by more

thofe w^hofe lives have

paiTions than

been more

calm and even.

To

raifing the pafHons of others,

is

necef-

fary the orator or writer fhould feel what He

would

2.

communicate.
I

am

This

dolcnduin

kindle a

commonly
est primum

fire

known

that

we

me

ipsi tibi.

You may

Si vis

are

we would

critically

believe the thing to be

if

ftill.

we

fuppofe

examine

a pretence

fee that

ho

who

moved by what he

favs, is notwith-

The

offence is even

flanding hirnielf unmoved.

fomething more than barely negative in fome

we

flere,

as well

the paf-

as raife

ice,

own

or impofition altogether,

wiUies us to be

or the trite

it,

while your

the reafon of this, if

it,

a rule, that

attending

with a piece of

iions of others

is,

fo well

almoft alliamed to mention

quotation

it,

is

it

cafes.

man fpeaking -v^'ith coldnefs and indifference, where we think he ought to be deeply
interefted, we feel a certain difappointment, and
If

hear a

are filled with difpleafure

as

if

an advocate was

pleading for a pcrfon accufed of a capital crimc_,

;-r

if

ELOQUENCE.

Lecl. 7.

he

appear with an

fliould

unconcern,

let

what they

will,

of indiiFerence and
and compofitlon be
alwaj-s faulty and difgufting 5
air

language

his

it is

or, let a minifter,

21

when fpeaking on
any levity

fubjedt of eternity, fliow

the

weighty

in his carriage,

mull weaken the force of the mofl moving

it

truths

whereas, w^hen

engaged and

pollefled

paflion he wifhes

up

fclves

after his

we

by

fpcaker wholly

fee the

his fubjecV, feeling every

we

communicate,

to

him wirhout referve, and

very temper, by receiving

give our-

are

to

formed

his inflruc-.

tioiis.

3.

man

diredion nearly allied to

It is a

fliould

never attempt

his hearers higher than

There

it.

are of fuch

are

th.e

fome fubjecls

moment,

this,

raife the

to

that a

paflions of

fiibje^l

plainly merits

that, if

we' are able,

as to dcferve all the zeal

and

we can poflibly beflou^ on them, of which we

may fay, as Dr Young, '^ Paffion is reafon, tranfport
fire

temper here."

A lawyer

believes to be innocent

which he believes

to

for his client,

a patriot for

be in danger

whom

bu% above

a miniiler, for his people's everlafling welfare,

fpeak with as

much

force and

vehemence

temper and frame are fufceptible of

other cafes,
reafon, and

theme.

it

is

make

but in

all,

may

as hi?

many

eafy to tranfcend the bounds

the language

We meet often,

for

more

he

his country^

of

lofty than the

example, with raifcd

and laboured encomiums in dedications, a fpeciea

of writing the mofl difficult to fucceed in of any

The

almofl that can be named.

by

this

mark

perfon honoured

of the author's efleem,

is

very

fel-

21

LECTURES ON

dom

placed in the fame rank

he

bj him.

is

ritorious,

fentation

it
:

Led.

by

ihc public that

Belides, though he

were really me-

feldom comes fairly up

the

the repre-

to

to correfpond to the picture,

t\.-uth is,

he ihould be almoil the only meritorious perfon of

the age or place in
deriiig hov/ cold

which he

xeu, and particul?.rly to thofe

little

wonder

contempt.

tJiat

lives.

compliment

who

read

coml-

all

it,

there

have often thought the fame

when

name perhaps was hardly

where the prejudice of
of friendihip, do juft

dies, v.'hofe

giac
line,

was

we

in the newfpapers,

relations, or the

v^'hat

they pleafe.

death of a perfon
it

man

whom

partiality
I

remem-

fhall not

muft be confeffed, not inconfi-

much

derable for literature, but otherwife had not

ttat

is

thin-j

ever heard of before,

have a fplendid charafcer of him

name, who was,

the

to

fuch rhapfodies are treated with

of funeral panegyrics

ber, at the

Now,

this is

either great or amiable about him, an ele-

poem was publiflied, which began with this

" Whence this ailonifliment in evQiy face ?"

Had the

thing been really true, and the public had.

been deeply

affected with the lofs, the introduction

had not been inelegant

preilion,

when

but on fuch a pompous ex-

the reader recollected that he had

marks of public aftoniihment, it could not

but tempt him to fmile.
4. Another important remark to be made here^
feen no

is,

that a writer or fpeaker, in attempting the

thetic, fhould conlider his

as the fubjet.

Some

own

are naturally of a lefs

warm

and glowing imagination, and in themfelves

ceptible of a lefs*

pa-

natural turn, as well

fuf-

degree of pallion than others

-,

EL0QUEXC.

Lecl. 7.
tliefe

fhonld take

they cannot

crire

finilh,

or

ii^y

not to attempt

a illght tha:

enter upon fuch fentlments

and language, as they will probably fink, as it were,

and fall away from in a little time. Such lliould
inftead of

gravity and folemnity,

lubftitute

and only attempt to

make

fire,

clear to

their difcourfc

the uiidcrflanding, and convincing to theconfcienc?

perhaps, this
difcourfes,

may

is

in general the bift

and moral writings

way

in ferious

bccauie, though

not produce fo ilrong or ardent emotions,

more lading

often leaves a deeper and

Of
It

is

it
it

imprelTion.

Figiiraths Speech.

common to meet

with

this exprefT^on,

"

The

This expreffion

is
tropes and figures of rhetoric."
nor
fynonymous,
the terms are neither
not juil
:

one genus. Figure

are they two diflina fpecies of
is one of the fitrope
a
expreffion
general
is

the

gures, but there are

many more.

a figure, but every figure

we may

fay, a trope is

is

Every trope

not a trope

an expedient

is

perhaps

to render lan-

and may be
guage more extenfive and copious,
figure is the efiea
m^ed in tranquillity ; whereas, a
cannot be
however,
diftinaion,
This
paffioa.

of
tropes are oftentimes
univerfally maintained; for
well as of the narrownefs
the effed of pafTion, as
deparFigures may be defined, any

of language.
ture

of expreflion
from the plain dired manner
the pafinch as are fuggefled by

and particularly
lions,

and

diiT.r,

on that account, frcm the

way

in

LECTURfTs OX

20

Lecl:. 7.

which we would have fpoken, if in a ftate of perfect tranquillity.

Tropes are a fpecies of figures,
in which a word or phrafe is made ufe of in a fenfe
dilTerent

from

and proper fignlfication

its firfl

*'

The Lord

'*

fun and fliield" are ufed tropically.

a fun

is

and

fliield j"

as,

where the words

There

are

feveral different tropes.

1.

Metonyiny.

This

very general kind of

is

trope, comprehending under it feveral others

the
meaning of it is a change of name, or one nam.e for
;

another.

This

The

may

caufe

hind,

that

author for

for the thing contained

drink the cup, that

as,

4.

part

the whole, or the whole for a part

my

houfe

fmall part of

c.

bums.

it

may be

be given.

name

tic

my

houfe

6.
as,

he

2.

the

and

is

is

import

may

reafons

man

monarch.

or,

All

are metonymies.

might

as trope

change of expreffion

its natLiral

a hundred

many

a voluptuous

This

general term,

which any term

roof,

only a

called Synecdoche,

a Nero, for a cruel

many more

Metaphor.

is,

my

when

proper name for a charaftcrif-

Sardanapalus, for

thefe

is

as,

fire,

is,

taken for

is

a particular

given, that

on

is

This

general term for

reafons

i.

effetl

the liquor in the cup.

for

ways

feveral

effeft, or the

as when we fay, cold death, bemakes cold Old age kept him be2. The
is,
made him weak, &c.
his works.
3. The thing containing,

for the caufe

caufe death

may be done
be put for the

it is

as,

well

for

it

a fpecies

have been

alfo fignifies

of trope,

by

applied in a fenfe different from

as

when we

fay, a tide of plea-

fure, to exprefs the impetuofity of pleafure

whea

ELOQUENCE.

Lecl. 7.

221

the heavens are laid to be over our heads as brafs,

and the earth under our

Allegory.

3.

This

feet as iron.

continuing the metaphor,

is

by a variety of
"
kind
as,
The Lord is
fame
maketh me to lie down in green
and extending

expreffions of the

it

my

me

keth

to feed befide the

Irony.

4.

In

meaning

their

and wifdom
5.

uiing
'^

as,

iliall

Hyperbole.

ilill

fhepherd, he

paftures

as,

ma-

vvaters."

words directly contrary

No

to

doubt you uiq the people,

you."

die with

When

beyond

things are carried

more ftrong-

their truth, to exprefs our fentiments

ly

he

" Swifter than

the wind,

whiter than

fnow."
6. Catachrefis

words are ufed

in

impofhble fenfe

is

as,

the

fijft

trope of

when

all,

an oppoiite, and fometimes

when

in

an

chains and Ihackles are

called bracelets of iron.

Figi/res,

Figures cannot be
ufed

feveral

This

miration,

vens

ful

ufed

This

is

ways.

whom

'*

I.

way
as,

of expreiling ad-

Oh

frequently the exprefiion of a doubt-

mind, in fufpence what

her

may be
Exclamation

and each figure

Alas Heaby perfons much moved. 2.

bed by Virgil, in the

left

than a

or lamentation

&.C.

Doubt.

different

notliing elfe

is

becaufe

fully enumerated,

they are without number

to do.

diftrefs of

This

is

defcri-

Dido, when Eneas

Shall I go to the neighbouring kings,

have

fo often defpifed ?"

Sometimes

it

222

LECTURES ON

LecSl. 7.

a beautiful figure, and obliges perfons to take

is

notice of

and fometimes of what they would

" Who is this that Co-

it,

otherwife have omitted

meth from Edom?" 3. Epanorthofis. This is

a correftion or improvement of what has been faid
:

'*

You

muft have
This

my

is

militude.
;

fucked a tygrefs."

a redundancy

he fpake

ears,

other

This
"

as,

is

He

6. Diftribution.

enumeration
**

you

are not truly the fon of a goddefs, nay,

is

4.

Pleonafm.

have heard

it

with his mouth."

it

with

5.

Si-

comparing one thing with anbe like a tree planted," &:c.

iliall

This

of

Their throat

"

as,

conlifls

of

particular

images

correfpondent

feveral

an open fepulchre, their tongues

have ufed deceit."

7.

Profopopeia.

fons dead or abfent, or different

When

per-

from the fpeaker,

are brought in fpeaking

country or Italy, and

all

the public faying to him,

Marcus Tullius,

v^^hat

'*

When

Apoilroplie

Cicero fuppofes his

as,

are

you doing ?"

dead or abfent,

perfons

8.

or

any inanimate things, are fpoken to as Cicero

fays, "
and
vos ;^^ or, " Hear, O. heavens
;

.'

give ear,

a fpeaker

earth !"

calls

q.

upon

Communication.

his hearers to fay

When

what ad-

vice they would give, or what they woulcl have

done

different

from what he, or the perfon

he defends, has done

in this cafe?

terrogation.
as,

"

What

which you

What

Putting
fruit

are

What

do novv

fliould

a thing

home

had you then

now

whom

could you have done

afliamed ?"

to

10. In-

the readers

in thofe things of

Left. 8.

ELOQUENCE.

LECTURE

1HAVE now gone

223

VIIL

through the account given

and figures of rhe-

in the fy (terns, of the tropes

by which you will fufficiently underftand the

meaning of both. The proper applications, however, of them, is a matter of much greater motoric,

much

ment, and of
a

greater difficulty.

few remarks before

tion to

I.

Perhaps

make

will

fubjeft, in addi-

tlie

what hath been already

the different parts of

what

I clofe

interfperfed through

it.

will not be improper to confider

it

by figures. I have
introduced them here as a means of giving fublimity to a difcourfe but may there not be fome
the purpofe intended

is

little

we

what are the particular

not inquire,

figures

of

and refolution of that purpofe

analylis

Are

tive fpeech is

the fame

It is certain,

that figura-

probably, different figures are proper to exadmiration, de-

pity, hatred, rage, or difdain.

from the explication of

befides this,

we may

effecls of figures that

ed with paffion

of

made

This appears

figures formerly given.

obferve, that there are

feem

to

But,

fome

be wholly unconned-

mention

tliefe I ffiall

nament, explication, convi6lion.

is

of

very powerful in raifing the paffions.

prefs or excite difterent paffions

fire,

may

the effedls of figures in general, and

all figures,

And

eilecls

tliree,

Sometimes

ufe of merely for ornament.

Of

this

or-

figure

RoUin

gives us an example, in which an author fays,

**

The

king, to give an eternal

mark of

the.efleem

LECTURES ON

S24

Lel. 8.

and

with which he honoured a great ge-

friendiliip

rieral,

gave an

place

illuftrious

his glorious

to

afhes, amidil thofe mafters of the earth,

who

pre-

ferve on the magnificence of their tombs an image

of the

may

Under

luflre of their thrones."

be reckoned

all

head

this

the examples of the ufe of

fi-

mean and low

in

gures, to raife things that are

by

themfelves, to fome degree ef dignity,

the phra-

feology, or to give a greater dignity to any thing

than the fimple idea, or the proper

convey, as

if

name would

one fhould fay, Looking round the

fcene, and obferving the bounteous gifts of Provi-

dence for the fupport

inflead of,

The

abundance.

in

may be

head

of innumerable

grafs and corn every

Perhaps,

reckoned,

creatures,,

where growing

under the fame

alfo,

the cloathing

other

in

terms, any thing that might be fuppofed difagreeable, or difgulling

as

when

the ferrants of Milo killed

fay, interseceniJitf

Cicero confefTes, that

Clodius, he does not

but he fays,

" They did

which every good man would wifh

do

in like

circumftances."

that the greatell delicacy and

abk

is

fliall

only obferve,

judgement imagin-

necefiary in the ufe of figures with this view,

becaufe they are very apt to degenerate into

baft.

that

his fervants to

Young

perfons, in their

firft

bom-

compofitions,

and efpecially when they have a good deal of ancient literature frelh in their heads, are very apt to

be faulty
fentiment,

in this particular.

common

which any body might

ufe,

word, or

and every

body would underftand, they think mean and below them, and therefore they have recourfe to unneceJQTary figures,

and hard or learned phrafes.

In-

ELOQUENCE.

Lecl. 8.
ftead of

them

walking about the

the author of the Rambler,

way

moft faulty this

the

of smartness.

calls a reciprocation

Another ufe of

make

is

of any writer of character,

play of wit, or a few ftiokes of raillery,

little

he

they perambulate

fields,

they do not difcover a thing, but recognifc

Johnfon,

it.

II5

figures

more

a thing

may be faid

general,

for explication,

is,

to

to

This, in

clearly conceived.

be the ufe of the fimilitude

only, I think, v/hen figures are ufed for illuftralion,

as

it is

much

judgement,

and

was before

real

to ailifl the

make

to

the

imagination as the

which

impreilion,

very ftrong.
For example, when Solomon fays, " Let a bear robbed

and

juft,

of her whelps meet a man, rather than a fool in

" If you bray a fool in a mortar, he

will return to his folly." " The fooliili man walketh

his folly."

by

the

way, and he

faith to

every one that he

is

fool."

A third ufe

of figures

may be

faid,

properly, to be for conviction, or to

more fully yield to

fupport what we have faid,

although im-

make

us

readily or

the truth

to

that perfons of

judgement are referred

waters

move without

in fpeech,

noife

or

that

as

more

when,
found

we add, deep
men in emi-

nent ilations are expofed to obfervation and cenfure.

"

A city

all

fuch

that

is fet

litude is not an

2.

it

to the imprefi[ion

II.

it is

certain, that

In

a fimi-

good deal of evidence, and

made upon

fecond remark

Vol.

cannot be hid."

hill

argument, yet the analogy of nature

feems to carry in
adds

on a

cafes, therefore,

is,

the mind.

that figures of everr

LECTURES ON

26

kind

fliould

The

for.

come

naturally, and never be fought

delign of explaining the feveral kinds of

you
Arguments

figures, is not to teach

them.

correl

Left. 8.

muft endeavour

make them,

to

illuftrations

we

figures never.

If

and

to invent, but

but to

they do not flow fpontaneons, they are always forIf a

ced.

man, having proceeded too

far in a fub-

bethinks himfelf, that he will here introduce

je61,

a fimilitude, or an allegory, or a profopopeia, &:c.

he will either mifs of

it

altogether, or he will pro-

duce fomething vaftly more jejune and

poiTible for

it is

It puts

me

any man

mind of

in

to

make

than

infipid,

without figures.

the ridiculous chafms that

fome perfons bring themfelves

to

in

converfation,

w^hen they offer to bring a fimilitude which has

They will fay, " He
not yet occurred to them.

and roared,

raged, and raved,

know what."

jult

like

don't

Figures iliould'be the native ex-

preilion of pafTions or conceptions already felt, as

they are the means of raifing pafiions in thofe to

whomy

They

ou fpeak.

fhould, therefore,

be pof-

terior in point of time to the feelings of the fpeak-

The

although prior to thofe of the hearers.

er,

great purpofe, therefore, of criticifm on this part

of the fubjeft,

and

is

to

prune the luxuriancies of nature,

fee that the figures

3.

be

juft

and natural.

have already, in fpeaking

had occafion

to

upon the

tropes,

give fome rules as to the ufe of

them, particularly

as to the propriety

and confillency

But there are fome things to be obfervcd

There are two chafurther for explaining them.
of them.

rafters frequently given to tropes, efpecially to

taphors,

which deferve

to

be confidcred.

me-

The one

Led.
is

ELOQUENCE.

8.

22)

Thefe are by,

ftrcngth, the other is boldnefs.

no means the fame.

That

a flrong metaphor,

is

or image, that gives us a very lively impreffion of

As

the thing reprefented.

'*

A ftone

is

fooPs wrath

is

or metaphor,
JLift

that which,

A bold

upon

It is

the refemblance

There

image,
is

from

eafily or rea-

called a

alfo

but in one

is

where

not any

man,

the whole,

would not

dily have occurred to another.

when

v*'ife

weighty, but a

confiderably removed

is

obfervation, and

bold image,

is

heav-ier than both."

is

and ilrong, but

common

that of the

heavy, and the fand

to

be feen a

colleclion of bolder images, than in the

book of

fingle point.

is

Job, particularly in
liorfe,

feems

among which
to

excel

to thunder,

one

liken the

w^ould not

mane of

have occurred

a horfe

every

to

neither in idea does the refemblance hold but

in one particular, that the flowing

the

following

in particular the

" Haft thou cloathed his neck

To

with thunder?"

defcription of the v^ar-

the

mane

is

and waving of

the fheets and forked flakes oi

like

lightning.

LECTURE

1NOW come
writing.
to

the limple

to coniider

manner of

If I could explain this fully, fo as

make every one

clearly to underftand

the fame time incline

i:ould

IX.

you

to

it,

and

admire and fludy

it,

at
I

think a very difHcult and important point

LECTURES ON

228

Lccl. 9.

was gained.
It is exceedingly difficult to bring
young perfons, efpecially, to a tafle for the limple
Tvaj of writing.

monaent, not fo

an exercife of

Thej are
much the

felf-denial, to

when they might have

ferv'e,

apt to think

faid

it

of

little

object of ambition, as

it

fay a thing plainly,

nobly.

would ob-

therefore, in the very beginning, that

is

it

a miftake to coniider fimplicity and fublimity as

iiniverfally oppolite

for,

on the contrary, there

is

not only a great excellence in fome performances,

which we may
fuch as a flory

wholly of the fimple kind,

call

an

told, or

epiftle written,

with

all

the beauty of fimplicity, but, in the moll fublime

and animated compofitions, fome of the greateft

fentiments derive their beauty from being cloathed
in limple language.

Simplicity

of fome kinds of compolition.

ever fo great and interefting,

even as necelTa-

is

ry to fome parts of an oration, as

it is

to the

Let the
it

is

whole

fubjei:

be

prudent, decent,

necelTary, to begin the difcourfe in a cool and dif-

That man who

pailionate manner.

iliould

begin

an oration with the fame boldnefs of figure, and

the fame high pitch of voice that would be proper

towards the clofe of

would wholly prevent

But how
writing

iikeft to

common
vious,

ftiall

we

It is,

and
life.

would commit one of the

it,

againft

greateft faults

It

few or no

upon

and,

think,

the hearers.

manner of
that which is

explain the fimple

fay

leaft

propriety,

its efFel

many

authors,

removed from the language of

muft be, therefore, eafy and obfigures in the expreffion, nothing

obfcure in the fentiments, or involved in the

tnod.

Long

fentences are contrary to

it,

me-

words

ELOQUENCE.

Ledl:. 9.

uncommon

either difficult or

Cicero and Horace

it.

critics

men

have faid

it is

faid,

and

that which,

hear, they think that they themfelves

have faid the fame, or that

own

preflion of their

remark
but yet

further, that
is

not

what feems
Ut

fays,

could

to

generally

be eafy,

sibi giiivis speret

further obferve, that what is

always carries in

truly limple,
its

it is

all

whea

kind of ex-

They

thoughts.

Horace

We may

ulcm, &.C.

eafy in

as

juft a

it is

with

inconfillent

are

have both

them,

after

229

the idea of being

it

production, as well as in imitation

and

indeed the one of thcfe feems neceffarily to fuppofe

Whatever feems

the other.

Itudy and
is

much

thony's fpeechin Shakefpeare

from Cicero's

"

am

of
It

An-

no orator, as

Kollin has given ui au adnin-able

is," Sic.

example of a ilory

in

ellccl

iuU-oduclion of

iinely exemplified in the

Brutus

be the

to

invention, cannot be funple.

told v.ith a beautiful limplicity,

There

Offices.

is

an example alfo

Livy's account of the battle of the Horaiii and

more

Curiatii, only with a little

fion,

jecl

as the importance

feemed

10 require

force of expref-

and folemnity of the fub-

But

it.

it

requires a very

mallerly knowledge of the Latin language, to perceive the beauties fully,

Rollin in the

firfl

tioned in the

lafl.

guage

The

who

that

inllance, or

Tlicre

more

excels

in

is

are pointed at

might

eafily

no author

by

be men-

in our laa^

nmplicity than Addiion.

Spectator, in general, indeed, but efpeciallj

the papers written

by him,

excel in this quality,

Eafe and elegance are happily joined in them, and

nature

itfelf,

as

it

were, feems

U3

to

fpeak in them,

LECTURES OH

23<^

Lecl. 9.

If fome of the later periodical writers have equal-

even excelled them, in force or elegance^

led, or

not one has ever

The

come up

them

to

in iimplicitj.

which

fubjefts, or the fpecies of writing in

fimplicitj chiefly fliines, are, narration, dialogue,

epiflolarj writing, effaj writing, and all the light-

er fpecies of poetry, as odes, fongs, epigrams, ele-

The

and fuch like.

gies,

ancients v/ere remark-

able for a love and admiration of limplicity, and

fome of them remain

Cyrus,

is

to us as

Xenophon,

excellence.

its

eminent examples of
in his inftitiition

of

particularly remarkable for a fweet and

He

dignified fimplicity.

ufes neither language nor

In the

ideas that are difficult and far-fetched.

fmaller compofitions of the ancients, as odes, epi-

grams, &.C. they were

them,

and

They
art,

at the

and

grown

fame time making

artlefs,

according to

into a proverb, Artis est

beauty of fimplicity

may

or be at all perceived

but

quite eafy and

natural.

placed their great glory in bellowing

and

eafy

at prodigious pains to polifli

make them

all

it

to

the

faying

celare artem.

not appear at

by perfons of

much

appear quite

firll

now
The
fight,

a vitiated tafte

perfons of good judgement immediately,

and the bulk of mankind in time, are charmed

with what

is

quite eafy, and yet truly accurate and

elegant.
It
is

ought

to

be carefully obferved, that fimplicity

from lownefs and meannefs,

quite a different thing

and the great

art

of a writer

is to

preferve the one,

without degenerating into the other.

It is

the

eafiefl:

thing in the world to fpeak or write vulgarifms, but a

perfon of true tafte will carefully avoid every thing

ELOQUENCE.

Lecl. 9.

of that kind.

25I

For example, one who- would write

iimply, and as near the lano-uao;e of plain people

in ordinary difcourfe as

poflible, v/ould yet avoid

every abfardity or barbarifm that obtains a place

in common converfation, as to fay, " This here
table,

and that there candle."

It is alfo

quite con-

trary to fimplicity, to adopt the quaint expreflions,

or cant phrafes, that are the children of fafhion,

and obtain for a

little,

fome particular

or in

The Spedator

and not in others.

great fpirit and propriety,

were introduced

feveral of

into converfation

places,

attacked, with
thofe that

and writing in

his time, fuch as moh^ rep, posy bite, ha7nhoo%le^

feveral others.

Moil of them he

and

fairly defeated,

but one or two of them got the better of him, and

are
as

now

freely introduced into the language, fuch

Johnfon alfo has put hambooxle in his Dic-

m:i}).

tionary,

which he

buthnot

is

him

calls,

in the

way

cither not have

of ridicule

been

low word. Arwas plainly ufed by

indeed, a

his authority, but

it

and therefore

it

fbould

in the Di6lionary at all, or

fuch an authority fhould not have been given for

it.

It is

exceedingly

lent judgement, to
plicity,

or idea.

and yet
I

to

to

judge of pure didlion

in

it is

life,

judgement are apt

tremes, to fwell too

good deal of the

and a thorough acquaintWriters and fpeakers

ance with the bell authors.

little

eafy to be a thorough

any language but our own,

that, Vv-ithout a

knowledge of human
of

defcend to great fim-

keep out every low expreffion

do not think

and not even in

and requires an excel-

difficult,

be able

at

much on

times to go into exthe one

hand, and

Led.

LECTURES ON

0.^2

what

to fail into

is

and

\iilgar

ofFenfive

9,

on the c*

thsr.

When
there

is

fpeaking on fimplicity, I obferve, that

a Simplicity in the tafte and compoiition of

a whole difcourfej different from fimplicity of fentiitient

and language

will incline a

man

This

in the particular parts.

avoid

to

unneceffary orna-

-all

ment, particularly the ornaments of fafhion, and

mode

the peculiar drefs or

of the times.

We

fay

in architecture, that a building is in a fimple flyle^

when it
is

has not a great multiplicity of ornaments, or

not loaded with beauties, fo to fpeak.

remarkable, that books

will differ very
fpe6l

much

ments then
an inflance

grown

af

this

Scougal's Life of
is

leafl

in vogue, continue in

the others are

It is

very

fame age

one from another in this re-

and thofe which have

in the

v/ritten

ridiculous.

God

of the orna-

reputation

when

I will give

fmall religious

in the Soul of

you

treatife,

Man, which

written with great fimplicity, and yet dignity^

and

may now be

tion

by

read with pleafure and approb?.-

perions of the befl tafte

while moft of the

other writers of his age and country are ridiculous,

or hardly intelligible.

Perhaps

it

fimplicity, to

may

help us to form right notions of

confider

the greateil enemies to

1.

One

is,

what

of this the greateil ex-

ample in an author of merit,

Rambler

c^r

abilradion of fentiment, or too great

refinement of any kind

jaiilies

are the oppofites,

it.

is

the writer of

almoft every page of his writings

tlie

fur;-

us with inilances of departure from fimpli-

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 9.
city,

233

partly in the fentiment, and partly in tUe

diftion.
2.

Another

allegory, and efpecially far-fetch-

is,

ed allulions, as in the example which the Spelator

who

gives of a poet,
this is little

who

fpeaks of Bacchus' caft coat

better than a riddle

difcern

will take a

it,

the

god of wine

therefore an

empty

wine

is

kept

be called Bacchus' caft coat.

A third enemy to fimplicity

introduces terms of

but by thofe

who

in

is,

fpoils fimplicity

an afFeftation

many ways

it

are adepts in a particular branch.

under the name of pedants.

word pedantry has been

to thofe addicted

which cannot be underilood

art,

Such perfons have been long expofed

the

caHi^ and

caik, or at leail an ufelefs one,

3.

This

reflect,

mythology, Bacchus

may

of learning.

and even thofe

time to

little

that according to the heathen

was

to ridicule,

Sometimes, indeed,
in a

manner confined

to claffic literature,

and

who

in-

termix every thing they fay with fcraps taken from

the learned languages

but this

is

quite improper,

for lawyers, phyficians, dunces, or fchoolmafters,

are equally ridiculous,

when they

fill

their difcourfe

with words drawn from their particular

4.

The

mention

is,

fliould not
reft,

as

only other

enemy

an ambition

have been

made

fo

to excel.

much

art.

fimplicity I fhall

to

This, perhaps,

divided from the

the great principle

from whicii the

Nothing more certainly renders a

reft

proceed.

man

ridiculous, than an over forwardnefs to difplay

his excellence

he

is

not content with plain things,

and particularly wirh fuch things as every body

LECTURES ON

234
might

Lel. 9.

becaufe thefe would not diftinguifh

fay,

him.

On

the whole, as I obferved on fublimity, that

one of the befl and fureil ways to attain

think nobly

fo the bell

think fimply, to avoid

way

all

man

little

to

affedation, to attempt to

form your manner of thinking

nial.

was

it

to write fimply, is to

to a noble

felf-de-

about what people

folicitous

think of him, or rather having his attention fixed

upon quite another purpofe,

viz. giving information,

or producing convilion, will only attain to a fimple

m.anner of v^riting
in

it

all

refpeds.

As

to the

confiils

mixed

and indeed he will write befl

fiyle or

not need to fay any thing

but only

manner of

writing, as

of the mixture of the other two,

mdve

application

of

remark or two, of

the ufe

The mixed kind

it.

chiefly confifis of hiftory

I ftiall

by way of explaining

of writing

and controverfy.

great quality necefiary to execute

it

it,

and

The

properly,

is

foundnefs of judgement, to determine on what fubjefts,

and on what parts of fubjets,

to write with fimplicity,

one would

it

is

proper

and on what with force

not to go beyond, but juft to gra-

vvifh

tifv a reader's inclination in this refpel.

There
greatefi;
is

are

many

cafes

both admitted and required

beauty and

all

defcription,

is

who
tlie

and

hiilory,

in

where the

fublimity both of fentiments and language

;

particularly all the

the force that can be admitted into

of importance in hiftory.

Thofe

will read, in Robertfon's Hiftory of Scotland,

account he gives of the aftonifliment, terrox,

indignation,

that

appeared

in

the

Englifti

ELOCVUENCE,

Lecl. 9.
jcourt,

when news was brought

in the

Paris, or,

of the maflacre at

fame author, the account of the

Mary Queen

execution of

255

of Scots, will fee the

The

force and fublimrty of dtfcription.

difference

jbetween fublimity of fentiment and language in an

hiftorian,

and in a poet or orator, feems

refemble the diiference between the

naged horfe, when reined

marching with a firm and

fame when

made

we

to

maand

the rider,

ftately

pace, and the

We

fhall enter a little into this

confider the different images that are

of in the different

ufe

me

of a

ftraining every nerve in the eager con-

tention in a race.

matter, if

by

in

to

fire

we

In poetry

arts.

fay, a beautiful, ftriking, fhining metaphor, fer-

vent, glowing imagery.

animated,

In hiftory

irrefiflible.

we fay, warm,
we ufe the words

In oratory

force, noblenefs, dignity,

and majefty, particular-

ly thofe laft attributes of dignity and majefty.

He-

rodotus has been often called the father of hiftory,

though,
this

confefs,

title

being the

apprehend he has obtained

chieily becaufe of his

firft

lar hiftory

that ever

antiquity, and his

gave any thing of a regu-

but though he has fome things auguft

many

enough, yet he has admitted fo

ftories,

incredible

and even peculiarities i:uo his work, as

very much detracts from

its

dignity

we

muft, in-

deed, impute a good deal of this to the age in

which he

lived,

tinguifliing truth

of later ages,

and the impoffibility of their

from falfehood,

who have had

pad experience.
Hiftory, indeed,

fo well

dif-

as tliofe

advantage of

the

all

is

not only of the mixed kind

of w^riting, fo as to admit fomctimes fublimity, and

Led. 9."

LECTURES ON

2^6

fometimes fimplicity, but thole ftyles fhould be realThe mofl

ly blended togetlier, in every part of it.
noble and animated fentiments, charaders, or defcriptions in hiflory, ibould yet be cloathed

with fuch a

gravity and decency of garb, fo to fpeak, as to give

an

air

to a

of fimplicity to the whole.

poem,

that the author fays but

perfon, but
all

makes

can carry the hearers

jel

but above

as w^ifh

all,

little

own

in his

the charadters fpeak and fay

and in an orator

an advantage

It is

an advantage, when he

it is

from himfelf

oti'

to his fub-

an hiftorian fhould not

fo

much

to fhine, but, with the coolnefs of a philofo-

pher, and the impartiality of a judge, ihould

fet

the

aftors and tranfaftions before the reader.

Controverfy

which ought

to

is

another fabject of the mixed kind,

be

in general written with fimplicity,

yet will fometimes admit of the ornaments of elo-

quence

of this

fpeak a

I fhall

wards, and therefore fhall

now

troverfy d'ifers from hiflory, in that

admits of paflion and warmth,

be a fufhcient foundation
writer

v/ill

more

little

after-

only add, that con-

when

laid for

it ;

it

fometimes

ther-e

feems to

a controverfial

ei^deavour to interefl his reader, and

excite either contempt or indignation againfl his ad-

verfary.

After having given you this view of the three

great kinds of writing, or, as they are fometimes
called, different flyles,

it

may

not be amifs to nb-

ferve, that there are diflinftions of flyle,

which

it is

proper that an able writer fhould cbferve, that do

not range thcmfelves, at

under thefe
through

all

iliree

ieail

not fully and properly,

heads, but

may be

the kinds of eloc[uence.

laid to

run

Led.

ELOQUENCE.

9.

Many eminent

237

authors have faid, that the climates

have fome effed upon the

ftyle

warmer

that in the

is more animated, and the figures

more bold and glowing and nothing is more common, than to afcribe a peculiarity of ftyle, and that

countries the ftyle

particularly elevated and full of metaphor, to the

orientals, as if

But

if I

it

belonged to that part of the globe.

am not miftaken,

both this and other things,

fuch as courage, that have been attributed to the

climate, belong either not to the climate at

fociety

occalion to fee that

ftate

how

ftiould there

to

have before had

where there are few or no

In a

ideas,

will read the

be abftracl terms

poem

north of Scotland, he will find as

Perfia.

The

ftate

of fociety, then,

particular colour to the ftyle; and

and countries are

difterent ages

the climate does but

little,

hills

many

any thing compofed

as in

abftraft

If any

of Fingal, which appears

have been compofed on the bleak

as bold,

or in

narrow languages are figu-

all

red.

body

We

and manners of men.

all,

to the ftate of

a fmall meafure, and are rather owing

by

in
is

of the

and

figures,

Arabia or

what gives a

this the ftylesof

diftinguiftied.

That

may be feen j uft by compar-

ing ancient and modern Italy; what difference between

the ftrength and force of the ancient Latin tongue,

and the prefent

Italian language, in the expreffion of

fcntiments

muft therefore vary with fentiments

It

and manners; and what difference between the

and

inflexible

the effeminate foftnefs of a

they breathed the fame

air,

fame

go a

foil.

VOL.

II.

ftern

bravery of a free ancient Roman, and

I will juft

modern

Italian

yet

and were nurfed by the

little oft'

from the fub-

LECTURES ON

238

Le6l. 9.

jeft to fay, that a very late author (Lord Karnes)

feems

think that the courage of mankind

to

verned by the climates

is

go-

he fays, that the northern

climates produce hardened conflitutions, and bold

and firm minds

that invafions

from north to fouth

miftaken
them.

have been made

but, I apprehend, he

here, both in his fa6ls

be

Invafions have not always been made from

north to fouth

for the

Roman arms penetrated very

far to the north of their territory

'conquerors of the eaft in

ried their

arms

ilances

firll

great
car-

and where the conqueft

was owing

to other

circum-

and Dean Swift fays, much nearer the

was

it

The

it

the

Egypt and Babylon

to the north

ran the other way,

truth,

may

and the reafons of

fromi poverty to plenty.

defign of this digrefilon

is

to ftiow, that not

only the circumftances that appear in a language,

but feveral others that have

owe very little

climate,

to

kind and the progrefs of

that great

modern

it,

but to the

fociety.

is

ftate

by

far fo

to

of man-

The maxim

alfo true of

that natural caufes are not

affirmed,

been attributed

writer, Montefquieu,

applies to population,

moral caufes.

alfo

of

which he

language

powerful as

x\llowing, therefore, as fome have

that the northern climates

may

give a.

roughnefs and harfiinefs to the accent and pronunciation,

believe

climate

it is

all that

we

can expe6l from

the diftindtion of ftyles and compofition

muft come from another original.

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 10.

LECTURE

HAVING

239

X.

meafure rejeded the fup-

in a great

pofition of the llyle in writing being affefted

bj

fhown

the climate, and

colour from the

ft

that

ate of fociety,

and manners of men,

it

it

rather takes

its

and the fentiments

follows, that all the great

manners will have a

diilinftions that take place in

correfpondent efFecl upon language fpoken or writ-

When

ten.

the

manners of

a people are

lilhed, there is a plainnefs or

little

po-

a roughnefs in the

Abfolute monarchies, and the obfequious

ftjle.

fubjelion introduced at the courts of princes, oc-

cadons a pompous fvvelling and compliment

to

be

from the boldnefs and fome-

in requeft, different

times ferocity of republican Hates.

Seneca, in remarking upon the

Genus

&.C.

This he exemplifies

whicli

was

dlcendi

iliort

Roman language,

mutatur per pub lie os mores,

fays,

in the

and dry in the

Roman

earlieft ages, after-

wards became elegant and ornate, and

and

language,

at laft loofe

diffufe.

The

ftyle of an age alfo is

fometimes formed by

fome one or more eminent perfons, who, having

obtained reputation, every thing peculiar to them

admired and copied, and carried mucli

Seneca has remarked

this alfo, that

is

into cxcefs.

commonly one

author obtains the palm, and becomes the model,

and

all

copy him.

Hcec

vitia unus aliquis inducit.

And he gives a very good example of it,

we may now judge in Salluft. He alfo

X2

of which

very pro-

LECTURES ON

240

perly obferves, that

example

all

become worfe

imitation
:

Lel. 10.

the faults that arife

from

in the imitator than in the

thus reproving the fault juft

now men-

tioned in our anceftors.

It is

remarkable that Seneca himlelf was another

His manner of wri-

example of the fame thing.

ting,

which

the age.

peculiar,

is

came

to

be the flandard pf

His manner has been called by

point and antithefis

a Ihort fentence containing a

ftrong fentiment, or a beautiful one, as

maxim by

critics,

it

were, like

For an example or two of

this
To exprefs the deftru6tion of Lyons, he fays,
That Lyons,
Lugdunum quod ostendehatur, &c.
a

itfelf.

which was formerly fhown, is now fought. And

Una nox, &lc. There wa$
on the fame fubjeft,
but one night between a great city and none, ^lid!

est

eques

Romanus,

knight a freed

man

What

&:c.

or flave

is

Roman

names generated by

ambition or opprefTion.

manner of wriiin*
does not lie in the particulars being blame able, but
in the repetitiou and uniformity becoming tedious

The

fault of this fententious

when every

paragraph

is

fluffed

with fentences,

and bright fayings, generally having the fame tune,

it

wearies the ear.

in tlie Englifli
nefs,

The mofl remarkable book

language for putting continual fmart-

fentence,

and

antithefis,

Gentleman Intruded.

for elegance,

is

the

I fhall read you one para-

graph" The misfortune of one breathes vigour into

They carry on manfully the attack.
the others
:

glalTes.

Their

Their wits are jaded.

Their

Their heads run round with the

tongues ride pofl.
reafon

is

dillanced.

Brutes could not talk better.

ELOQUENCE.

Lel:. 10.

nor

men

241

Scarce one heard his

neighbour, and not one underftood hi in

all

fo that noife

and every one palled for a virtuofo,

flood for fenfe,

becaufe

they

in a ftorm,

Like fkippers

worfe.

rather hallooed than fpoke.

played the fool to extravagance."

I fliall not enlarge

much

upon the

farther

difler-

ence of ftyle arifmg from the characlcr of an age,

as in the ages before the Reformation, called the times

when

of chivalry,

thing in requell
to

be fecn

military prowefs

their gallantry and

every writer.

in

was

the great

heroifm were

At the time of the Re-

formation and the revival of learning, their citations of the ancient writers and allufions to the claflic

phrafes dillinguillied every author.

the civil wars in England, of

which

In the age of

was

religion

fo
'

much

the caufe, allufions to fingular cxprcirions and

where

theological opinions, are every

with, of

which

But there
is

the great Milton

from another,

and will diftinguifh one author

in the

fame age, and perliaps of the

fame or nearly the fame

ral different epithets
I fhall

be met

another diftinclion of flyles, v/hich

is

chiefly perfonal^

v/hich

to

an example.

is

There

abilities.

are feve-

given to ftyle in our language,

mention

in a certain order,

which

fuppofe will contribute fomething to explain the

jneaning of them.

We

fimple or pWin^

call a ftyle,

fniooth, fweet, concife, elegant, ornate, juft^ nervous,

chafte,

fevere.

Thefe

are

all

different

which will each of them convey

ear fomething different

eafy to define

though

them ckarly,

Plainnefs and fimplicitj-

is,

X3

confefs

or explain

when

epithets

to a nice critical
it is

them

not

fully.

the author doe^

2d2

Led.

LECTURES ON

10,

not feem to have had any thhig in view, but to be

underflood, and that

by

perfons of the weakeft un-

That ought

derftanding.

to

many

be in view in

writings, an^ indeed perfpicuity will be found to be

a charader of
great qualities

when

there

attempt

at

many ftyles, when there are other

but we call that plain and fimple^
no difcovery of

is

and no

literature,

God

Scougal's Life of

the pathetic.

in

Man, and Dr Evans's Sermons, are admirable patterns of this manner.

2. I would call
the Soul of

fmooth

that a

ilyle,

when

the utmoft care had been

taken to meafure the periods, and

to confult the ear

for this I

know

no author more remarkable than Hervey,

in his

on the ilrudure of the fentence

Meditations.

3.

Sweetnefs feems to

from the former only

me

to differ

in that the fubjedls

and the

images are generally of a pleaiing or foothing nature, fuch as

Letters

by

indeed

they
next,

do excel in fweetnefs.

concifenefs.

This

is

much brevity

It is a

beauty in every writing,

are not hurt

critical or

by

it.

fcientific

much exped

The

4.

eafiiy underftood;

juft as

not fo

Mrs Rowe's

Lady Mai*y W. Montague's Letters.

when female authors have excelled,

generally
is

feen in

perhaps alfo in a more modern compofition

a lady.

And

may particularly be

it is

as is confident v/ith perfpicuity.

But

it is

when

other qualities

peculiarly proper for

writing, becaufe there

or

want

know

to

we do

the author's

fentiments, but as loon as poilible to lea/n the fads,

to underftand

dically.

them

There

are

fully,

and range them metho-

many more

authors

who

excel

in this refped in the French, than in the Englifh

language.

Not

the fcientific

writings,

but

evea

Led.

Eloquence.

10.

243

and moral writings, are drawn up by them

There cannot be greater

political

with great concifenefs.

concifenefs than in Montefquicu's Spirit of

Laws.
Brown's Eftimate of the Manners and Principles
of the Times, feems to be an imitation of that au-

thor in his manner.

feems

In

David

ell ay- writing,

Hume

have as happily joined concifenefs and per-

to

fpicuity as

mod

Some

of our Engliih writers.

pious waiters have been as fucccfsful this

moll of our nation

much

as

fuch as Mafon's Sayings, and

Mafon on Self-knowledge.
elegant, when it is formed by
and

way

pains

5.

flyle is called

the principles of true

taken

to ufe the befl

and

purefl expreffions that the language will afford.

It

tafte,

is

very

The

common

is

and elegance.

to join together eafe

great patterns w-e have of thefe are Addifon

and Tillotfon,

qualities

may

Seed's Sermons, too,

tioned here, as very

much

fo alfo does

be men-

excelling in both thefe

David Hume.

The

other

Hume,

author of the Elements of Criticifm, though

a very

good judge of writing, feems

ftyle to

be very defeftive himfelf.

talent,

the

it is

in point of

If he has

concifenefs and plainnefs

but he

fame time often abrupt and harlh.

ornate ilyle

may be

faid to

any
is at

6.

An

be fomething more than

elegant, introducing into a compolition all the beautics

of language, w^here they can find a place with

propriety.
in his

mentioned before, that Hervey's

Meditations,

flov/ing.

may

ftyle,

was exceedingly fmooth and

add,

it

has alfo the qualities of

That ftyle is elegant which

from faults that is ornate which

elegant and ornate.

is

corred and free

abounds with beauties.

7.

The

next

charader

LECTURES OV

244
of ftyle

is,

that

By

it is juft.

LeQi,

this I underlland,

Juftnefs

or otherwife expreiTed

may
a

precifion

fpeak fo), together with a

fo that, (if I

which

tafte

w^ill

and produce an elegance of language, there

relifh
is

frequently joined with,

is

by

6.

and meaning of

particular attention to the truth

every expreffion.

judgement and accuracy which will abide the

Many

fcrutiny of philofophy and criticifm.

well-

turned periods and iliowy expreffions will be found

This juftnefs of

defeftive here.

ftyle is fcarcely

ever found without clearnefs of underftanding, fo

that

appears in accuracy of method, in the whole

it

difcourfe, as well as in the ftyle of particular parts.

Dr Samuel
He was one
good

Clark

w^as a great

example of

of thofe few mathematicians

writers, and, while

he did not

this.

who were
and

lofe the life

fervour of the orator, preferved the precifion of the

natural philofopher.

which

Nervous or

8.

the next character of ftyle

and

ftrong,

is

this implies that in

the author does not wholly negledt elegance

and precifion.

But he

dignity and force.

is

much more

A ftyle

that

nervous, might often receive a

is

little

attentive to

very ftrong and

additional polifh
'

by

a few

more

epithets or copulatives, but cannot

defcend to fuch minutenefs.

It is a fine

of Richard Baxter, upon Ry'^e, "

plainly and pertinently, and
I

have

my

ample of
gance

a nervous ftyle,

and Dean Swift

fomewhat

Baxter was

purpofe."

is

expreflion

May

fpeak

nervoufly,

a great ex-

with great negle6t of elean illuftrious example of

the fame fort of didlion, with a very conftderablc

attention to elegance.

feem

Both the one and the other

to write in the fulnefs of their hearts

and

to

ELocMJEycE.

Lel. 10.

me

without fcniple thofe terms are

firft

and

warm

beft,

imagination, without waiting to choofe

room

might be more fmooth or

thofe that

fonorous, but lefs emphatic.

I think, ftands particularly

ments

commonly

prefent themfelves to a fertile invention

that

in their

245

that

9. Chaftity of ftyle,

oppoied

to

any embellifh-

are not natural and neceffary.

Nay,

we generally mean by a very chafte writer, one

who does not admit even all the ornaments that he
might, and what ornaments he does admit are al-

ways of
perly

the moil decent kind,

ftyle

way

of ftyle has this

That is a fevere
which has propriety, elegance, and force, bu^

only by

title

and the moft pro-

10. Severity

executed.

feems rather

to

of comparifon.

be above and to difdain the orna-

would approve, an^

part of readers would delire.

ments which every body

the greateft

elfe

LECTURE

XI.

TTTE
^

come now to the third general head,

which was, to fpeak of oratory as it is divid-

ed into the feveral parts which conftitute the

art.

Thefe have been generally the following, invention, difpolition, ftyle or

compontion, pronunciation,

including gefture.
1

Invention.

out the fentiments

This

is

nothing

elfe

but finding

by which a fpeaker or writer

would explain what he has to propofe, and the

This
arg-uments by which he would enforce it.
fubje6t is treated of very largely, in mofl cf the books

LECTURES ON

446

Lecl. ll.

of oratory, in which

I think they judge very wrong.

In by far the greateft number of cafes, there is no

and where

neceffity of teaching it;

believe

The very

effed:.

it is

man

exceeds the power of

it

time, indeed, that a

iirft

perfon begins to compofe, the thing

him, that

it is

accuftomed to

in feledting

what

is

But

it,

with

young
new to

foonas he becomes a

as

much more

he finds

whom

perfons, I confefs,

that of their relations,

who

difficulty

proper, than in inventing fome-

There

thing that feems to be tolerable.

fpeaking,

is fo

it

apt to appear dark and difficult, and in

a mariner impoffible.
little

neceffary, I

to teach

own

their

are

flupidity,

attempt

forces to

fome
or

public

are entirely barren, and not able to

bring out any thing either good or bad

but this

is

when it does happen, it will

the man himfelf, that he muft

exceedingly rare, and

be fo burdenfome

to

There

fpeedily give over the attempt.

are infinite-

ly more w-ho have plenty of matter, fuch as

it is,

but neither very valuable in

itfelf,

proper language.

happens very general-

ly that thofe

who

think

it

nor cloathed in

are leaft concife and accurate,

are moft lengthy and voluminous.

I will therefore not

vention, leaving

it

fpcnd

to the

capacity and experience

called a

common

your argument.
tafte,

place

time upon in-

fpontaneous produftion of

only obferve, that

place,

it is

from whence you draw

That principle of law, nature,

you fetch your topic,

experience, from which

and apply

ftri61;

much

it

to

your particular

as for example, if I

difcipline in a fociety

cipliae

which

will in the

is

cafe,

want

to

bed,

is

moil

common

prove that a
fay, that dif-

effi^^dual

manner

ELOQUENCE.

Le<5l. II.

reftrain
topic, or
It

oiFences

certainly the befl

is

common

247
this is the

place.

would be needlefs to point out the fources of

fhow from whence arguments may be

invention, or

may

drawn, for they

ters

the

all

be drawn from

all the

charac-

and qualities of an action or perfon, and from

mean

to

circumilances that accompany

aggravate a crime or injury,

If I

it.

fay

it

was

done deliberately, obllinately, repeatedly, without

temptation, againil
nefsj that

many warnings, and much kind-

its efFedts

are very

bad

man's

to a

felf, to

others, to the charafter, the perfon, the eltate, Sec.

If
I

want

to

mention

fpeak in praife of a free government,

happy

its

effects in giving fecurity

and

happinefs, promoting indullry, encouraging genius,

producing value

and then

apply

and fliow the happinefs of free

to experience,

ftates,

and the mi-

fery of thofe that have been kept in flavery

I

but

repeat the remark, that invention need not be

taught, unlefs

a fentence.

it

be to one that never yet compofed

There have been books of common

places publifhed, containing arguments and topics

for illuftration,

and even fimilitudes, fayings of the

they are of very little ufe, unlefs

-ancients, &lc. but

to a perfon that

has no fund of his own, and then

one that makes ufe of theai

is

like a

on ililts J they make him look very

walks very feebly.
2.

The

big, but he

next divilion of the oratorial

This

pofition or diltribution.

is

utmoft moment, and upon which

neceflary and ufeful.
tlie

man walking

oratorial art, I

By

mean

art,

is dif-

a matter of the

inftrucflion is

both

difpofition as a part of

order in general, in the

LECTURES ON

^4^
"whole
fition,

a difcourfe,

of

be

what

it

a fingle fpeech or oration

As

confifts,

wards confidered.

Before

way

to attain

point out the

mention a few of

Good

(i.)

makes

its

any kind of compoto the parts of which

or

will.

it

they will be after-

proceed to explain or

good order,

would

jufl

excellencies.

order in a difcourfe gives light, and

If things are thrown

eaiily underftood.

it

Le6l. II.

together without method, each of

them

will be lefs

underftood, and their joint influence in leading to a

conclufion will not be perceived.

It is

a noble

who calls it lucidus ordo, clear

common to fay, when we hear a con-

expreffion of Horace,
order.

It is

fufed difcourfe, "

It

had neither head nor

tail,

could not underftand what he would be at."

(2.) Order isneceffary to force, as well as light.

This indeed
for

we

ftiall

is

a necelTary confequence of the other,

never be perfuaded by w^hat

Very

underftand.

often the

we do

not

force of reafoning

depends upon the united influence of feveral diftinft

If they are ranged in a juft order,
propofitions.
they will
another

men

all

if

have their

otherwife,

and fupport one

effedl,

it w'ill

be like a number of

attempting to raife a w^eight, and one pulling

at one time,

and another

at

another,

juft nothing; but if all exert their

which

power

will

do

at once, it

will be eaftly overcome.

(3.) Order

Order
a

is

ufeful for aftifting

is alfo

neceflfary

tranfient effect

even in a difcourfe that

but

if

any thing

duce a lafting conviftion, and

fluence,

it is ftill

more

to

is

necefiary.

memory.
is to

have

intended to pro-

have a daily in-

When things

are

difpofed in a proper order, the fame concatenation

ELOQUENC?.

Left. II.
that

is

249

in the diicourfe, takes place in the

fo that-wheu

one thing

is

remembered,

it

memory,

immediate-

ly brings to remembrance what has an eafy and

obvious connexion with

our conftitution, and

is

The

it.

linked together by any

tie

affociadon of ideas

very remarkable in

is

fuppoled to take place from

fome imprefTion made upon the

brain.

feen two perfons but once, and feen

If we have
them both at

the fame time only, or at the fame place only,

tiie

remembrance of the one can hardly be fepa.ated

from the other. I may alfo illultrate the fubjecb

by another

Suppofe

plain inflance.

I delire

a per-

fon going to a city, to do three or four things for

me

that are

letter to

to

bring

for

me,

wholly unconnected,

one perfon

me notice how
if

he can

as to deliver a

to vilit a friend of

find

he
it

is

mine, and

to buy a certain book

and

ihip be to fail for Britain foon,

to fee

it is

whether any

very poffiblchs

jnay remember fome of them, and forget the others

him to buy me a dozen of filver

them to an engraver to put my
name upon them, and get a cafe to put them in, if
but

if

I delire

fpoons, to carry

he remembers one

member

all

article,

of them.

that a diicourfe has

and accuracy,

It is

likely he will re-

been compofed with dillinclnefs

you go away you can remem-

if after

ber a good deal of

it is

one of the bell evidences

it

but there are fometimes dif-

courfes which are pompous and declamatory, and

which you hear with pleafure, and fome fort of ap-

probation, but if

you attempt

to recollect the truths

advanced, or the arguments in fupport of them,

there is not a trace

Vol.

11.

of

them

to

be found.

LECTURES ON

250

Order conduces

(4.)

Order

never omitted

is

alfo very much

when men give

ples of beauty, and confulion

own

Lecl. II.
to beauty.

the princi-

difgufted juft on

is

its

account, whatever the nature of the confufed

may

things

you were

If

be.

fine furniture of different

heap of

to fee a vafl

kinds lying in confufion,

jou could neither perceive half fo diilin6lly what

was there, nor could it at all have fuch an effeft, as
if

every thing w^as difpofed in a

ced where

ought

it

to ftand

and pla-

juft order,

nay, a

much

would exceed

quantity, elegantly difpofed,

fmaller

in gran-

deur of appearance a heap of the moft collly things

in nature.

(5.) Order

fufed difcourfe

is alfo

A con-

necelTajy to brevitj^.

almoft never

is

illed vvith repetitions.

Jt is

ftiort,

and

is

always

wiih thought in

this

efpet, as with things vifible, for, to return to the

former

confufed'heap of goods or furni-

{im>ilitude, a

much more room

ture

fills

and

claffed in

carried to

its

its

than

it is

ranged

proper place.

Ha\ang fliown

mewhat it is and that

method while I am

the excellence of precifion and

thod, let us next try to explain

i

when

proper order, and every thing

may have fome

regard to

fpeaking of the very fubjeft,

I iliall

take

it

in three

There muft be an attention to order in

Whatever trie
the difpofition of the whole piece.

lights:

I.

parts be in themielves, they have alfo a relation to

one another, and

to the

fo^, that they are to

what

it

whole body,

will, hiltory, epic

oration, epiftlc, or eiTay, is to

whole

(if I

may

fpeak

Every work, be it
poem, dramatic poem,

compcfe.

be confidered as a

and a ckarnefs of judojement in point of

Led.

ELOQUENCE.

II.

251

method, will decide the place and proportion of the

which thev

feveral parts of

fludied,

and we

may fay

r.bruptly, or

of

it,

that

it

begins abruptly or ends

fome of the parts

are often to be feen pieces in

faid,

and well

faid,

fays, in his

every

which good things are

and have only

sifnplex

Art of Poetry, what

fort

this fault, that

Horace

equally applicable

is

of compolition, Deniqiie

duntaxat

umim ; and

et

This judgment

sit

quod

vis

fliortly after, Infelix

summa, quia ponerc totum

operis

There

are mifplaced.

they are unfeafonable and out of place.

to

The

are compofed.

where form is leaft profeffed or

ought yet to have fome fhape as a whole

eflaj, or

loofeft

nesciet.

in planning the

whole, will par-

ticularly enable a perfon to determine both as to the

place and proportion of the particular parts, whether

they be not only good in themfelves, but

introduced in fuch a

work and
j

fpeak fo) give a colour

The

to the

necefiity of order in the

piece, fliov/s that the rule

by fome,

that an orator,

is

it

will alfo (if 1

it

to

whole

it

this as its root, if

v/erc,

it

be a point

to

cxprefl'ed;,

it

be

in anotlier

to

will afford a fort of criterion w^hether

duced

is

its

be gained by perfuafion.

ving thus Hated the point clearly

proper or improper.

and

Every thing

principle to be explained; or refor to this as

if

given

is

before he begin' his dif-

one fingle propofition, either

grow out of

may

flru6ture of

good which

or at leafl conceived in his mind.

fliould

be

whole compofition.

courfe, iliould' concentrate the fubjed as

reduce

to

fit

end,

Ha-

be handled,

it

any thing ad-

It will

fuggeit the

topics that ar^ juft and fuitable, as v/ell as enable

LECTURES ON

2^1
lis

to reject

whatever

Le(5l. liP.

in fubftance improper, or in

is

Agreeably

iize diiproportionate to the defign.

this principle, I think, that not

fingle difcourfe fliould

be reduceable

one pro-

to

pofition, but the general divifions or principal

il:ould not

of general

many

to

only the fubje6t of a

heads

number
heads both burdens the memory, and
be

in num-ber.

great

breaks the unity of the fubjed, and carries the idea

of feveral

low
2.

after

little

difcourfes joined together, or to fol-

one another.

Order

jeft, or the

is

necelTary in the fubdiviiions of a fub-

way

of flating and marihalling of the

feveral portions of

any general head.

This

is

ap-

plicable to all kinds of compofition, and all kinds

of oratory, fermons, law-pleadings, fpeeches. There

is

always a divilion of the

parts, as well as of the

whole, either exprelTed formally and numerically,

And it

or fuppofed, though fuppreffed.

liere as

is

much

as

any where, that the confuiion of inaccurate

writers and fpeakers appears.

It is

always necef-

fary to have fome rioiion of the whole of a piece

tind the larger diviiions

being more bulky, (fo to

fpeak), difpofitioninthemismore eafily perceived;

but in the fmrJler, both their order and

danger of beinofore, that to

lefs

attended

be accurate and

of any conipoiition, fuch

jufc,

mean

fiz:e

is

in

Obferve, there-

to.

the fubdivifions

as are (for

ple) introduced in a numerical feries,

i,

exam-

2, 3, &.c.

ihould have the following properties.

(i.)

They

fliould

be clear and plain.

thing indeed fhould be clear as far as he can

it,

Every

make

but precifion and diftin^lnefs ihould efpecially

appear ;n tiicfubdiviiAons^jull: as the bounding lines

ELOQUENCE.

Lefl. II.

of countries in a ciap.

For

i^^

this

reafoii

part of a fubdivifion fliould be alike, a

nition, and,

in a fmgle

man

of a

ter

when

term

it

can be done,

it is

the

fliort

firft

defi-

beft exprcfled

for example, in giving the charac-

of learning,

may

propofe to fpeak

of his genius, his erudition, his induftrj or application.

They

(2.)

fnould

be

truly

diftina;

that

is,

every body fhould perceive that they are really

from one another, not

different

only, but in fentimcnt.

in phrafe or

you

If

praife a

word

man

firft

for his judgement, and then for his underftandino-^

tliey are either altogether or fo

fo nearly

nearly the famc^ or

as not to require

allied,

liave heard a miniiler,

on John,

diftlnccion.

xvii. 11.

Holy Fa-

**

how God keeps his people,

" He fliall keep thv
He keeps their v/ay ' Tliou

ther," S^c. in fiiowing

fiiy,

1.

He keeps

from

feet
flialt

falling."

keep him

their feet
'2.

in ail

that tliefc are not

v/ays."

liis

two

alfo in another refpei51

make
(3.)

a divifion at

Subdivilions

to fay, taking^the
fenfe, the

To

made
lefs

fubjecl:

multiply

it is

plain,

two meThis indeed was faulty

a metaphor ought not

for

all.

fliould

word

is

be neccfTkry; that

in the loofe

fiiould

divifions,,

really diilincl,

Nov\',

dlflerent things, but

taphors for the fame thing.

to

feem

to

even where

arid

i>

popular

demand them.
tliey

may

be

tedious, and difguftful, un^

where they are of ufe and importance to our

comprehending the meaning, or feeling
force of what is faid.
If a perfon, in the map /

clearly
ihe

of a country, llioulu give a different colour to everv

Y3

LECTURES ON

:*54

Left. II.

three miles, though the equality of the proportion

would make the

divifion clear enough, yet

appear difguftingly fuperfluous.

hiftory of an eminent perfon's

fpaces of ten years,

into

the view of the whole

vide

it

In writing the
it

would make

more exad

The

divide

to

life,

perhaps,

into fingle years or months,

and difagreeable.

cal

would?

it

but to di-

would be

fini-

of diviiions

increafe

leads almofl unavoidably into tedioufnefs.

(4.) Subdiviiions ihould
is

to

Slc. ihould

be co-ordinate

go on in a

fay, thofe that

feries,

i,

that
2, 3,

be as near as pofTible fimilar, or of the

fame kind.

This rule

when

is tranfu'-rclTed,

either

the things mentioned are wholly different in kind,

or

when they

include one another.

well perceived,

if

we

confider

how

This will be

man would

defcribe a fenfible fubjecl, a county for

New-Jerfey
snerfet
ton.

contains,

county.

3.

i.

The

Morris county.

4.

example

Middlefex.
townfliips

So-

,2.

Prince-

of

So, if one, in defcribing

the character of a real Chriftian, fliould fay, faith,

holinefs, chaiity, juftice, temperance, patience, this

would not
"When,

do, becaufe holinefs includes juftice, &:c,

therefore,

feems necelTary to mention

it

made
made fubordmate.

different particulars that cannot be

nate, they Ihould be

(5.) Sub-diviiions fliould

haufl the fubjedl.

divifions,
is

but

i:>

we

be complete, and ex-

This, indeed,

is

common

to all

of moft importance here, where

moft negle<^led.

can

co-ordi-

It

may

be

faid, perhaps,

propofe to exhauft any fubjeft

it

How

By ma-

king the diviiions fuitable, particularly in point

of

comprehenfion, to the nature of the

an

fubje<5t

as

ELOQtTKCE.

Ledl. II.

example, and

make

to

2jJ

ufe of the

image before

troduced, of giving an account of a country,

in-

may

province of Nevv-Jerfey confifts of two

fay, the

and Weft

parts, Eafl

If I fay

.lerfey.

of the counties of Somerfet, &c.

have enumerated

till I

the divilion is

riot

confifts

it

muft continue

the counties, otherwife

all

compLiC.

man-

In the fame

ner, in public fpeaki^ig, or

any other compofition,

whatever divilion

it

it

is

made,

not legitimate, if

is

does not include or exhauft the whole fubject

which may be done, let it be ever fo great. For

exami-le
True reli?ion may be divided various
:

\vays, fo as to include the

it

confifts of

ourfelves

God

our duty

whole

may

fay, that

God, our neighbour, and

may make

or, I

to

but two, our duty to

and man, and divide the

laft

into

two fubor-

dinate heads, our neighbour, and ourfelves

may
it

fay,

it

confifts

confifts of faith

fliould

life

the

Laftly,

or, I

or,

that

and converfation.
fubdivifions

any fubjecl

of

be connected, or fhould be taken in a feries

or order, if they will poflibly admit of

moral and intelleftual fubjefls,

to find

of two parts, a right frame and temper of

mind, and a good

(6.)

and praftice

any

it

it.

may

feries or natural order, as in

tion of virtues, juftice, temperance,

In fome

not be eafy

an enumera-

and fortitude.

Patience, perhaps, might as well be enumerated in

aiy oth^r order

yet there

is

often an order that

it

unna-

done

many

will appear natural, and the inverfton of

tural

ways
Love

as

to a

we may

fay, injuries

are

man^s peifon, chara6ler, and

poffeffions.

to others includes the relation of family, kin-

dred, citizens, countrymen, fellow- creatures.

LECTURES ON

2S^
In the

3.

be obferved

place,

lafl

there

Le<^. II.

an order to

is alfo

fentiments, which makes the

in the

illullration

or amplification of the divifions of a

difcourfe.

This order

rical divifions, yet

it is

is

never expreffed hj nume-

of great importance, and

beauty and force will be particularly

if I

may

fpeak

ture than

felt.

It

is,

of a finer and more delicate na-

fo,

any of the others, more various, and

harder

to explain.

foning

is

down

principles,

once have

faid,

that all rea-

of the nature of a fyllogifm, which lays

makes comparifons, and draws

But we muft particularly guard

the conclufion.

againft letting the uniformity and formality

any connexion,

of a

In general, whatever eltablilhcs

fyllogifm appear.

rife to

its

fo that

one another,

it

makes

the fentiments give

the occafion of order

is

fome-

times necefiity and utility point out the order as a

good meafure

As

in telling a ftory, grave or

hu-

morous, you mull begin by defcribing the perfons

concerned, mentioning juft as

many

of their charafter and

as are

make
lated.

fituation

circumflanccs
neceflary to

us underfland the facls to be afterwards re-

Sometimes the

ideas of time and

fenfible

place fnggeft an order, not only in hiflorical narrations,

and

but

drawing of

in

in law-pleadings,

which

relate to fafts,

chara61:ers, defcribing

the pro-

grefs and effeds of virtue and vice, and even in

other fubje^fts, where the connexion bctvvaen thofe

ideas and the thing fpoken of

is

not very ftrong.

Sometimes, and indeed generally, there

which proceeds from things

fcure.

The beginning

like^ the Iharp point

is

an order

plain, to things ob-

of a paragraph lhould.be

of a vxdge, which gains ad

ELOQUENCE.

Le6l. II.

bulky

'nittance to the

what every body

257

part behind.

feels,

afiirms

It firfl

or -niuft confefs, and pro-

ceeds to what follows as a neceffary confequence.

In

fine,

there

an order in perfuafion to a particu-

is

which inay be taken two ways with

equal advantage, proceeding from the weaker to
choice,

lar

the llroDger, or from the ftronger to the

As in. recommending a pious

may firil fay it is amiable,
makes death

way, and fay

Hity

and^ to crown

the other

the one thing needful, that eter-

and

the great

is

life

we may begin

or,

it is

we

a friend, aiid leads to a glo-

itfelf

rious immortality

life,

honourable, plcafant,

even in the prefent

profitable,
all,

weaker

and virtuous

decifive

argument that

determine our choice, though every thing

flioold

eife

were

and then add, that even in the

in favour of vice

prefent

a great miftake to think that bad

men

life,

it is

are gainers,

This

&lc.

fometimes

called'

is

Each of

the afcejiding and defcending 'climax.

them has
t-he

two

its

orator's
is

beauty and ufe.

judgement

either

fitteft

he finds himfeli

to

It

muft be

to

determine which of tho

for the prefent purpofe, or

at that

left

time able

to

which

execute to the

greateft advantage.

LECTUP.E

THE

next branch of this divifion,

compofition.

f the

XII.

fubje<ft,

This, which

is

is

(^.jle,

or

fo great a part

has already been cor>fidered in one

view, under the

tlirec

great kinds cf writing, and

LECTURES ON

258

Left. 12.

will again be mentioned under the

two following

heads, as well as the remarks at the clcfe

few

will drop a
I

hints

upon

yet I

in this place.

it

neceiTary that a writer or fpeaker ihould

It is

be well acquainted with the language in which he

fpeaks

charalers, properties, and defels, its

its

idioms, or peculiar terms and phrafes, and likewife

with as

many

other languages as poffible, particu-

learned languages, the

larly fuch as are called the

Our own language

Latin and Greek.

lilh.

acquired

thorough acquaintance with

by

Om* language,

northern languages,

is

meeting of confonants,

whole page, and fcarce

than one fyllable

ed

made by

when

it

frequent

You may

write a

one word that has more

and

to

be avoid-

can be done coniiitently with ether pro-

faid

is

letter /,

fimplicity
to

and

perfpicuity.

have an over proportion

and therefore called a hiiTmg lan-

This a writer of judgement will endeavour

guage.
to avoid,

whenever he can do

and eleeance.

it

with propriety

A thorou2;h

acquaintance vrith the

own

language, canfcarcely

genius and idioms of our

be attained wiihout lome acquaintance

becaufe

our--

of pronunciation

this is a defect,

particularly

Our language
of the

life

it

cri-

like mofl of the

with

rough,
diiiicult

abounds in monofy liable s.

perties,

Eng-

muit be

of judgement and erudition, and trying

felves in practice.

it

the

it

extenfive reading in the bell authors,

giving great attention to the remarks

tics

is

it is

Vvith others,

comparifon of one with another

illuftrates all.

There

are not

Vv'hich

only fmalier diffe-

rences between one language and another, but there.

are

fome general

dilTerenceb in the arrangement

o:f

Led.

ELOQUENCE.

12.

259

words, in the ancient and modern languages

the

Greek and

Latin, the governed

generally before the verb.

It is

in

words are pretty

a millake for us

to fay, that the Englilh order is the natural order,

as

fome have done.

It is

certain that they are either

both alike natural and equally obvious,

when once

cuftom has fixed them, or that the ancient order

the

more natural of

There

the two.

are

the aftion and the object, to be conjoined; and

fully as proper to turn

your attention

is

two things,

firil

it is

to the

you tell what you are to fay of it, or

what you would have done with it, as after. Istud
scalpellum quod in manu habeSy commoda mihipaulisper,
si placet: and in longer and more involved fentences,
the fufpending the fentiment for fome time till it be
completed, is both more pleating and more forobje6l, before

Our own lancrua8:e admits of a little tranfpoiiand becomes grander and more fonorous by it,

cible.
tion,

both in poetry and profe.

We may

2.

attend to

claufes of a fentence,

the arrangement of the

and their proportion and found.

Every fentence may be confidered as having fo

many claufes or members^ which have, each of them,
fome meaning, but which is not complete till it is
clofed.
Every fentence is capable of receiving
fome degree of harmony, by a proper ftruc^ure
;

this

receives

it

when

tlie

moft important ideas, and

the moft fonorous expreflions,

jilaces

occupy the chief

but what, you will fay, are the chief places

We

naturally, fays an eminent French

this

fubjecl, love to

ideas

firft

love,

is

author on

prefent our moft intereftirig

but this order, which

contrary to what

we

is

dictated

by

are dlre<5led to

felf-

by

the

LECTURES ON

&5o
art

The

of pleafmg.

Lel. 12.

capital l?vW of this art,

is

to

prefer others to ourfelves, and therefore the moft

ftriking

and

interefting ideas

come with

the greatefl

beauty, as well as force, in the clofe.

Where

the

difference does not lie in the ideas, the w^ords or

phrafes that are moft long and fonorous ought to be

fo diftinguifhed

rule,

this

however, will admit

fome exception, when we are to perfuade or inftru^l,

for we muft never feem to have fweetnefs and
cadence chiefly in view.

The

im-

rule of placing in a fentence the moft

portant ideas and expreflions

of by ancient writers.

/;/

was taken

laft,

verbis

notice

observandum

est,

fays one of them, ut a jnajoribus ad 7nhius descendat

oratio, melius eniut dicetur, vir est optimus,

optimus

est.

quam

Sometimes feveral monofy liable s

vir

ter-

minate a fentence well enough, becaufe in pronunciation they run into one, and

feem

from a fmgle word.

little different

to the hearers
It is

an obfer-

vation, that the ear itfelf often direls to the rule

upon

this fubjed:.

Some French

critics

obferve,

that fome fyllables in their language w^hich are

ufaally

fliort,

are produced, in the end of a fentence

for inftancc, ^fe suis voire servitcur Monsicury je suii

le

voire

and long

where

voire

is

in the fecond;

would happen

fhort in

and

the

firft

fentence,

believe the fame thing

in tranflating that fentence literally

into Enp-lilli.

The harmony

of fentences

is

preferved either b^

a meafured proportion, or regular gradation of the

claufes
&:c.

Cicero fays upon this fubjeV, Si membra,

In every fentence conftfting of two

only, every body's ear

v^'ill

make

members

them^ fenfibU'.

Led.

ELOQUENCE.

12.

26

that the laft claufe after the paufe of the voice ought
to

be longed

as in Shakefpeare,

" But yefterday,"

&c. In longer fentences there muft be a greater varieand feveral caufes mufl contribute

ty,

the length of the claufes

but

muft be longer than the preceding

regular gradation of

very happy

effect

to determine

plain, the lad

is

it

and fometimes a

more than two

claufes has a

fuch as thefe of Cicero, ^z^o-

Again he fays in the

&c. There is another order in which there are two equal, and one
unequal member, and in that cafe, when the unequal

rum quastor
fame

fueraniy &tc.

oration,

Hahet

horiorem,

member is Ihorteft, it ought

when it is longeft, it ought to
the two following examples

and Eripite nos ex

ftrulure of the

be placed

to

be placed

miscris, &:c.

members of

There

another

is

a fentence, in

The

fieur Fenelon, Dajis sa douleuvy &wC.

members

middle

is juft

Perhaps

it

are equal, and that

which

pleafes, be-

it

caufe of a certain exal: proportion, as that of

laft

as in

Testis est Africa, 8^Co

departed from, and yet

this rule is

iirft

laft,

which

Mon-

firft

and

is in

the

double to each of them.

will be alked,

Muft an author then

?
Muft he

give attention to this precife meafure

take a pair of fcales or compaffes to meafure every

he compofes

period

would be more

By

frigid

no means.

Nothing

and unfuccefsful, but

it

was

proper thus to analyfe the fubjefl, and fliow in what

manner the ear

is fo

is

pleafed

at the

fame time there

great a variety and compafs in the meafures

of profe, that
dence, and

Vol.

II.

it is

eafy to vary the ftru6lure and ca-

make every

thing appear quite iimplr

LECTURES ON

262

and natural. This

upon ftyle.
3. That variety

leads

to

is

me

Le6l. 12.

remark,

to the third

be particularly ftudied.

If a writer thinks any particular ftrufture necelTary,

and forces every thing he has

form,

it

much enamoured

tafte,

or if he is

with one particular kind of orna-

ment, and brings

diately difguft.

of

to fay juft into that

will be highly difagreeable

in too frequently,

it

There

it

will

imme-

a mixture in the principles

is

a delire of uniformity and variety, fimpli-

city and intricacy

and

delight

it is

by the happy union of

all

moil effedually produced.

thefe,

that

What

elfe is neceflary

is

upon

will fall very

ftyle,

properly under fome of the following heads.

The

laft

part of the oratorial art

including gefture.

This

is

is

pronunciation,

of the utmoft, and in-

The

deed of univerfally confelTed importance.

eifeds of the different

manner of delivering the

fam.e thing are very great.

largely treated of
to

by

a famous fubje6l,

It is

all critical writers.

It

feems

have been nicely ftudied by the ancients j and

if

we may

judge from fome circumftances, their ac-

tion has

been often very violent.

Cicero, that

when he

lence of his aftion,

went
and what
iirll

We

are told of

to the bar, the viois

called contentio

laterum, v/as fuch as endangered his conftitution, fo

that

he took a journey for his health, and on his

return took to a

fpeaking.
tings,

more cool and managed way of

is alfo fomewhere in his wri-

TJiere

an expreffion to

quod minimiuii

esty

this purpofe,

supplosio pedis

with the foot had been one of the

tions then in ufe*

Nee fuit

as if

etiam,

itamping

leaft violent

We cannot judge

mo-

of this matter

ELOQUENCE.

LeS:. 12.

very well

at

263

There is a difference
upon this fubje<fl.

fuch a diflance.

in the turn of diiFerent nations

The French and

Italians

and

manner than the

fire

member

in their

Briiiili.

once to have been told that no

perceive the beauty of

preaching

man

have much more warmth

at

R.api;iael's picture

could

of Paul

Athens, unlefs he had leen a French-

Leaving you

or Italian in the pulpit.

and digeft

re-

man

all

the criticifms and remarks

to read

upon

this

met with in different authors, I fhall

only give a few direftions that I efteem moft ufe-

fubjeft to be

ful for avoiding improprieties,

degree of excellence in

Study great fincerity

1.

and attaining fome

this refpecl.
;

try

to

forget

every

purpofe but the very end of fpeaking, information,

Labour

and perfuading.

after that fort of prefencc

of mind which arifes from felf-denial, rather than

Nothing produces more aukward-

from courage.

nefs than confulion and embarralTment.

clown

into a magnificent palace,

and

let

Bring a

him have

appear in the prefence of perfons of high rank,

to

he has about his own

makes both the one and the
much more abfurd and aukward than it would

and the fear and

foiicitude

carriage and difcburfe,

other

have otherwife been.

2.

the

Learn

common

dillin^l articulation,

the Englifh grammars.

full force

and powers

the vowels.

and attend

to all

rules of reading, which are taugh; in

The

Articulation

is

giving their

to the confonants as well as

difference

between a well

articu-

lated diicourfe and one defeftive in this refpec^,

that

tlie firft

you

will hear diflinclly as far as

is,

you

LECTURES

264

can hear the vcice

you

the other

Lecl. II.

OtJ

will hear found

enough, yet not underftand almoft any thing that

Pradlice in

faid.

company

is

a good

and feveral other excellencies

this

Another rule

3.

to

is,

keep

way

is

to learn

in difcourfe.

to the tone

and key

common converfation, as much as

poffible.
In common difcourfe, where there is no
affectation, men fpeak properly.
At leaft, though

of dialogue, or

even here there are differences from nature, fome

fpeaking with more fweetnefs and grace than others,
yet there

is

none that

falls into

any of thofe unna-

tural rants or ridiculous geilures, that are

to

fometimes

be feen in public fpeakers.

It is

4.

tomed

of confiderable confequence to be accuf-

decency of manners in the bell company.

to

This gives an eafe of carriage and a fenfe of delicacy,

which

is

of great ufe in forming the deportment of

an orator.
In the

5.

every one ihould confider

laft place,

not only what

is

the manner, beft in

what

beft fuited to the fubjed, but

ed to his

by

fpirit

own

One of

capacity.

nature,

may

itfelf,

is

or even

alfo beft fuit-

a quick animated

allow himfelf a

much

greater

violence of alion, than one of a colder difpofition.

works himfelf up
exprefg much paffion, he

I this laft
to

able to carry

own

it

natural manner, and

by

iire.

v/ill

relapfe into his

the fenfible difference

his difcourfe and another, ren-

himfelf ridiculous-

fhould b^ fjbftituted

oi

will not probably be

through, but

between one part of

der

to violence, or ftudies

by

all

Solemnity

of

manner

fuch perfons in the

room

LECTURE

WE

come now

of this

end

be

is

^^5

ELO^ENCE.

Left. 13.

to the fourth general divifion

fabjea, which

aim

is,

that

its

object or

ends a writer or fpeaker may

are information, demonftratioD,

The

different.

faid to

XIIL

at,

and entertainment. I need fcarce tell

that
t
you, that thefe are not fo wholly diftind, b
than
that more
they are frequently intermixed, and
perfuafion,

one of them

may be

in

view

at the

fame time.

hicludes them.
Perfuafion is alfo ufed in a fenfe that
all.

is

The

intention of allfpeech, or writing,

but recorded fpeech,

word with

latitude.

is

Yet

which

to p rfuade, taking the

I

think you will eafily

forts of com-^
perceive that there are very 'different
of the above-men^
pofition, in fome of which one
a different one,
others
in
and
tioned purpofes,
to the whole
colour
the
gives
takes the lead, and

Great benefit will arlfe from keepthe end propofed.^ It

ing a clear view of what is
and mifcapreferve the writer from a vjiious
performance.

will

phrafeology,
ken tafte. The fame thoughts, thefame

running through a writhe fame fpirit in general,

cafe, and abfurd in
one
in
highly proper
ting,
'

is

another.
ting

when

a beauty in every kind of wriwell done, and impropriety or bad

There
it is

is

themfelves in pieces very

tafte will fometimes fliow
If it were but inditing a meffagcinconfiderable.
article in a newfpaper, or drawan
card, penning
advertifement, perfons accuftom.ed. to
ing up an
each of thcfc ^iU be able

to

keep

to the

common

266

LECTURES ON

form, or beaten track

to

be

faid,

good

3^

any thing

different is

and propriety, or

their con-

but

if

foon fhow themfelves.

traries, will

The

fenfe

Left.

which have information

writings

as their

chief purpofe, are hillory, fable, epiftolary writing,

the

common

and

intercourfe of bulinefs or friendfhip,

The

the lower kinds.

all

properties

fhould reign in them, are the following,

nefs
1

2. Fulnefs

Plainnefs

3.

it is

Precifion

which

i.

Plain-

and, 4. Order.

evident they ought to have

and

indeed not barely perfpicuity, fo as to be intelligible,

but an unaffedled iimplicity, fo as not to feem to

have any thing higher

view than

to

be under-

ftood.

When we

2.

fay that fulnefs

is

a property of

writings which have information as their purpofe,

it is

recommend

not meant to

a long or diffufe nar-

ration, but to intimate that nothing ihould be omit-

ted in giving an account of any thing,

importance
ftood.

to its

which

is

of

being truly and completely under-

Let a writer be as large as he pleafes in

what he

fays, if he omits circumftances as elVential

and which the reader would

know, he is not full. Many are

as thofe he mentions,

naturally defire to

very tedious, and yet not

a narrative

is to

provided they are

in as

few words

The excellence of
many ideas as poflible,

full.

contain as

intjerelling,

and

to

convey them

as poffible, confidently with per-

fpicuity.
3. Precifion,

as a quality

chiefly to language.

Words

of narration, belongs
lliould

be chofen that

are truly exprefTive of the- thing in view, and all

ambiguous

as well as fupeiiiiious phrafes carefully

ELOQUENCE.

Lel. 13.

The

avoided.

reader

is

267

impatient to get to the end

of a ftorj, and therefore he mull not be Hopped

by

any thing but what you are fure he would be glad

to

know before he proceeds

The lafl particular is

4.

fary in

There

all
it

writings,

further.

which

order,

is

necef*

but efpecially in narration.

lies chiefly in

time and place, and a breach

of order in thefe refpedls

is

more

eaiily difcerned

and more univerfally ofFenfive than in any other.

Common
fubje6l
it

but

know when you

hearers do not always

violate order in ranging the

if

you bring

arguments on a moral

in a flory abruptly, or tell

confufedly, either in a letter or a difcourfe,

it

beinftantly perceived, and thofe will laugh at

who

could not

Imagination

much

not to be

of the narrative kind.

is in defcription.

paint ftrongly, and a

you

a whit better themfelves.

tell it
is

will

ufcd in writings

Its chief ufe in

fuch writings

man of a warm fancy

man of a fentimental turn

will
will

even by a mere recital of

But both the one and the other fhould be

intereil the afFeclions

fa(Sbs.

kept

in great

moderation

for

warm

fancy

is

often joined to credulity, and the fentimental perfon

is

given to invention

fo that

hiftory into a romance.

and diipafTionate dignity

he will turn a real

In hiflory a certain cool

is

the leading beauty.

The

writer ihould appear to have no intereft in charaders

them

or events, but deliver

.chara6ler

from

which an

this felf-denial,

as he finds them.

illuftrious

hiilorian

and being, as

how

it

The

acquire3

were, fuperior

great foever, of

whom

to all the

perfonages,

lie treats,

has fomething av/ful and venerable in

it.

LECTURES ON

26S

bj

It is dlftinguifh^d

this

Lel. 13.

circumflance from the

applaufe given to the poet or orator.

Demonltration
writings,

The

the end in

is

whether

view

in all fcientiiic

fyftems, or controverfy.

efiTajs,

excellencies of this kind of writing

reduced

to the three following

The two

and ftrength.
every where

elfe,

firfl

may

be

Perfpiciiity, order,

are neceflary here as

and the compofition fhould be

ilrong and nervous to produce a lafting conviction

more force of language is to be admitted, at leaft

more generally in this kind than in the former
;

but a great deal

even there.

of imagination and fancy than

lefs

Whenever

to paint and adorn, he

tician is

it

to the

it

this

if

more naked and unadorned every

thing that he fays

would

felt

The mathema-

mathematics.

converfant only with fenfible ideas, and

therefore the

fee

a fcientiiic writer begins

forgetting himfelf and dif-

This will be fenlibly

gufting his reader.

you apply

is

look

if a

fo

is,

much

mathematician

the better.
fiiould fay,

beautiful, fmall, taper,

always approaches to

How
Do you

acute angle

this abfurdity,

when,

It

in fearch-

ing after abflra6; truth, writers introduce imagination

and fancy.

am

fenfible that,

having men-

tioned controverfy as belonging to this clafs,

may

be furprifed that

altogether, lince

many

have excluded imagination

commonly

all controverfial writers

do, to the utmoll of their ability, enlill imagination

in the fervice of Reafon.

There

is

nothing they

are fo fond of as expofing the weaknefs of their adverfaries

by flrokes of

did on purpofd that

clearly.

raillery

may

and humour. This

flate this

matter to you

Controverfy iliould mean, and very ge

ELOQUENCE.

Ledl. 13.

269

nerally fuch writers pretend to mean, weighing the

arguments on each

fide

of a contefted queltion, in

What

order to difcover the truth.

very champions of a party- quarrel

that fearching after truth

plain,

ftrong profef-

we fometimes from

fions of impartiality have

is

the
it

the caufe

art,

do not deny that there are fometimes good

making

reafons for

ufe of fatire

and ridicule, in

controverfies of the political kind, and fometimes

is

is

what they never

think of, but maintaining, by every

which they have already efpoufed.
I

while yet

it

If any writer in behalf

necellary in felf-defence.

of a party, attempts to expofe his adverfaries to

public fcom, he ought not to be furprifed

meafure he metes

What

again.

is

meafured out

to others, is

Some-

times

who do

is

not reafon, but punifli

neceffary to bring

is

it

perfons,

pride

neceflary to expofe tyrants, or perfons in

it is

power,

the

unlawful in the aggreflbr, becomes

juftifiable, if not laudable, in the defender.

times

if

to hioi

with

whom

levelled a

Dr Brown

has

there

little

fet this

is

down

and fome-

felf-fufficient

no dealing

till

with thisdifmaying

their

Vv'-eapon.

matter in a very clear light,

in his Elfays on the Charafleriftics, w^here he fays,

that ridicule

is

not the

tell

of truth, but

very ufeful to expofe and difgrace

But when controverfy

fearch after truth,
able, either

it is

is

it

may

be

known

falfehood.

an

impartial

really

the fartheft diftant imagin-

from paflionate declamation on the one

of wit- and

humour on

the other.

hand, or

failles

There

one inftance of a controverfy carried oa

is

between

Dr

je(^ of fpace

Butler and

Dr

Clark, upon

tlic;

fub-

and perfonal identity, in wh>ich there

LECTURES ON

270

Le6l. I3.

did not feem to be any defign, upon either fide, but

to difcover the truth.

ended

It

in the entire con-

which he

viction and fatisladtion of one of them,

readilj and openly acknowledged

fuch an inftance there

had

is

much

and

There

than in conquering.

in yielding

think in

greater glory to be
is

great honour in candidly acknowledging a niiftake,

but not

much

truth.

It is

was

from being the

far

in obtaining a vilory in fupport of

worth while

juft to i^ention,

ihat this

cafe in another contrcverfy

between two, who were

alfo

Locke and Dr

upon innate

Stillingfleet,

very great men,

ideas.

Mr

They

not only fupported each his fentiments, with v/armth

and keennefs, but defcended

to all the malice of

perfonal reproach, and all the littlenefs of verbal

criticifm.

The

next great end that

may

be

in view, is per-

This being the great and general fubjel

fuafion.

of oratory, has had moft faid upon

it

in every age.

That you may underftand what I mean by diilinguifhing it from information, demonitration, and entertainment, obferve, that perfuafion

is,

v/hen

we

would bring the reader or hearer to a determinate

choice, either immediately upon the fpot for a particular decifion, as in an aifembly or court of juftice,

or in a

more flow and

and moral writings.

under rtood
difcoui-fe.

to

be

is

in view, as the effeft of a fingle

When

this is the purpofe, there are

portunities for all the

compafs of th^

lalling v/ay, as in religious

But particularly perfuafion

ways

oratorial

op-

of fpeaking within the

art.

There

are times

when an orator mnft narrate fimply there

times when he muft reafon flrongly and there

are

are

times

27I

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 13.

when he may wound

fatirically.

remembered,

the dignity and force of

away both from

wit takes

We fhall

an oration.

muft be

It

however, that too great an infufion of

under the next head, that

fee

but
inftru6lion
it cannot be admitted in religious
is
that
adverfary
ah
againft
fpeaking
are
you
when
;

proud and conceited, or when you want to make

your hearers defpife any perfon or thing, as well as
minihate them, wit and fatire may be of ufe.

way

with
very often attacked in this
It is fometimes allowed to
propriety and fuccefs.
relieve the fpirits of the audience when they begin

fter

of ftate

is

In this view Cicero recommends the z/rand at the fame

banitas, and pradtifes it himfelf
times he inttmates that it fhould be done fparingly,

to flag.

and with caution

from

^10 tanquam

Wit, therefore,

oratio.

is

to

sale conspergatur

be abfolutely excluded
to

be ufed

end of fpeaking and writing

I fhall

fcientific writings,

and very rarely

in ferious perfuafion.

The

laft

mention,

is

entertainment.

writings as have the

This includes

all

fuch

amufement or entertainment of

the hearers or readers as the only, the chief, or at

one great end of the compofition.

leaft

cafe with

all

poetical compofitions.

This

is

They may

the

pre-

tend to write for the inilru6lion of others, but to

pleafe tliern and obtain their favour

more

their purpofe.

At any

rate,

tent themfelves with taking in both,

Horace, Et prodesse volunt

nefs,

tendernefs,

room

and fay with

et dele dare poet ct:.

and elegance of

ftyle,

charafterize thefe forts of compofition.

greatell

probably

is

they muil con-

for imagination

Sweet-

ought to

Here

and fancy.

is

the

Here

is

Led.

LECTURES ON

471

the dominion of wit and humour. It

is

tion of fome, that the

word humour

Engliili language

that the eutrapelia

have

salts et urha?iitas, in Latin,

ing with our general term wit

is

3.

an obferva-

peculiar to the
in

Greek,

mean-

the fame

all

but that humour

denotes a particular kind of wit, confiding chiefly

But

of irony.
lifli

language,

if the
is

it

word

be the moft ancient example of

Lucian's Dialogues have

though

it

may

in

it

it

modern

it

Fontenelle's

That piece

Satires, are

but none ever exceeded

Cervantes, the celebrated author of

Don

One

two great difad vantages.

more

difficult to tranflate tlian

of compolition.

any other

It is ealier to tranflate

is, its

Now,

being tranflated into another language.

is

Qiiixotte.

highly entertaining to an Engliih

is

reader, under

to

record.

feems particularly

times.

Dialogues of the Dead, and Boileau's

famous examples of

be faid

upon

4n high perfedtion;

it

muft be owed that

have flourifhed

is

the Engliih nation.

to

Perhaps Homer's Batrychomachia

to

Eng-

peculiar to the

certain that the thing itfelf

from being peculiar

far

is

w^it

fubje<5l

undiminifh-

cd the force of eloquence, than the poignancy of

wit.

The

other difadvantage

ridicule of a charafler that

that

we have

is, its

being written in

now no more

exifls

fo

not the opportunity of comparing the

copy with the original.

We mufl alfo obferve,

that wit in general, and

in particular, has often

appeared

this fpecies of

it

in the higheft

perfection in Britain, both in profe

and poetry
with

it,

and

Shakefpeare's dramatic pieces abound

Dr Donnes'

Satires.

high

It is in

perfedlion in Marvel's Rehearfal Tranfpofed

-,

Al-

eloquence:.

Left. 13.

fop*s Melius Inquirendum I but,

175

above

all,

in Swift's

writings, profe and verfe.

It is

obferved Tometimes, that the talent of humour

is often poiTefled, in a

of the meaneft rank,

very high degree, by perfons

who

are t.hemfelves ignorant of

them it appears chiefly in converfation, and

manner that cannot be eafily put upon paper.
But as to thofe who think fit to try this manner
from the prefs, they (hould be well alTured before-

it

in

in a

In many
hand, that they really poflefs the talent.
high adand
a
other particulars, a real tafte for it,

miration of any thing,

degree of the talent

fo in
**

is

fome

a confiderable fign of

itfelf

but

Mr

wit and humour.

it is

far

Pope

from being

tells us,

that'

we

gentle dullnefs ever loves a joke :" and

fee

every day people aiming at wit, who produce the

moft miferable and fhocking performances fome:

times they do not excite laughter, but loathing or

indignation

but

fometimes they do excite laughter,

that of contempt.

it is

There

is

a diflin6Uon

which every one Ihould endeavour to underftand

and remember, between a wit and a droll ; the iiril

makes you laugh

his fatire,

own

at

what he

fays,

and the objeft of

and the fecond makes you laugh

at his

expencc, from his abfurdity and meannefs.

LECTURE XIV.

WE

come now

to the fifth general divifion of

eloquence J as

its

fubjeft is different

which we may confider the three great

Vol.

II.

Aa

under

divifions of

Lectures on

274

the pulpit, the bar, and

LeS:. 14.

promifcuous affemblies.

All the general principles of compofition are com-

mon

to thefe three kinds,

man make

nor can any

truly diftinguiflied figure in

out being well acquainted with literature and

Some

any one of them, withtafte.

ways of writing have

which T fuppofe you
gave attention to but there are .Hill fome differences, as the fcene in which a man is to move in
life is different, which are highly worthy of obferpeculiarities in different

been already touched

at,

i*ll

vation.

therefore, confider each of thefe

I will,

feparately, and try to point out the qualities for

which they ought

to

be diftinguilhed

or delineate

the charadler of an accompliflied minifter, lawyer,

and fenator.
I

Preaching the gofpel

begin with the pulpit.

of Chriil

is

a truly noble

employment, and the care

cf fouls a very important

moll importance,
I.

Piety

To

is called to

npon

his

truft.

The

have a firm belief of that gofpel he

preach, and a lively fenfe of religion

own

heart.

Duty,

intereft,

and

confpire in requiring this qualification

utmoft

qualities of

think, are as follow.

moment

in itfelf,

and what

men

utility, all
it is

will the leall

difpenfe with in one of that profeffion.

good and bad, agree

minifter.

It

of the

All m^en,

in defpifing a loofe or profane

difcovers a terrible degree of depravity

of heart, and thofe that begin fo feldom alter for the

better.

The very

familiar

acquaintance

vrhich

they acquire with ferious thoughts and fpiritual fubjefts,

fer^^es to

conviftion; and

harden them againft the arrovvs of

it is little

ring wickednefs,

God

wonder

that for fuch da-

fliould leave

them

to

them-

ELOQUENCE.

Le6l. 14.

But whilft

ihink

muil beg leave

we

them

fentence

felves, or

my

it

guard

to

perpetual barrennefs.

to

duty thus

to

warn you,

of profane minifters,

fin

who have

others fhoukl think themfelves at liberty,

no view

againil abufe, left, while

it

aggravating the

are

275

We

to that facred office.

perfons decline the facred

office,

have even ieen

becaufe they did

not think they had true religion, and then, with

feeming eafe and quietnefs,

other bufmefs, as

Alas

reliy-ion at all.

fet

themfelves to fome

there

if in that

was no need of
be faid of

after all that can

the guilt and danger of an irreligious minift'er, there

is

an infinite danger to every one

of this

an irreligious man.

life

confolaiion, think you, in the

you muft

death, that though

ycu go

a pillow

by

much

niilers,
this,

not be poor

hour of ficknefs or
perifh everlaftingly,

do truly think,
to

this

merit in

thoughtlefs

rid themfelves

miftaken comfort, as
it,

that they

profeffion nor flation,

Remember

But,

let

is

me

is

neither

from the king on the throne

beggar on the dunghill,

for eternity

of

if there

would not be mi-

becaufe they wanted religion.

then, in a fingle word, that there

to the

has been

this

many poor

and that they have adually

fouls,

vfr.s

of fecurity

convi6^tion,

go out

fhall

it

not as a minifter, but a lawyer

hell,

to

or a phyfician

who

Will

to

wliom

a concern

nbt the one thing needful.

juft

take notice of the great advan-

tage of true religion to one

deftincd for the

work

of the miniftry.
(r.)

It

gives a

mofl fervice

to

man

the

a minifter.

Aa2

knowledge

that is of

Experimental know-

LECTURES ON

276
ledge

Le(!l.

fuperior to all other, and necefTarj to the

is

perfe 611 on of every other kind.

very

It

Is

pofTeffion, or daily exercife of that

the bufinefs of his

to explain

ledge

is

indeed the

which

and the duty of his

life,

and recommend.

be truly underltood, unlefs

True piety

it

is

man in the choice

human knowledge is

of

nobody can go through the whole,

moll profitable to him, and will

its

ne-

is felt.

but religion will direl the ftudent to what

into

is

it

what cannot

will direl: a

The objed

of his ftudies.

fo extenfive, that

it is

office,

Experimental know-

the beft fort in every branch,^ but

ceffary in divinity, becaufe religion

(2.)

I4.

proper channel

all

may be

alfo ferve to

turn

the knowledge he

may

otherwife acquire.
(3.) It will
in his ftudies.

be a powerful motive to diligence

Nothing

preffing,

fo forcible as that in

The duty

eternity has a part.

and the objeft

to a

good

which

man

fo important, that

is

fo

he will

fpare no pains to obtain fuccefs,

True religion will give unfpeakable force

what a minifter fays. There is a piercing and
a penetrating heat in that which flows from the
heart, which diftinguiflies it both from the coldnefs
(4.)

to

of indifference, and the falfe

We

vain-glory.
often efleem,
parts

may

it

that a

fee

influence,

of enthufiafm and

man

truly pious has

and fuccefs,

be much inferior

more capable, but

piety makes even
muft

fire

to

though his

others,

who

are

If,

then,

the weakeft venerable,

what

lefs

do when added

confcientious.

to the fineft natural talents,

and the bell acquired endowments

(j.) It adds to aminifter's inftruftion, the weight

ELOQUENCE.

Lci. 14.

of his example.

It is

trite

remark, that example

reprimand

gument

Example

more

is

ef-,

and a more inciting ar-

to vice,

than the bell of

to the praftice of virtue,

reaioning.

more

It is often a

teaches better than precept.

fe6tual

277

intelligible than pre-

Precepts are often involved in obfcurity, or

cept.

warped by controverfy

but a holy

immediately

life

reaches, and takes poflellion of the iieart.

If I have Lengthened out this particular

the proportion of the reft,

it

beyond

hope you will forgive

and obferve, as the conclu-

for its importance,

Hon of the whole,

that one devoted to the fervfcc

of the ^ofpel fhould be really^ visibly, and eminently,

holy.

Anotlier character which Hiould difticguiilk

2.

Simplicity

pulpit-eloquence, islimplicity.

every where

tiful

beau-

of impoitauce that young;

it is

is

perfons fiiould be formed to a tafte for

and more-

it,

difpofed to exceed here than in the oppolite ex-

am

not miftaken,

treme

tiful,

and the tranfgreflions of

but, if

in the pulpit,, than

lawyer pleading

more adapted

any where

difplay his

carry his client's caufe,

him
the

in

my

fame

efleeni

but

him

There

are

than any other,

fervice^ he

and manner, as was

own

talents,

if I

i.

lefTea

be

fatisfied

with con-

obvious reafons

why

fim-

minifter

Many

of his audience are poor

If he

mean

muft keep

than to

heard a minifter a6ling

efpecially neceiTury to a

ignorant creatures.

heard a

in deteftation.

feveral

more

offenfive,

If I

would conilderably

part, I ftiould not

tempt, but hold

plicity is

it

more beau-

more

elfe.

in fuch a llyle

to

it is

it

to

to

what they

Aa

do them any

vuidcrftaad^

an4

LECTURES ON

273
that requires

more

Left. 14,

that

the

at

this

remarkable,

It is

it was a character
was preached to the poor.
Mailer was diftinguiihed, both

publication,

firll

of the gofpel, that

In

perfons without

fimpllcity than

experience can eafily imagine.

it

our blefled

from the heathen philofophers and Jewiih teachers^

who

confined their inflru6lions in a great meafure

and imparted what thej elieemed

to their fchools,

their moll important difcourfes, to only a

fen difciples.

Simplicity

2.

few cho-

necelTary to pre-

is

You

ferve the fpeaker's character for fincerity.

heard before

how

neceffary piety

which

is,

is

the

Now,

proper parent of fincerity in the pulpit.

it

is not eafy to preferve the opinion of piety and fin-

when there is much ornament.

much afFeled pomp, or fop-

cerity in the pulpit,

Befides the danger of

pery of

audience,

the

a difcourfe very highly poliftied,

ilyle,

even in the

trueft

tafle,

man

that

fuggell

is

apt

is

preaching himfelf,

to

to

So nice a matter
fome criall public fpeaking, that
is this in
tics fay, that Demollhenes put on purpofe fome
and not the

lerrors in

ers

crofs

grammar

of Chrill.

in his difcourfes, that the hear-

might be induced

mediate efFuiions of

with

little

to

take

them

the heart,

premeditation.

for the

without

doubt much

art,

im-

and

the foli-

dity of this remark, or the certainty of the fa6t

but however

it

be,

there

is

no occafion for

in the cafe of a minifter, becaufe preparation

premeditation are expeded from

cafe he

and

may make

fimple,

him

it

and

and in that

his difcourfes abundantly plain

without

any

affedled

blunders.

3.

{Simplicity is alfo necefiary, as fuited to the gofpei

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 14.

2jg

the fubjeft: of a miniflcr's difcourfes.

itfelf,

No-

thing more humbling to the pride of man, than the

doftrine of the crofs

nothing more unbecoming

much

that doctrine, than too

The

finery of language.

" not with the

apoflle Paul chofe to preach

words which man's wifdom teacheth

*'

not with excellency of fpeech,

which though

admit

tliat

j" and

or

again,

wifdom

;"

does not condem.n

it

fludy and found knowl rdge, yet

it

certainly ihows,

that the iiyle of the pulpit fhould be the mofl fimple

and felf-denied of any other.

3.

Another

minifter

qualification for a

is

accu-

racy, from the utmoft diligence in his important

work.
to

place this immediately after the other,

guard

again ft abufe

it

by

To

excefs.

avoid vain

afFefled ornaments, is a very different thing

negligence

who

irt

fpeaks with fo

dom, yet greatly

and Titus,

from

The very fame apoftle

much contempt of human wif-

preparation.

writing to

in

infifts,

on their giving themfelves

to exhortation, to doftrine,

*^

Timothy
to

ftudy,

Meditate upon thofe

things,'* fays he, &-c.

Study and accuracy, indeed,

a miniller

may

of his hearers

is

necefiTary, that

procure and keep up the attention

;

that

he

may

inform the judge-

ment, as well as convince the confcience.

cient fathers have generally infifted

much moment.
that

it

is

finer tafte,

And

in

our

own

upon

The

an-

this, as

of

times, I obferve,

necefTary to avoid offending perfons of

who

are too

much

attached to the out-

fide of things, and are immediately difgufted with

every error againft propriety, and are apt to re-

proach religion

itfelf,

for the

weakuefs or abfurdi-

LECTURES

28o
ty of thofe

who

fpeak in

Lcl. I4.

ON*

Let no

behalf.

its

may

feek to avoid that reproach which

man

be his

lot,

for preaching the truths of the everlafting gofpel,.

but

him always avoid the juft reproach of hanthem in a mean, ilovenly, and indecent man-

let

dling
ner.

Another quality of a minifter's eloquence,

be force and vehemence. I have in fome
former parts of the general fubjecl, fhown you how
4.

fliould

and when

be mofi exerted.

this is to

of the prefent remark

there
ert

is

no fpcaker

to let

is

who

No

you know,

that

who may

properly

more, than a minifter of the go-

fpeaker has fubjecls or arguments more

proper for producing this

ftibjeds

defign

has a greater right to ex-

himfelf to the utmofl, or

interefl his hearers

fpel.

The

To

effe6l.

coniider the

which a fpeaker from the pulpit has

handle, one would think that

mufl be the

it

to

ealiefl

thing imaginable to fpeak from them in a power-

the greatnefs of his works

providence

his infinite

The

manner.

ful and interefling

his awful juitice

mercy

and

the

truth

is,

in themfelves, that

by
this

the

and

the final

day of judge-

the fubjeds are fo very great

it is

not pofUble to equal

many

fall fbort.

Difcouraged by

the immenfity of the theme, they fall below

they might have done on fubje^ls

however,

fliews,

them

Probably for

manner of handling them.

very reafon

in

the condition of

and iinners w^hile on earth

The

power

wifdom of God

decifion of their eternal ftate in the

ment.

God

his irrefiflible

the myftery of redeeming grace

faints

eternal

the univerfality of his

lefs

what

awful. This,,

with what a holy ambition thofe

ELOQUENCE.

281

in the fervice

of Chrifl in the

Lel. 14.

who

are

employed

gofpel, fhould endeavour to exert themfelves in the

Provided they are themfelves in

glorious caufe.

and take truth and nature as their guide,

earneft,

they can fcarcely exceed in zeal and ardour for the

glory of

is,

God

and the good of precious

be under the reflraint of judgement and pro-

to

place

after the former, as its

priety.

terpart,

and necelTary

And

fouls.

Another excellent quality of pulpit-eloquenoe

5.

it

may

tliis

to give

its

counefFel.

be obferved, that as religious and mo-

ral fubjecls give the furefl

and the

zeal and fervour, fo they need, as

flrift

proper

fcope to

fulleft

much

as any, the

government of prudence and experience. I

this, to guard minifters from

do not mean only by

the irregular fervours of enthufiafm, but to give, if

poflible, a degree of folidity

They ought

inilrudlions.

and real truth

to avoid

all

to their

turgid de-

clamation, to keep to experience, and to take things

as

they really are.

Let forae

people,

ample, fpeak of riches, and what

from them

Ihining drofs,

value

what are they, but

fparkling metals, a thing of no real

Gold and

for ex-

you hear

fhall

that in the

lilver,

eye of reafon and philofophy,

they are of no extenfive ufe, and altogether con-

And, indeed,

to take things in a certain

philofophical abilradion,

they are good for no-

temptible.

thing.

Mere gold

or filver

you can

neither eat

Their value, you will fay, depends all

upon opinion, the changeable fancy of men. But
this manner of fpeaking, and all that is related to
nor wear.

it,

feeming

to

abfurdity and

be phllofc;>hy and reafon,

noiifgnfe.

For though

it

is

really

be true.

LECTURES ON

iS2

from the opinion of mankind,

that gold, abllrafted

is

not a v/hit

was

more valuable than

wild beafls, a whole bag

fituation,

yet

it is

The way,

life.

good or

that ufes

all

then, to treat

not to ufe thefe rhetorical phrafes

contempt of riches, but

him

me

of that real value as to procure

fiich fubje^ls, is

of

of gold would do

full

if

furrounded with

as certain, that in our prefent

it is

the conveniencies of

that they are

and that

ftones,

the midft of a foreft,

in

no fervice

in

Le6l. 14.

them

and ungoverned paffion

from experience,

to fliow

evil,

according to the temper

and that

we

fee difcontent

as eafy accefs to the

find

anti-chamber of the prince, as the cottage of the

The fame

poor^

thing I would fay of fame, that

it is

eafy to fay fame

&c.

is

no more but

but the great matter

is to

idle

breath,

view thofe things

in-

a fober and rational light, to give to every outward

mercy

how much

proper value, and only {how

its

they are counterbalanced by things of infinitely

greater

moment.

But what

upon

have often obferved with mofl regret

this fubjedl

is,

young perfons carrying

and excellent

tilings that are really true

tain excefs or

high pitch, that

and does not tend in the

tion,

but rather hinders

lealt
it.

is

to

defcription

when

beyond the

life in

they fpeak of vice and

are apt to

draw

beyond nature,
promote convic-

When men

virtue or true goodnefs, they are

nrioft

and-

confequences, they

the cliaradter fo as

only to a few of the

fpeak of

apt to raife thc-

any real inftance

its

the.

cer-

to a

it

will

apply

defperate profligates, and

the mifeiable flate to which they reduce themfelves.

Xhis rather feems

to fortify the generality of per-

Lea.

ELOQUENCE.

14.

fons, to

thefe defcriptions do not apply, in

whom

and fecure

their carelefs

2^^

Once more,

ftate.

have often obferved young per-

fons frequently choofe as their fubjecl afflictions, of

which, probably, they have had very little experience, and fpeak in fuch a high ftyle, as if every
good man were, as the heroes of old, above the

And

reach of every accident.

eminent

faint is

fufferings

it

fometimes made

is

very tender of lufFerers,

till

in the furnace of afflidion

not need be told fo.

On

we

an

fuperior to all his

but, generally fpeaking,

true, that

we ought

to

be

ourfelves have been

and after

that,

we

fhall

the whole, a ftrid adhe-

rence to truth and nature, and taking the v/orld

us
as it is, will be an excellent mean to direft

jufl

in every part of our public fervace.

6. Lallly,

A minifter

that

knowledge, inay be

made

Every

knowledge.

objea of human

ought to have extenfive

thing whatever,

is

the

fubfer-

that a mini-

vient to theology.

And, confidering

fter is in public life,

and has to do with friends and

ranks, he ought to be well furnifhed

with literature of every kind. At the fame time,
not necefI w^ould have this well underftood, it is

enemies of

fary,

and

fter fliould

all

think

it

is

not defirable, that a mini-

be quite an adept

in particular branches

of knowledge, except thofe that are clofely related

The reafon of this is, it takes
to his proper work.

more time

to

be a perfedl mafter of fome of the

particular fcitnces, than he has to fpare from his

duty, and therefore with a tafte of the feveral
fciences, general

knowledge

is

mcft fulted to his

circumftances, and. moft necelTary to his

iifefulnefs^.

*^4

LECTURES ON

Left.

5.

LECTURE XV.

Proceed now
The profefTion

to the

eloquence of the bar.

of the law

great

room

deed,

may

for this fort

be

racter of

which

its

is,

therefore,

This, in-

of eloquence.

being a free

that not

have dominion, which

ftate, the

cha-

man, but the laws,

our glory, but becaufe,

is

the great multiplicity of our ftatutes,

important and

is,

be the country of law, not

faid to

only on account of

of great import-

is

There

ance in the Britifh dominions.

fcience.

difficult

it

by

becomes an

For both

thefe

reafons, there are great hopes propofed to perfons of

ability in this department.

They have

the reafonable profpeft,

of tolerable abilities,

if

not only

with diligence, to provide an honourable fubfillence

to themfelves, but
tion,

and the

way

it

the dire 61 road to

is

promo-

of obtaining the higheft offices in

the ftate.

Here, as in the former particular,

(ider

every thing as already

we muft

faid, that

con^

belongs to

and, indeed, by far the

of
valuable
books on the fubjedt of
number
greateft
eloquence having been drawn up by pleaders at the
bar, they mufl be at leaft as much, or perhaps more

the fubjeft in general

direftly applicable to this fpecies than

any other.

cannot help, however, taking notice of a prepofterous practice in this country, of fome

who

take

their children from literature, before they have

fi-

niihed their courfe, becaufe they intend to put tliem

to the law.

them

to the

This mufl be voluntarily confining

very lowcit

fort of pradlice in that pro-

any whatever ftand in need of

feflion, for if

ture,

been faid of compoiition, and

fore, all that has

fpeaking in general,

men

can be no doubt that integrity

the

is

important character of a man,

what

will

it

in the

but

many

there are

firft

There

make

and moft

be his profeliion

have mentioned

it

here becaufe

not fo fenfible of the importfince of

profefHon of the law, and think

cefl'ary to

that

of that clafs.

Probity, or real untainted integrity.

I.

yer.

few particular

there are a

characters of moft importance in

it

litera-

Suppofing, there-

muft be the lawyers.

it

2S5

ELOQjrENCE.

Left. 15.

is

it

ne-

a good man, but not a good law-

On the contrary, I am perfuaded, not only

a man lofes nothing in any capacity by his

integrity, but that a

hj probity and

lawyer fhould

in general ftudy,

real worth, to obtain

from

refpetT:

the public, and to give weight to every thing he

fays.

This integrity (hould fliow

taking caufes.

There

no ground of fcruple

are

many

itfelf in

under-

that think there is

in this refpeft, and fometimes

they are found to boaft with what addrefs they con*

duded, and with what

a very weak caufe.
honourable

and

which the equity

make

it

fuccefs they carried through,

I

apprehend

this is truly dif-

as there are plenty of caufes ia

is

a point of

doubtful, everyone

honour not

which they knew not

to

be

to

who

fliould.

undertake a caufe

juft, it

would give un-

fpeakable influence to his management and plead-

The fame probity fhould appear

ings.
manner of conducing caufes; no finiiier

in

the

arts,

no

equivocation or concealment of the truth.

Perhaps

fome may think that thofe who fhould be

Vol.

II.

confcience-

286

LECTURES ON

bound

Left. 75,

manner, would give

in this

an evident advantage over them

ro^uiili perfons

but

it is

a great

Let them ufe but prudence and firmnefs,

miftake.

joined with integrity, and they are an over-match

for all the villains

verb

is

The

arts

upon

certainly juft,

cunning,

The common

earth.

Honefty

is

pro-

the beft policy."

of chicanery can only lucceed once or

As

twice.

*<

its

foon as a
effed

is

man

gets the reputation of

nobody

over, for

\\all trufl

him,

and every body counter-works him.

Another

2.

fiduity

excellerst quality for a lawyer, is af-

and method in bulinefs.

This

advantage to the very bell genius.

fill

upon

that

it,

it is

is

of great

I the rather in-

that there prevails often a fuppofition

not the quality of a great

man.

Becaufe

there are fome perfons of very middling abilities,

who

give great application, and are lovers of or-

der, therefore

fome are pleafed

plodding fellows, and think

it is

to call thofe dull

mark

of

fire

and

vivacity to be irregular both in their bufinefs and in

alfo fome few men of real
who are negligent, and even
pra6lice, who rife by the mere force

There are

their lives.

and great capacity,

loofe in their

of lingular parts.

Thefe are an unhappy example

to thofe fuperficial creatures,

tating

them

in their

who

folly, that

as preat geniiifes as they.

think,

by imi-

they will become

EutfufFer

me

to obferve

to you, that the greateil geniufes here have been

remarkable for the moft vigorous application ; and

the greateil men have been, and are, remarkable
for

order

There

is

and method in every thing they do.

a

certain dignity

which

man's word being facred, even

in

arifes

from a

keeping an ap-

Led.

ELOQUENCE.

15,

287

circumflance

and

pointment, or the mofl:

trifling

for people of biifiaefs,

order and punctuality gives

much eafe to thenmfelves, and

who have to do with them, that

fo

body

there ihould be any

pleafure to all
it

a wonder

is

that does not lludy

it.

Is

down a
know how

there any genius, think you, in throwing

you do not

thing fo unthinkingly, that

to tiike

up again

it

bray looks uppn

things to teach

The great Archbifnop of Cam-

as one

it

young perfons

itSiproper place.

As

to

and implements, mufl be

fome place, they are always

*ach

is

in

befl difpofed

They

ov/n place.

its

put every thing in

every thing that belongs to

furniture, drefs, books,

in

of the moi'c important

when

will give leaft dif-

turBance there when they are not ufed, and they

be moil readily found when they ought

i^'ill

to

be

ufed.

But when we come

to loofe

and vicious pradli-

meet with riotous diforderly fellows, who are pleafed to fpeak with
ces,

it is

truly entertaining to

contempt of thofe

who

love form and good order,

men of great acutenefs.

knew an example of your

as if they themfelves v/ere

Now,

almofl never

mifchief-workers, but they were thick

have known fome,

nor fpeak a

jefl in

nough they could

bourhood.

v^'ho

all their life,

but had tricks c-

have thus been led back

to the irre-

from fpeaking of method in

as of importance to

lawyers.

1 fhall

conclude the obfervation with faying, that there

no great profpe6t of
celior,

who

play, to dilturb a fober neigh-

gularities of youth,
l)ufinefs,

fculls.

could neither write a jef^

is

man's ever being Lord Ghan-

fpcnds his time in fcouring the

Bb

ilreets,

288

LECTURES ON

Led:, 15.

and beating the watch, when he

is

at the inns

of

court.
3.

Another quality ufeful

lawyer

to a

is,

addrefs,

and delicacy in his manners and deportment in general, and the condud of his buiinefs in particular,

and above

The

all

pleading and public fpeaking.

in

addrefs and delicacy I mean, are fuch as are

acquired by the knowledge of human

fome acquaintance with human life.

nature, and

They

ufeful, I admit, for every public fpeaker

am

are

but, if

much more needful to the lawclergyman.

The clergyman pro-

not miftaken,

yer than. the

ceeds upon things of

acknowledged moment, a

charader

certain dignity of

expefted from him.

fometimes offenfive in him,

not to call

it

allowed him, and

is

pretended

delicacy

is

certain iirmnefs,

boldnefs, and impartiality in admi-

niftering inftrui5tion and reproof, are ornaments in

him.

But a law^yer mull always conlider the pro-

what belongs to him

them that are fpoken to,
There are loine fine ex-

priety of time and place

that fpeaks, or to hini or

or that are fpoken of.

amples of addrefs and delicacy

in Cicero, particu-

larly in his orations Jyro Roscio,

lege,

4.

A fourth

exteiilive

knowledge

or attain to

this profc-ilion,

in the arts

and fciences, in

perfon that

muft

ft rive

arts

means

to accomplifh himfelf

and fciences.

of a public kind, the caufes he

"fion

is,

to

fome of the higheft degrees of

knowledge in the
is

Milofie, et de

quality neceffary for a lawyer

hiilory, and in the laws.

rife,

pro

agraria*

may

to treat aye exceedingly various.

by

His bufinefs
have occa-

What

ad*

2^

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 1^,
verfarles

Ke

certain.

may meet with,

he

is

altogether un-

do not mean that a lawyer need

to

be

an adept in particular branches of fcience, but the

knowledge

principles of

other-wife

farj',

in general are vei'y necef-

he will frequently expofe himfelf^

Grofs ignorance in the fciences will lay him open

to

blunders in language, which he could not others

wife avoid.
that a

Iliflory alfo

lawyer

fliould

is

make

branch of

literature

favourite ftudy

his

as

his bufinefs lies in canvaifing the various relations

of

men

he will be beil able

in focial life,

to reafoa

on the meaniTig and propriety of laws, and their

application, if he be well acquainted v;ith hiftory,

which points out the

and human

ftate of focietj'^,

As

knowledge of the
what lawyers cannot do without, and

affairs in

every age.

laws, this

is

wliat therefore

to

they do neceflarily iludy

but

it

would be much to their advantage, if they would

add to the knowledge of the municipal laws of
their own country, a knowledge of the great principles of equity,

and of natural and

law^

politicai

as applied in general.
3.

The

a lawyer,
to

him

to

quality I

laft

fliall

mention as of ufe to

quickncfs and vivacity.

is,

of ufe

It is

have an acutenefs and penetration

To

ferve the turns of a caufe.

to

ob-

detect the plots

and

fallacy of adverfaries, as well as to anfwer

the fpot, whatever

fible that this

quality, and

may

be thrown up.

of quickncfs

is

cannot be learned

becaufe

befl to obferve

it,

lawyer than

moft other men.

to

b 3

it

is

entirely
j

but

upon

am

fea--

natural

thought

it

of more ufe to a

A iniuifler is ca-

LECTURES ON

igo

Xea:?i5.

ly called to fpeak what he has deliberately prepa*

and fully digefted

'red,

but a lawyer quite in-

capable of extemporary productions, would not do

fo

well.

It is alfo certain, that wit,

tolerable in the pulpit,

is

which

is

in-

often not barely pardon-

There

able in a lawyer, but very ufeful.

is,

liow-

fuch a difference in the capacity of men,

ever,

that one

may be

eminent in one branch, and de-

fective in another.

and application,

tion,

man

of coolnefs, penetra-

often eminent in

is

chamber-

councils; and one of vivacity, paffion, and elocu-

eminent in pleading caufes, efpecially in crimi-

tion,

nal courts.

The

third and

divifion of this clafs, is the

lafl:

eloq.uence of promifcuous deliberative afiemblies.

I ihall not be very long
is far

fent

upon

this fubjeCl,

from being improbable

may

that

but as

it

fome here pre-

in future life have occafion to aft in that

members of the provincial aflemmake a few remarks upon it to that

fphere, and to be
blies, I fhall

purpofe.

In large deliberative aflemblies of the

political kind, there is nearly as

for fervour and paflion, as there

more fcope

for wit

much

is to

and humour than

opportmiity

the divine, and

to the

lawyer.

For though no matters of a merely temporal kind,

are of equal

moment

in themfelves with the things

a minifter has to treat

of,

yet men's paffions are

many cafes more, excited

and interefted by them. The fate of nations, the
welfare of our country, liberty, or fervitude, may
almofl as much, and in

often feem to
j)all!onate

evei,

want as violent an exertion of the

kind cf

eloj^^ueuce, as

any fubjedt what-;

ELOQJJENCE.

Le6l. 15.
It is

in

worth

Spf

wliile to obferve, that feveral writers,

fpeaking of the ancient and modern eloquence,

have- taken

it

for granted, that the circumftances of

things are changed

that the violent paflionate elo-

in Greece and Rome, would

modern times. They will tell you, that
in a modern fenate, or other deliberative aflembly,
people come all prepared by private interefl, and

quence that prevailed

not do in

will vote juft as they are engaged, without regard

*o either eloquence or truth

but fome very able

writers have delivered a contrary opinion, particu-

larly David
nion,

is

Hume, who, ihough an

He

matters of criticiim.
ture

is

infidel in opi-

of great reach and accuracy of judgement in

has faid, that

human na-

always the fame, and that the eloquence

which kindles and governs

have great influence

be of what

ftation or

the pafTions will always

in large affemblies,

rank foever.

them

let

apprehend,

that experience,

fince his writing the above,

fully juftified

by two

it

iignal

examples

the (late, and the other in the church.

has

one in

Mr

Pitt,

-now Earl of Chatham, from being a colonel of

dragoons, rofe to the highefl ftation in the

Empire, merely by the power of a

Britifli

warm and

paf-

There was never any thing in

his difcourfes that was remarkable, either for ftrength

iionate eloquence.

of reafoning,

or purity and elegance of ftyle

a very great impetuofity and

fire,

but

that carried his

point in the Britilh Houfe of Commons.

inftance

is

the late

Mr

Whitfield,

The other
who acquired

and preferved a degree of popularity, to which the

prefent age never
Ipared,

faw any thing

The happy

that could be

com-

ends that were promoted by this

LECTURES

1^^

ON*

LetTt. 15.

in providence, I omit, as a fiibjel of a

nature

produced

were a power of elocution, and natural

it

by
by any man on

talents for public fpeaking, fuperior

that ever I

To

different

but the immediate and fecond caufes that

faw

fucceed

poileiTed
in

any

far to
earth.

fpeaking in public deliberative

alTemblies, the following are the moft important

qualities.
1.

Dignity of character and

public deliberations,

it is

In

difintereilednefs.

not eafy to procure atten-

fome degree of charader preand indeed, wherever there is a high opi-

tion, unlefs there is

ferved

nion of the candour and lincerity of the fpeaker,

it

will give an inconceivable weight to his fentiments

in debate.
2.

There

is

knowledge of the moft

the knowledge of men and

anecefiity of

liberal kind, that

is,

manners, of hillory, and of

human

The

nature.

moft fuccefsfui fpeakers in fenates, are generally

thofe

who know mankind

would uniformly preferve

in this light,

3.

and

he muft addift himfelf

if

mau

and influence

to the ftudy of

and the exercife of reflexion.

hiftory,

To

fary^ a

beft

his charaler

this fort of

eloquence

power over the

is

particularly necef-

This

paflions.

is

one of

the moft important charadlers of eloquence in general

yet

it

is

more peculiarly

neceiTary, and

more

eminently powerful, in promifcuous deliberative

aftemblies,

than in any other.

In religious dif-

courfes, the effect is expected to be cool, deep,

permanent.

Even

and

preachers in fingle difcourfes,

rather choofe to fpeak as writers, than as pleadersf;

and lawyers, except in fome few

inftaixces,

may

ELOCLUENCE.

Le(*l. 15.

^93

cxpe6l to have their aflertions taken to pieces, can-

vafled and tried one after another

of the political kind, the decilion

but

ir,

meetings

be bv a vote,

to

is

before the diflblution of the alTembly, and cannot

be altered afterwards though the majority fhould

change their fentiments. In thefe affemblics, therefore, to

be

fure, a

power over the

paflions

mull b^

of the utmoft moment.

I Ihall

conclude this particular by two fubordi-

remarks on the fame

nate

fubjecl.

1.

That

to

fucceed in fpeaking in fenates or large affemblies^

there

is

much need

of great difcernment, both to

proportionate men's attempts to-their capacity, and

to choofe the proper time for exerting

information

be heard with patience apon

it v/iil

jefts of

it.

When

demanded, any perfon who can give

is

it:

but on fub-

high political importance, where there are

many eminent champions on

of moderate
aftronted.

2.

The

each

fide,

would run

abilities

other

even perfons

a riik of being

direftion

is,

that

all

who intend to be fpeakers in political aiTemblies,

muft begin

early.

If they delay beginning

till

years ihall add maturity to their judgement, and

weight

to their authority, the confequence will be,

that years will add fo

much

to their caution

diffidence, that they will never

We come

now

ticular difcourfe

begin

to confider the

and

at all.

ftrudure of a par-

the order, proportion, and mutual

relation of the feveral parts.

Orators, or critics on

oratory, very early learned to analyfe a difcourfe,

and

to

enumerate the parts of which

They

are a

thors j

fome reckon four

little

differently ftated

it is

by

compofed.

diflerent au-

introduction, propofuion,

LECTURES

294

and

confirmation,

conclufion-; others,

narration; others,
are

fix,

fome difcourfes

sll

adding

five,

adding refutation; and there

which you may

in

each of thefe different things

we muft

Led. I5.

ON"

eafily

have

but confidering that

take this matter fo generally, as to include

kinds of compofition,

would be,

it

think, as

well to adopt the divifion in poetical criticifm, and

fay, that

every regular difcourfe, or compofition of

every kind, mufi: have a beginnings a middle, and

Every performance, however

an end.

ihort,

be capable of fomJ* fuch divifion, otherwife

would make the

beginning

is

The

and irregular.

called abrupt

properly the introduftion

is,

many,

body of a

all requifite in

Let

in

lis

more

and refutation

but thefe are not

propofitions variable and accidental, ac-

fpeak

it

is

compofed

the difcourfe

me

to

This

have generally

that

firft

it

is finiflied

it is

alfo difii-

faid fo.

We

that the

pronounced, ought to be

comes
;

is

of very confiderable

fome of the books of oratory,

faid in

introduction, though
laft

fubjedl:.

of the introdudion.

firft

necelTary, that

cult, at ieaft fpeakers

it

taken

every difcourfe, and are to be intro-

importance, efpecially to an orator

find

is

now, thefe may be very

cording to the nature of every particular

the

that the

propofition, narration, explication, confirma-

tion, iilailration,

duced

difcourfe

is

the middle

includes every thing, however various, that

into the

it

why

reafon

manner

divifion in this

muft

to

be confidered after

but this does not appear to

be either natural or

neccfifary,

qualified fenfe; the introduction

is

except in a

commonly fettled

after the fubjefiis pitched upon, the diftribution

ELOQUENCE.

Left. 15.

planned and digefted, and

whole

(adh. reflexion

ends in an introduction, are faid by Cicero

be thefe. Reddere audit orem attentum^ benevolum

doc'ilem ;

to

make

ent views

may

upon

fpeaker, and willing to

Thefe

the fubje6l.

left

out

differ-

not only be altered in their order, at

the judgement of the orator, but any of

be

et

the reader attentive to the dif-

courfe, favourable to the

receive inftrudlion

upon the

as precedes writing.

The
to

295

when

have no reafon

it is

unneceiTary ;

if,

to fufpeft difaffedlion in

hearers, long apologies, efpecially if

them may

for

example,

any of

my

any w^ay perfo-

nal, are rather difgufting.

The ways
making

or

of procuring either attention, a favour,

the hearers teachable, are fo various,

that they can neither be

In

this the orator

ment, and

enumerated nor

clalTed.

muft exercife his invention, judge-

The moft ufual manner of

common place upon the import-

i3[ood talle.

introduftion,

is

ance of the fubjet

the introduftions

drawn from

the circumilances of time, place, and perfon, are

generally the molt flriking

Itroke

is

happy

reflection or bold fentiment

fometimes an unufual

in an introduction, as alfo a

weighty

on the fubjedt

itfelf.

was happily begun by Mr Baxmaimer ** Death is the occaliqn of our

funeral fermon

ter, in this

prefent meeting, and death

tiie

following

which

difcourfe;

fhall {hortly filence

of that which

fiiall

foiijlier

am

be the fubject of
to

fpeak of that

me, and you are

to hear

fpeedily flop your ears."

Evans begins a fermon on

joice,

fliall

Ecclef. xii. 10.

Dr

" Re-

young man I" &.c by telling a ii-ory of a

life was fa-ved by avBible in his pocket,

whole

LECTURES bN

2^6

Lel. I5.

and his converfion produced by the accident

Bible fav^ed
bullet, and,

the

him from being fliot through with a

when he examined, it had jufl pierced

the leaves through,

till it

ftopped

which no doubt he read with

A difcourfe of
beft

that pafTage,

at

particular emotions.

a lawyer in a law-fuit,

is

generally

begun by a narrative of the occalion of the

common -place

quarrel, a.nd the introducing of any

topics

would be reckoned

man may

clergy-

often have an introduction to his fubjeft

may

with advantage, and

concife

affectation.

alfo

often begin

by

view of the context, or the occafion of the

words he has chofen

to difcourfe

upon.

Perhaps what will be of moft ufe here, will be

point out feveral

may

a.

be faulty

to

ways by which an introduftion

of thefe I ihall mention the follow-

ing.

An

I.

extravagant.

common

faults in the

books.

When

he thinks

jeCt,

may

introduction

pompous and

This

is

is to

write upon any fub-

necelTary to Ihow, not only that

his fubjeCt is worth the handling, but that

than

all

other fubjeCts.

it is

better

Weak and pedantic writers

are often guilty of this to a degree that

A treatife

too

one of the moft

prefaces or introductions to

an author
it

by being

be faulty,

on arithmetic, fometimes

is

is

ridiculous.

introduced

pompous proof that the knowledge of numbers

is either fuperior to, or the balls of all other knowthe fame thing is done wdth grammar
ledge
and

by

there

is

which the
takes

from
which they expofe themfelvcs

often a general truth or plaulibility

ridicule to

its rife

for, to

be fure, number

is

everywhere

every thing that ever was or can be, mult be either

Led.

tLOQjJENCE.

15.

one or more.

As

to

grammar,

297
all

good

certaialy be grammar': yet there

who would

perfons

be thought

who

thefe fubjefls very well,

are

fenic

mud

fometimes

to underftand

both

could not fpeak five

fentences, or write a letter, w^ithout being defervedly

laughed

at.

An

2.

introdudlion

We

neral.

to a difcourfe, that

fubjed

as

may

be faulty, by being ge-

fee often reflexions in the introduclion

would be

juft as

proper for one

Such fentiments may be

for another.

go before, but they cannot be faid

faid to

to intro-

Sometimes you will hear the

duce their fubjel.

you can conjedure

what is to be the fubjed and fome are fo unhappy
in the choice of introdudory fentiments, that you
would think they intend fomething that is very
diiferent from what really appears in the piece itfelf.
introduflion alraoft out, before
;

3. It is a fault in

an introduction,

to

remarks quite beaten and hackneyed,

may have been

Thefe

fo.

fentiments

when

firfi

be
if I

filled

with

may fpeak

very good remarks or

conceived and uttered, but

perpetual repetition have

loft their force,

by

and from

commonnefs appear mean and defpicable.

many of them founded upon fayings in
the claflic authors, and in the pad age were comthe very

They

are

monly produced as quotations, with th jir paraphrafe,

fuch as, " Omne tulit punctum qui jniscuit utile dulci.''*
**

Ingratiim
4.

si dixerisy

cmnia dixerisy

An introdutSlion may

that is

be forced and unnatural

to fay, fuch remarks

may

be made, as

it

re-

quires a great deal of pains to fliow any relation

between them and the fubjedl

Voi.

II.

Cc

to

be treated,

Led.

LECTURES ON

298
5.

tafte^

There was

maj- be fanciful or whimfical.

It

an age when thefe

introdudions were to the

fort of

This fancy 'or whim,

of the public.

15.

or, as I

ma J call it, a finical way of entering upon a fubjed

publicly, may be bell illuftrated by an example.

An
ch,

author of the

age begins a difcourfe upon

laft

of the Epiflle to the

viii.

" The

Romans,

v. 28. to this

may be confidered as a
The New Teflament is
large and rich garden.
The
the moli valuable divifion of that garden.
purpofe

fcriptures

Epiflle to the
that divifion

Romans is

the richefl compartment of

the 8th chapter

the moil delightful

is

border of that compartment, and the 28th verfe the

finefl

fiower of that border."

An introdudion may
An introdudion is
tedious.

be faulty by being

6.

attention,

by

whet the

to

and excite impatience for what

But when

lows

defiigned

it is

very long,

the difappointment,

it

is to

fol-

not only difguils

but waftes that attention

w'hich Ihould be preferved in full vigour, or raifes a

high expedation, which

is

probably for that reafon

difappointed.

As

to the middle or

thmg to be attended
you fenfible of what

body of

a difcourfe, the chief

is, to make
The former dif-

to in this place
it

confifis.

courfes have all been intended to teach

way
ture

you

the

ef compofition, both as to materials and flruc;

yet as to the method of conduding a particu-

lar difcourfe, I

marks
(1.)

would make the three following

re-

Be

careful of the order of the feveral parti-

culars mentioned.

You may

not fee

it

proper to

introduce all in the compafs of a fingle difcourle,

but fo far as they are introduced, they fliould be

in

ELOQUENCE.

Lecl. 15.

299

the following order: Propofition, narration, illuilration, confirmation, refutation.

You

will fpeedily

perceive this to be the order of nature, to lay

the method, narrate the fads, illallratc

whatever

may have

that eifedl, adduce the proofs,

refolve objections.

perfon of a clear head will

range his fentiments in this order

fome exceptions

down

them by

yet there are

Sometimes

be admitted.

to

it

is

ufeful in a caufe to referve a part of the ftory itfelf,

to

apply or

inllances

illuftrate

an argument

and in fome few

befl to anfvvcr objedions, or

it is

remove

prejudices, before you adduce your proofs.

(2.) It is a moil ufeful direclion to tlie greateft

part of waiters and fpeakers, to guard againft in-

troducing every thing that they might fay, or being

fo formal that they will fay

of form in every one

of a difcourfe

lyfis

clear

but

if it

it

jedions on any

for

making

way

This ana-

the judgement

make

the in-

will probably produce an unne-

fubje^Sl-,

make

have thought

will needs anfwer ob-

and frequently teach their

objeilions

which they never would

of.

(3.) Learn to

keep

in nothing but what

be proved.

good

Some people

ceiTary load.

in the

of their divifions.

be applied merely to

vention copious,

hearers to

is

fomething

I the

the middle or

is

clofc to a fubjecl,

truly of force to

and

tlie

bring-

point to

rather mention this as a rule for

body of

a difcourfe, becaufe the

are there apt to tranfgrefs

it.

mofl

In the introdu6lion

and the conclufion, every one but thofe who are

perfefbly ftupid keep their fubjeft diredly in their
eye

whereas in the body, when they are entered

c 2

LECTURES OK

3^0

upon argument and

amplification,

be led aftray, and either to

fome

parts

more than

As to the

they are apt to

into

fall

abibUue digreflions^ or

called

Lett. 15.

at

what may be

lead to lengthen

true proportion requires.

may

conclufion or peroration, to this

applied particularly

all that

or ralfing the pafuons, to

was

which

faid
I

be

upon pathos,

add the following

fhort obfervations

The

1.

conclufion Ihould be

by

far the

and mofl animated part of the difcourfe.

I

warmefl
It is not,

think, defirable to attempt to raife the pafTions of

an audience high,
courfe, becaufe,

till

if it

towards the clofe of a

be begun fooner, there

evident hazard of not being able to preferve

fame pitch

in the
2.

The

till

dif-

is

an

them

the end.

conclufion fliould colleft into one point

of view, by fome w^ell-chofen expreffions, the force

of what has gone before

the fpeaker
in this

be

is

manner.

3.

it

and the

greateft ikill in

Before the illuftration

faid fo briefly

before,

fhown by concentrating the whole

may be

Towards tlie

it

could not

but by the help of what went

recalled to

memiory

in lefs

room.

conclufion the fentences fhould be

fludied, the tone of voice higher, and the pronunciation

4.

more rapid than towards

the beginning.

Laftly, great care fhould be taken in moral

idif jourfe^ to

have no far-fetched inferences.

ELOQUENCE.

Le6t. l5.

LECTURE

AM now to

I
of

and

have kept

XVI.

conclude the difcourfes upon this

by an inquiry

fubjecl
taile

301

into the general principles

In the former difcourfes,

criticifm.

clofc to the arts of writing

and have attempted

we

and fpeaking,

to dcfcribe the various

kinds of

compoficion, their characlers, diflin6lions, beauties,

means of attaining fliill in them, and

But is it
the ufes to which they fliouldbe applied.
not proper to confider the alliance, if there be any
blcmiHies, the

fuch,

between

and

this

ot>-er arts

This will ferve

greatly to improve and perfe6l our judgement and

relation

mon

was very early obfervcd, that there was a

between the different arts, and fome com-

It

taile.

principles

that

determine their excellence.

Cicero mentions this in the introduction of his oration for

Ktenim

Archias the poet.

ad humaii'tatcm
mnculum,

et

pertinent, hahent

quasi cognatione

oinnes artes qiuv

quoddam

quadam

cojutiiune

inter se conti-

nentur.

Thefe

arts,

which, Cicero fays, ad humanitatem

pertinent y are called

This

is to

called the

by the moderns the fme arts.

them from thofe commonly

diflinguiih

mechanic

conveniences of

common

may

be included, as

of

it

may

of

human

making

arts,

taftc

life.

the utenfils and

And

yet even thefe

and elegance, or the want

plainly be difcerned in every produdlion

However,

Ikill.

are the following

ing, fculpture,

thofe called the fine arts

Poetry, oratory, mufic, paint-

architeClure.

It mufi:

be allowed,

LECTURES

^62

though thefe

that

arts

common

have fome

after,

l6.

princi-

fome perfons who have

ples of excellence, there are

a ftrong inclination

Led.

0>T

and even a capacity of

performing in fome of them, and not in others.

There

good orators who are no muficians, or

are

who have very

l^erhaps

for the beauties

little tafte

Yet commonly complete

of architecture.

and thofe who have a well-formed

tafle, are

critics,

able to

perceive the beauty of the whole, and the relation of

one

to another.

It is

remarkable, that the expref-

fions in composition are frequently

one

art,

and applied

poliihed ftyle,

we

We

oration.

is

taste,

fit

it

and
ark

fay, the notes in muile are bold and

warm

and animated.
authors on eloquence, has

to take exception at the ufe of the

as being of

nothing but what

Sut

fay, a fmooth,

fweet or elegant, as well as

One of our modern

thought

borrowed from

We

as well as a polilhed furface

fay, a building

fwelling, or

to another.

late invention,

carried in

is

and

word

as implying-

judgement and genius.

apprehend that the application of

Ihould be admitted to be modern,

it,

is

though

perfeftly

The b on goutIt came to us from the French.

among them was applied firft to claflic elegance^

juft.

and from thence

to all the

other arts.

And

as a

fenfe of the beauty of the arts is certainly a thing"

often diftinft from judgement, as well as from erudition, the

term feems not only to be allowable, but

well chofen.

We

firongly upon

many

who can reafon very

who yet are incapable

find perfons

fubjecls,

of elegance in eompofition, and indeed of receiving

much

delight

find perfons of

from the

other' fine rrts.

uncomiKon acutenefs

Nay, we

in mathematios-

ELOQJJEKCE.

Lecl. 16.

and natural philofophy,

who

303

yet are incapable of

attaining to a fme taile.

It

has been foaietimesfaid, that tafte

Some

will have

arbitrary.

is

no fuch thine

that there is

it,

as a

method of improvii.g it.

It is a kind of common proverb with many, that
there is no difputing about tafte
that it is of this
ftandard of tafte, or any

intellectual as of natural tafte

late or

according as the pa-

organs are differently formed, what gives an

agreeable relhli to one, gives^ a difagrecable one to

They

another.

fay that the

temporary and variable

modes of

tafte

mates, governments, and ages, liave different

of fpeaking and writing, and a
the arts

difterer/t

that chance, or particular

man

as

Dr Warburton

fentiment, and to tliofe

who

ways

turn in all

perfons, will be

able to give a turn to the ux)de in all thefe.

fo great a

are

that dilFerent nations, cli-

Even

has embraced this

attack the fcriptures as

not being a complete model of eloquence he anfv/crs,

there is no fixed ftandard of eloquence; that eloquence
is

one thing in Arabia, another in Greece, and

For

another in England.
thofe
liis

who,

after the

this reafon

Mr

example of

he condemns

Elackwall, in

Sacred Claftics, vindicate the fcriptures from

cbjeftions of this kind, or produce inftanecs of theif

fublimity and beauty.

you

in

But though

fome of the former

and manner in vogue

fome

and be

liable to

ticulars

mentioned

Vv'ill

have ftiown

difcourfes, that the ftyle

receive

variation,

yet there

is

fome

from

all

tincture,

the par-

certainly a real

beauty or deformity in nature, independent of thefe

partial changes,

which, when properly explained,

and examples of

it

exhibited, will obtain

more uni-

LECTURES

3^4

and retain

verfal approbation,

The

others.

this.

longer than the

it

and (latuary, are inflances and proofs

may

It

10.

poetry and oratory of the ancients, and

their painting

of

Led.

ON"

alfo

appear from what

mention-

ed to you formerly, that thofe compofitions which

have moil iimpliclty, and fuch excellencies

mofl

fafhion,
pleafe,
livion.

fewed of the

w^ith

folid,

and the peculiarities of their own age, will

when their contemporaries are loft in obThe fame thing holds with pieces of fnrni-

which belong

beauties of nature,

{how

more

this

every age.

true

which they have

iirft

For though
with

x)ften eaten

been a

had

to the

tlie

palate,

cer-

may fhow

it

to that

in v/hich regard is

mixtures that are moft proper to gratify

he

v/ill

not eafily return to his llovenly

But though there were

provilion.

feems plain, that there

and a

real foundation for

But fuppofing that there

is

for tafte and criticifm, there

arifes,

relifh,

accuftomed

little

kind of preparation of victuals

arts,

it is

kind of food,

an averfion to the delicacies of cookery, yet

after a perfon has

mark,

But

fuch a fenfe as to

in

w4iat has been faid.

that perfons ufed to the coarfeft

tain,

at

to

even the remarks upon

fully,

are not

natural tafte

weaken

Such have the

elegant but plain.

tm-e that are

to

as are

cafual ornaments of

viz.

Can we

tell

is

it

lefs in this re-

a tafte in the fine

in nature.

a foundation in nature

another qucftion that

is

what

it is ?

Can we reach

the original principles which govern this matter

Can we

fay, not

pleafe us, but

further than
tion

why

they do fo

we have

Some have

only that fuch and fuch things

?

Can we go any

already done, as to compofi-

refufed that

we can with

certainty

ELOQUENCE.

Lel. 16.

3O5

When

reach the fource of this fubjcjl.

is aflced,

why

pofition, is
is

one perfon, one

more

the caufe

com-

or one

tiling,

excellent than another, they fay

it

an immediate and fimple perception, a je ne scau

qnoiy as the

taken

its

French fay;

wliicli pftrafe

feems

to

have

from the circumftance which often

rife

occurs, that in a houfe, a garden, a ftatue or painting, or

even

in a perfon's

countenance and carriage,

you perceive fomething agreeable upon the whole,

and yet cannot fuddenly

Vvherein

tell

it

the parts

lies,

are not better proportioned perhaps, nor the features

better formed, than in another, and yet there

is

fomething in the compofition of the whole that gives

the moft exquifite delight.

Others, however, and the far greatefl number,

l^iave

thought

proper to go a great deal further,

it

and to inquire into

human

nature,

its

perceptions

and powers, and endeavour to trace out the principles of tafte,

arts,

which apply

in general to all the

them, for fome apply more to one than

As

Une

or in greater or lefs proportion to each of

for

example,

nal perception,

motely

if the fenfe
it

of

harmony

to others.

is

an origi-

applies chiefly to mulic, and re-

to the pronunciation of

an orator, and

flill

more remotely to the compofition of an orator.

Thefe powers or perceptions in hiim.an nature have
been generally called the powers of imagination.

Mr

Hutchinfon

nal fenfations
tliat,

calls

them

reflex fenfes, finer inter-

and upon examination

befides the internal fenfes,

we

ftiall

finer perceptions, vv'hich v/e are capable of,

inay be faid to take their

riCe

find,

there are certain

which

from outward obje6ts>

LECTURES

306
and

Lel. l6.

ON'

fuppofe the external fenfation,

to

additions to, and truly diftincl

ample,

I fee

a beautiful perfon.

from

"but

My

yet to be-

As

it.

for ex-

eye immediate-

ly perceives colour, and fliape variouily difpofed;

but
I

have furthel^a fenfe of beauty in the whole.

hear the found of muficai inftruments

ceives the noife

If I have a fenfe of

does the fame.

who

every body's ear

my ear reis

not deaf

harmony,

take a pleafure in the compoiition of the founds.

The way

to

examine the principles of

which of

conlider

mediate, and original

ent

upon others

talle, is to-

thefe perceptions are fimple,

;

Vv'hich

im-

of them are depend-

and how they

may

be combined

and compounded, and afford delight by fuch compoiition.

.

This

treat

it

an extenfive fubjecl, and

is

concifely, and yet plainly

all the pains I

it is

can take, there will be reafon to ap-

prehend feme obfcurity will remain

ufed to fuch kind of difquifitions.
take

is,

to flate to

way in which

this

you

by

to perfons not

The way

I fhall

critically or hiflorically the

matter hath been treated by fome

of the moil celebrated writers.

written

difficult to

and indeed, after

The

Spectator,

Mr Addifon, on the Pleafures of the Ima-

gination, reduces the fources of delight or appro-

bation to three great clafTes, novelty, greatnefs, and

He

beauty.

fays,

that fuch is oar dellre after no-

velty, that all things that

are

from

that

we

this

were before unknown,

circumfhance recommended to us, and

receive a delight in the difcovery and. con-

templation of what

we never faw

before,

except

fuch objeds as are painful to the organs of fight

ELOQUENCE.

Lecl. l6.
that children run

not becaufe
cafe with

it is

from one play-thing

new

better, but

men and
;

that

to another,

it is

the

fame

that authors in particular are at

great pains to have fomething

their

307

manner, which

is

the

make

tained that they muft

new and

more

flriking in

difficult to

ufe of

known

be

at-

words,

and that their ideas too muft be fuch as are eaiily

There

iatelligible.

is

fomething here that would

require a good deal of explication.

that

any object

organs of

is,

except too

fight,

do not think

properly fpeaking, painful to the

much

light

but

we do

not conlider this as a fault in the objedl, but feel

as a

And

weaknefs in ourfelves.

it

further, if there

be fuch a thing as beauty, one would think, that

beauty be agreeable,
is

uglinefs,

greatnefs,

it

and that muft be difagreeable.

vve

As

to

has been always confidered as a

this

fource of admiration.
obferve, that

if

muft have a contrary, which

we

The moft

ancient

critics

do not admire a fmall rivulet, but

admire the Danube, the Nile, the ocean. This

will afterwards conftder.

confidered as of
able,

all

As

to beauty,

it

has been

other things moft inconceiv-

and therefore made a

firft

and immediate per-

ception.

Others have taken beauty and grace as the general terms, including every thing that pleafes us.

Thus we fay, a beautiful poem, ftatue, landfcape.

Thus alfo we fay, a fublime and beautiful fentiment.
Thus they have taken in under it, novelty and greatnefs,

and every other agreeable quality.

eminent

critics

have acted in

larly the ancients.

this

Many

manner, particu-

Longinus, on the Sublime, in-

LECTURES ON

308

Led.

l6V

troduces feverai things which do not belong to

it,

Taking beauty

as

as diilinguiihed

from beauty.

the general objefl of approbation or fource of de-

and as applicable to

light,

all the fine arts,

it

has

been varioufly analyfed.

A French writer,
lyfes beauty

in

the

Variety

regularity, order, proportion.

ty, unity,
is

Croufaz, Traite de Beau, ana-

under the following principles: Varie-

This feemsto be related

firft.

to,

or perhaps

fome rcfpeds the fame with novelty, w^hich was

formerly mentioned.

a dead uni-

It is certain, that

formity cannot produce beauty in any

of per-

fort

formance, poem, oration, flatue, picture, building.

Unity

is,

variety.

as it were, the bound and reilraint of

Things mull be connected as well as va-

rious; and if they are conneled, the variety

Regularity

thing but confufion.

of the correfpondent parts

tion

from one

to another

order

is
is

I think

it

no-

the eafy grada-

and proportion

fuitablencfs of each part to the whole,

other part.

is

the fimilarity

and

the

is

to

every

cannot be denied, that

all

thefe have their influence in producing beauty.

One

of the moll celebrated pieces upon this fub-

jeft, is the

Beauty.

famous painter Hogarth's Analyiis of

He

liril

produced his fyliem in a

enigma, drawing one curved

line,

with the

fort

of

title

of

the line of beauty, and another vvith a double wave,

w^hich he called the line of grace.

He

afterwards

publilhed his Analyfis of Beauty, which he refolves

into the following principles: Fitnefs, variety, uni-

formity, fimplicity, intricacy, and quantity.

firft

principle

is fitnefs;

under which he Ihows,

The
that

ELOCiTJENCE.

Leftr 16.

we always

JOJ^

conceive of a thing as intended for fome

and therefore there muft be a correfpondence

ufe,

or fuitablenefs to the ufe, otherwife, whatever be

we

appearance,

whatever

is

The

they call her a beauty.

apply perfectly to

"will

He

as not beautiful.

it

who, whenever there

llances failors,
fails well,

reject

that

fliip

fame thing

kinds of writing

all

its

in-

for

fentiments and noble expreffion be in

fine

any compofition, if they are not fiiited to the feafon

and fubjedl, we fay with Horace, Sed nunc non erat
Variety and uniformity mufl be comhis locus^
pounded together ; and as he has made no mention
of order and proportion,

and

infenfible

it is

be fuppofed, that by

to

which changes

variety he meant that

manner;

in a gradual

for variety without order is

undiftinguifhable, and a heap of confufion.

plicity

means

that

travels over and

intricacy

is

that

which

eafy, and

Simwhich the eye

examines without difficulty and

which requires fome exercife and
;

attention to follow

another.

is

it

two muft

thefe

limit one

In reprefenting beauty as a vilible figure,

he obferves, that a ftraight line has the leaft beauty ; that which has a wave or eafy declination one

way

begins to be beautiful

double wave has

ftill

that w^hich has a

greater grace.

The

truth

is,

two things do not deflroy the one the other,

finiplicity and intricacy improve and beautify one

if thefe

another.
hair

Mr

waving

Hogarth obferves,

in the

that ringlets of

wind have been an expreffion of

grace and elegance in every age, nation, and lan-

guage

Vol.

which
II.

is juft

a contrafted wave,

firft,

that

LECTURES ON

3lO

Led. l6.

of the curls, and this again rendered a

intricate

by the motion of

have a view of
kind,

let

the breeze.

more
one would

little

If

this principle as exhibited in a iingle

him look

at the flourilhes

with which the

mailers of the pen adorn their pieces, and he will

that if they

fee,

flexions,

and

are eafy

and gradual in their

jufl as intricate as the

without confufion, any thing

diforder.

applies to
pofition,

all

might fliow you how

the

art,

but

fhall

this principle

only mention com-

where the fimplicity muft be combined

with refinement, and when the combination

there

refuitsf

having the other

that a thing

qualities, pleafes in proportion as

fay, a magnificent building,

it is

great

is

but

at the

have introduced two, which

belong to other fources of delight, viz.

It is to

we

Mr Hogarth has very-

have only to obferve, that

quantity, as will be

as

large.

well illuflrated the principles of beauty

to

where the proportions

are truly obferved, but every part

fame time he feems

is juft,

Mr Ho-

the moil perfefl elegance.

garth adds quantity

is lefs

any thing more deftroys the beauty

beautiful, and

by

eye can follow

than that

lefs

fitnefs

and

fhown afterwards.

be obferved, that in the enumeration of

the principles of beauty, there are to be found in

fome authors things not only

A French author,
ciples

he

not

different, but oppofite.

many years

ago, to the prin-

mentioned by others, adds llrength, which

illuilrates in this

manner

He

confiders

it

as a

principle of grace and beauty in motion, and fays

that every thing that

and that feems

we do

to requii'e

with great

our utmoil

difficulty,

effort, is

feea

ELOQUENCE.

Lel. 16.

3II
For

with uneaiinefs, and not with pleafure.

this

reafon, he fays the motions of young people in ge-

more graceful than thofe of old; and agreewe join the word ease to gracefulnefs as

neral are

ably to this
explicatory

explication

it

feems abundantly proper

On

remark.

With

eafy carriage.

a graceful,

this

admit the

to

fome who

the other hand, there are

have made comparative weaknefs a principle of

beaut}', and fay, that the

more

light

is,

more

beautiful, and that things

unlefs

it

we

tender, delicate iliape

Thus we

and,

the

fay, a

on the contrary,

make a ftrong,
woman. Perhaps we may recon-

a ftrong, coarfe, robuft

fa}^,

coarfe, mafculine

is

it

remarkably ftrong

rather belong to another clafs.

fine,

and (lender any-

be remarkably weak,

thing

two, and fay, they are both principles, be

cile thefe

caufe there ihould be juft as

much

of each as

is fuit-

able to the thing in queftion, that a perfon

may

have either too llrong or too weak a frame, for being efteemed beautiful

be too

delicate to

bulky

to

Again

that a

pillar or

dome may-

be durable, or too ftrong and

be elegant.

Many

writers, as

you have

feen,

make

greatnefs a principle of beauty; yet there are others

who make
ty.

littlenefs

Thofe

who

one of the conftituents of beau-

do fo

tell us,

that

little

is

a term

of endearment, in every nation and language yet

known

therefore

They

that

the

it is

the language of the vulgar, and

undefigned

expreffion

inftance the diminutive

of

appellations

nature.

which

are always ufed in fondling j^//o///j>, ^//o/^ have

Dd2

LECTURES ON

312

more

than Jitius and Jilia

aiFeftion,

creature

it is

Lecl. l5.

a pretty

little

my dear

thing.

To

little

enumerate

thefe different appearances, fome, particularly Burke

on the Sublime,

affirms, that the ideas of fublimity

and beauty are ideas of a

that the

clafs radically different

fublimity, ultimately arifes from the

firfl,

paffion of terror, and the other

and delight

from

that of love

he, with a good deal of ingenuity, re-

folves all the fources of the fublime into

either terrible, or allied to this pafSon,

either immediately in
tion.

It is

we

which

is f)ainful.

by fhewing

exciting

fome degree, or by

it

afTocia-

receive fo

much

delight from, to a

in itfelf, or in its purity, fo to fpeak,

This objeftion he endeavours

to

remove,

that the exercife of all our paflions in a

moderate degree,
haps

is

however uncertain, whether we Ihould

reduce what
paflion,

what

we may

a fource of pleafure

is

but per-

and

diflinguifk the ideas of fublime

beautiful, without having recourfe to the paflion of

terror at all,

by

faying, that there

is

an affedion

fuited to the greatnefs of objefts, without confider-

ing

them

perhaps

and that

as terrible,

we may go

veneration

is

little

is,

veneration

further,

and

nay,

fay, that

affedlion truly correfpondent to

the

greatnefs, in innocent creatures, which becomes terror

in the guilty.

cannot go through the particulars

He

of Burke's theory.

feems rightly

ideas of fublime and beautiful;

fome have made one

trary, to

belong

thing, others dire^lly

to beauty.

in Burke's EfTay

is,

to devide the

by the union of which,

One

its

con-

thing remarkable

that he denies proportion to

be

-any of the caufes of beauty, which yet almofl every

Led.

ELOQUENCE.

16.

5T3

Other writer has enumerated among- them;

what he fays of

plants and animals, feems to be

his opinion

yet in works of

much moment

of

fource to refer

it.

and

it is

much

art,

was voluntary,

in fupport of

proportion feelns
fay to what

diflicult to

view a building, and

are not in a regular proportion,

even though

and

the infinitely various proportion in

it

the parts

if

my

offends

eye,

could fuppofe that the difproportion

in order to obtain

fome great con-

venience.
I

Ihould be inclined to think, that there are a con-

number of fimplo

fiderable

principles, or internal

fenfations, that contribute each

its

part in forming-

our fade, and are capable of being varioufly combined,

and by

this

combination are apt

to

be confounded

One of the moll diftincl: and comenumerations, we have in Gerard's Effay on

one with another.

plete

Tafte, and is as follows:

A fenfe of novelty, fublimit;.%

beauty, imitation, harmony, ridicule, and virtue.

cannot go through
a

all thefe in

order, but iLall

few remarks, and fhow where the

His diftinguiihing

or defeiflive.

another,

is

certainly juft

that he introduces under

divifion

all thefe

make
is

juil

from one

but there are fome things

wrong heads

fitnefs,

for

example, he introduces under the head of beauty

and

this

feems rather a fource of approbation

tin6l in itfelf

as alfo proportion, if that

is

dif

not in-

Perhaps a more complete enumeration than any of them, may be given thus Novelcluded in

fitnefs.

ty, fublimit}',

beauty, proportion, imatation^harmonj,

ridicule, utility,

and virtue.

Dd3

LECTURES ON

314

We

fhall

now

ken of before

Led. 16.

we have

proceed to thofe

fure to the mind, and that of

ted refemblance of

itfelf,

even independent

An exceedingly well imita-

of the objed imitated.

any

which

objeft, of that

even difagreeable in

different or

not fpo-

imitation certainly gives great plea-

itfelf,

is

in-

gives the

higheft pleafure, either from the at of comparifon,

as

fome

fay, or

from

fuggefting the idea of ikill

its

The

and ingenuity in the imitator.

and

derive

ftatuary

perfedion of imitation
poetry and oratory
light,

only that the

their

and

arts of painting

from the

excellence
it is

even thought that

may

be confidered in the fame

firfl

imitates form, and paffions

by the means of form, and the other imitates adions

and aifedions by language, as the inftrument.

Harmony

is

the molt diftind and feparate of all

the internal fenfes that have been mentioned

it is

concerned only in found, and therefore muft be but

applicable to

remotely

What

remarkable, that

and fpeaker.

although harmony may

to

that yet have

no mufical ear

^nftances of thofe

mufical ear,

and

fpeakers, are not

The
but
it is

at the

at all,

and

think the

remarkably

fame time

delicate

are agreeable

many.

eafily underflood

univerfally

other of our

lous, or

who have

fenfe of ridicule is not very eafily explained,

it is

fcarcely any
-

writer

be of much importance in fpeaking, there

many examples of the moft excellent fpeakers,

be faid
are

is

the

felt.

when fpoken

It differs in this

of,

becaufe

from moll

conllitutional powers, that there is

man who

may be made

is

not fenfible of the ridicu-

eafily fenfible of

it j

and jet

ELOQUENCE.

Le6l. i6.

the

315^

number of good performers in

ling others, or in wit and

humour,

the art of ridicuis

but very fmalL

The muhitude who cannot follow fpeculative reamoved by eloquence,

foning, and are hard to be

all

ftruck with

Moil people

works of humour.

are apt to think they can do fomething in the

of humour

who

and yet we have many

are

way

render

themfelves ridiculous by the attempt.

As

to a fenfe of virtue,

by mentioning

it, it is

no means from my
place moral approbation entirely on the fame
joining with thofe

by

who would
foot-

ing with the internal fenfes, that are the foundation

of

Hiitchinfon and Shaftefbury incline very

tafte.

much

way

this

on the contrary,

we

think

evidently fenfible that the morality of adtions

different fpecies,

and

arifes

from the

fenfe of

and obligation of a fuperior nature

mentioned
tion, or

it

here, becaufe there

conneling

we

nature,

on their

yet I have

certainly a rela-

The

beauties of

are fenfible, are greatly heightened

to their delightful
utility,

their author.

a-

law,

between the fentiments of

tie,

the one kind and of the other.

adding

is

u.

are
is

by

appearance, a reflexion

and the benevolent intention of

In perfons capable of morality, as in

human nature, we

conflder fine features and an ele-

gant carriage, as indications of the moral difpofition

or the mental powers

and as the whole of the

fources of delight mentioned above

bined in a greater or
limity,

beauty,

Scc.

may

be com-

lelTer degree, as novelty,

fo

the

governing

fub-

principle

-which ought to dire 61 the application of the whole,

is

what gives them

their highei^ e^cellencc^

and

LECTURES

3l6
indeed only

when

gratifica-

highly improved,

is

united with tafte and elegance

delicious food,

order,

The

theix true perfeftion.

is

tion even of our internal fenfes

when

Lecl. l6.

o>7

as the

mofl

ferved up with neatnefs and

accompanied with politenefs of manners, and

feafoned with fprightly converfation.

manner, the

fine

beauty and liigher

In the -fame

themfelves acquire a double

arts

reliih,

when they

are infepara-

biy conncr^ed with, and made fabfervient

An

of manners.

difcourfe, or a fine picl.ire,

cellent, if the fubjedl

valuable

to purity

admirable poem, or an eloquent

would be

flill

more ex-

of them were intere fling and

and when any of them are per^'erted

impious or wicked purpofes, they are

to

jull objecls

cf deteftation.

After having thus attempted the analyfis of the

principles of taile and elegance, I
that as nature

feems

to delight in

would obierve,

producing

many

great and dilFerent effects from fimple caufcs, per-

haps we

may find

all thefe.

called the

he

an ultimate principle that governs

French author has written a

Theory of Agreeable

fays, that the great principle

ercifes our faculties,

pleafure

and that

treatife

Senfations, in

which

whatever ex-

is,

without fatiguing them, gives

this principle

may

be applied to

our bodily form, and to the conllitution of our mind,

to objeils of external fenfation, to objefts of tafle,

and even

to

our moral conduct.

It

may no

be carried through the whole of criticifm

may fay,

thisllates the

doubt

and

wc

bounds between variety and

uniformity, fimplicity and intricacy, order, proportion,

and harm.onj'.

ELOQUENCE.

Lel. l6.

Neither would
principle

may

infinitely wife

it

be

3I7

difficult to

be applied

ffiow, that this

and that an

to morality,

and gracious

God

had

fo ordered

powers

matters, that the moderate exercife of all our

fhould produce at once virtue and happinefs, and

that the lead tranfgreffion of the one

mull prove of

neceffity an injury to the other.

You may

fee

the foundation
there
tion

is

great

from the preceding remarks, that

is

laid for tafte in our nature

room

for

improvement and

yet

cultiva-

by invelligating the grounds of approbation

by comparing one thing with another by ftudying

the beft examples and by reflexion and judgement,
men may correct and refine their tafle upon the
;

whole, or upon particular confined fubjeds.

Carrying
branch,

is

tafte

to

a finical nicety in

temptible; the reafon of which

when

any one

a thing not only undefirable, but con-i

may

be

a perfon applies his attention fo

matter of no great moment,

it

eafily feen:

much

to

occafions a neceflary

negled of other things of much greater value.

After you pafs a certain point, attachment to a particular purfuit is ufelefs, and then it proceeds to be
hurtful,

and

at lail contemptible.

END OF VOLUME

11.

"f:""" Tfieological Seminary-Speer Lit

1012 01094 5873

DATE DUE