Acoustics and Sound Insulation:The sound which causes annoyance, interference with speech,

damage to hearing and results in reduction in efficiently of work performance

is called noise. Noise may also be defined as a disturbance in elastic created
by a vibrating body and is transmitted in all directions in an elastic medium
which includes solid, liquid and gases. It is a form of wave motion created by
a vibrating body and is transmitted in all directions in the form of spherical
waves consisting of alternate compressions and rarefactions. The procedure
of obtaining an acceptable noise environment at a particular point is called
noise control.

Classification of Sound:Depending upon the position of source, sound can be broadly divided in
two classes.
i. Airborne sound
ii.
Impact sound.
i. Airborne sound: - An airborne sound is one which is transmitted
through air and travels direct to the ear of the person. This type of
sound travels from one part of the building to another or from outside
of the building to the inside through open doors, windows or other
openings or through small gapes around doors and windows.
ii.
Impact sound:- The sound which is transmitted first through the
structure is called impact sound. The noise of the footsteps, Furniture,
movement, dropping of utensil on the floor fall under this category.
Impact sounds are troublesome and are often very sharp.

Measurement of Sound:Human ear is incredibly sensitive. It can react to the rustle of the
wind in a leaf in a silent night as well as to the noise of a rock drill,
latter being 10,000,000,000 times stronger than the former. Sound is
usually measured and expressed in terms of sound pressure levels or
decibles (dB ).
The formula for writing down the two sound pressures
= 20 log P1 decibles
P2
Where
And

P1= the Pressure of the sound wave at source

P2= the Pressure of the sound wave at recipient
Decible is therefore used as a convenient unit to measure the
magnitude of sound, sound levels or sound insulation (noise reduction
achieved by sound absorbing materials) 0.002 Dynes/sq.cm. is the lowest

value of sound pressure that an average human ear can perceive and
hence this value is taken as zero on the dB scale. The noise at the
threshold of pain in the ear is considered to have a sound pressure of 130
dB.
Table given below gives an idea about the magnitude of noise
levels from some common noisy sources.
S.No. Type of Source of Noise
Noise Levels in dB.
1
Light road traffic (side streets)
60-70
2
Medium road traffic (main
70-80
3
streets)
80-90
4
Heavy road traffic ( Highways)
90-110
5
Rail traffic
90-110
Air traffic (at 300m)

Transmission of Sound:When sound is produced in a room it proceeds outward in

spherical waves until it strikes the boundaries of the room. Thereafter, the
sound waves are reflected, transmitted and absorbed in varying amounts
depending upon the characteristics of the walls of the room (thickness,
weight, material of wall and nature of its surface) and the frequency of the
sound.

Transmission Loss:The reduction in the intensity of airborne sound that takes place during
its transmission from the source to the recipient is called transmission
loss. Transmission loss or T.L. is numerically equivalent to the loss in
the intensity of sound expressed is decibles. Hence if 100 dB & 60 dB
are the sound levels measured on either side of a partition wall, the
transmission loss or sound insulation of the partition wall is equal to
100 dB - 60 dB = 40 dB

Defects due to reflected Sound:The behaviour of the reflected sound plays an important role in
sound insulation or acoustical design of a room/hall. The main defects which
reflected sound waves may cause in a room are:
i. Echoes
ii.
Reverberation
i. Echoes: - When a reflecting surface is so far away from the source
that the sound is reflected back as a distinct repetition of the direct
sound, the reflected sound is called an echo. Echoes are produced,
when the time interval between the direct and the reflected sound
waves is about 1/15th of a sec. This defect is particularly common when

ii.

the reflecting surface is curved in shape. To minimise this defect in

curved walls, the walls are covered with highly absorbent material or
grills on the face work.
Reverberation: - When the sound waves get reflected (on striking the
walls), a part of the sound energy is converted into heat energy by
friction and is absorbed by the walls. Subsequently the reflected waves
get inter-reflected from one surface to another until they gradually
fade and became inaudible. This phenomenon of undue prolongation of
sound by successive reflections from surrounding surfaces, after the
source sound has ceased is termed as reverberation. A certain amount
of reverberation is necessary to enhance the sound. However,
excessive reverberation is damaging to clarity.
Reverberation Time: - The reverberation period is the time taken for
the sound energy to decay by 60 dB after the sound source has
stopped. The reverberation time depends principally on the volume
and absorption of the room.
Prof. Sabine of Harvard University developed a formula for
calculating the time of reverberation which is given by
t=
0.16V
a1s1+ a2s2 +a3s3
=
0.16 V
Sum of the absorption of various absorption
components
Where
t= time of Reverberation
V= volume of Room in m3
a1, a2,a3=coefficient of absorption
s1,s2,s3 .= area of absorbing surface
The time of reverberation plays a significant role in
achieving desired acoustical condition. If the time of reverberation is
too long, it results in overlapping of speech and loss of intelligibility,
and if it is too short, it produces the effort of deadness and loss of
brilliance of sound. If the time of reverberation works out to a value
greater than 3 seconds, it is considered bad, between 3 to 2 seconds
as fairly good and between 2 to second as very good. The time of
reverberation to be allowed varies with the purpose for which the
enclosure is to be used. If the enclosure or auditorium is to be used as
a sound film theatre or for public address system, the time of
reverberation selected should be short, whereas for concert halls and
churches, it should be longer. For enclosures to be used for both
speech and music, a value midway between the two should be
adopted.

The selection of the correct time of reverberation is called

optimum time of reverberation.
It is noted that presence of audience in a room reduces the time
of reverberation. This is on account of the absorption provided by the
audience (due to the clothing worn by the persons). This shows that a
theatre will have a greater time of reverberation, when it is empty,
than when it is full with audience. To make allowance for this aspect in
deciding the time of reverberation, the strength of audience
contributing towards the absorption of sound is taken as 1/4, 2/3 or full
depending upon the type of hall. The desirable optimum time of
reverberation worked out after consideri00ng the indicated audience
strength, is shown in the table.
Table
S.No
.

Description of building

1
2
3

Cinema theaters

Churches
Law courts,
committee rooms,
conference hall etc.
Large Hall .
Music concert Hall

Parliament house,
Assembly hall Council
chamber .
Public Lecture hall

4
5
6
7

Optimum
reverberation by
Sabine formula
1.3 second
1.8 to 3 second
1 to 1.5 second
2 to 3 second
1.6 to 2 second
1to 1.5 second

Audience factor
to be considered
in design
Two thirds
Two thirds
One thirds
0
Full
Full
Quorum

1.5 to 2 second

One thirds

Sound Absorbent:Broadly speaking, the material having hard, rigid and non-porous
surface, provide the least absorption, whereas those which are flexible, soft
porous and can vibrate, absorb more sound. The efficiency of the sound
absorption, however, depends more upon the porosity of the material used
as sound absorbent. The term used to express the percentage of the incident
sound that can be absorbed by a material is known as absorption coefficient of the material. Thus if the absorption co-efficient of the material is
0.75, this would mean that the material is capable of absorbing 75% of the
incident sound. The absorption co-efficient differs with the frequencies of the
incident sound. In general, low density material have higher absorption co-

efficient at the higher frequencies than at low frequencies Table lists the
sound absorption coefficients of commonly used acoustical materials.

Classification of Absorbents
Sound absorbents can be broadly classified into the following four categories:
i. Porous absorbents
ii.
Resonant absorbents
iii.
Cavity resonators
iv.
Composite type of Absorbents
i. Porous absorbents: When sound waves strike the surface of Porous
material, a part of the waves get reflected while a part enters the
pores of the material and is thought to be dissipated into heat energy.
( produced on account of the friction developed between the sound
waves in motion in the restricted pores of the material). The efficiency
of this type of absorbents increases with the increase in the resistance
offered by the material to air flow, its thickness and the porosity.
Slagwool, glasswool, woodwool, asbestos fiber spray, foamed plastic
and perforated fiberboards are some of the categories of porous
absorbents. In general, Porous material are selected mainly to absorb
sound having high frequency.
ii.
Resonant absorbents: In this system, the absorbent material is fixed
on sound framing (usually timber) with an air space left out between
the framing and the wall at the back. Such an arrangement works most
efficient for absorbing sound waves at low frequency. The principal of
sound absorption is this method is that sound waves of the appropriate
frequency cause sympathetic vibrations in the panel which acts as a
diaphragm. The absorption of sound takes place by virtue of the
dampening of the sympathetic vibrations in the panel by means of
the air space behind the panel. Dampening effect of this system can be
improved appreciably by placing a porous material in the air space.
iii.
Cavity resonators: Cavity resonators essentially consists of a
chamber with a narrow opening (entrance) in which absorption takes
place by resonance of the air in the chamber which gives loss of sound
energy. Such an arrangement can act effectively over a single selected
frequency. Application of cavity resonator is normally restricted to
absorption from individual machine or in similar cases.
Sound absorption co-efficient of Acoustical material
S.no. Material
Application Co-efficient
Frequency of sound in
cycle/sec.
125
500
2000

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

18
19
20
21
22
23
24

iv.

Brick wall painted

Brick wall unpainted
6 mm. th. Carpet or felt on
solid concrete floor
Carpet unlined
Carpet felt lined
Curtains- light(3 kg/sq.mt)
Curtains- medium
Curtains- heavy (5.5kg/sq.mt)
Chairs-metal or wooden
Chair with wood veneer seat
and back
Chair with leather cushion
Chair- Chair-heavy
upholstered
Compressed paper board
Floor (concrete)
Floor (Timber)
Linoleum, or asphalt laid on
concrete floor
Fiber board (12 mm thick) on
battens keeping about 25
mm. air space between the
boards and the solid wall
Foamed concrete 19 mm
thick
Glass (up to 32 oz.)
Glass wool, or slag wool (50
mm thick) fixed on battens
secured to solid wall
Plaster, gypsum or lime
smooth finish on brick wall
Plaster, gypsum or lime on
lath over solid backing
Perforated fiber board tiles
(18 mm. thick) bedded solidly
Plywood panelling fixed on
battens keeping about 2 mm.
air gap between the panelling
and solid wall

0.012
0.024
0.07

0.017
0.03
0.5

0.023
0.049
0.65

0.09
0.11
0.04
0.06
0.10
0.014
.

0.20
0.37
0.11
0.13
0.50
0.016
0.023

0.37
0.37
0.30
0.40
0.82
0.019

.
.
.
0.01
0.05
0.05

0.18
0.24 to
0.28
0.11
0.015
0.03
0.03 t0
0.08

0.11
0.02
0.03
0.03

0.3
.
0.035
0.35
0.013

0.3
0.12
0.027
0.91

0.3
0.20
0.04
0.95
0.04

0.02

0.025

0.04

0.2

0.03

0.8

0.3

0.65

0.1

0.15

Composite type of Absorbents: They consist of perforated panels

mounted on battens so as to leave a cavity between panels and wall at

the back. The panel may be of metal, wood (plywood) hardboard,

plaster board etc. The area of holes in the panel should vary between
10 to 20 % of the total area of the panel. When the sound strikes the
panel, the sound waves pass through holes and get damped by the
resonance of the air in the cavity. The effectiveness of this system can
be increased by placing a porous material like mineral wood etc. in the
cavity. This type of absorbent is commonly used, as it is easy to install,
economical and it can accommodate wide range of frequencies.

Sound Insulation of Buildings

Control of noise transmission is essential to minimize the disturbing
effect of sound passing from one room to another, through Walls, partitions
and floors or ceilings. Good planning in respect of the location of building as
well as the placement of quiet and noisy areas in the building itself plays an
important roles in controlling noise transmission. The constructional
measures to be adopted for noise control and sound insulation are briefly
discussed below.

Wall Construction
The sound insulation rating of a wall is generally governed by the net
sound transmission loss it provides and also the efficiency with which it
serves as a barrier for speed sound. Weight of the wall is the governing
factor in wall insulation. It is seen that a solid one brick thick wall plastered
on both sides, proves quite effective as a sound insulation partition wall. It
has an average reduction of 50 dB . It is now, however, possible to have wall
made from a suitable combination of materials which are light in weight and
yet have high insulation value.

Details of the junction of Cavity type partition Wall and floor for a
sound proof construction
A cavity wall type of construction can be made to have
increased insulation value by filling the cavity with some resilient material. In
this type of construction, the cavity should be at least 5 cm. in width and the
two wall leaves should be tied by use of only light butterfly wall ties. The
insulation value of different types of partition wall is given in Table. Partition
walls having the value of transmission loss of 45 dB or less are considered
adequate for separating critical areas of adjacent dwellings.
Typical Insulation Values of walls
S.No Type of Construction
Approx
Average
.
weight in
T.L.in dB
kg./sq. m.
1
One Brick thick wall
488
50
2
One and a half Brick thick wall
708
53
3
Cavity wall having two leaves,
488
50 to 53
each of half Brick thickness, with 5
4
312
50
cm. cavity
Cavity wall having two 10 cm. thick

5
6
7
8

leaves of clinker block with 5 cm.

cavity
Half Brick wall with 13mm. thick
plaster on both sides
20 cm. thick hollow dense concrete
block wall with 13mm. thick
plaster on both sides
Partition wall made with gypsum
wall board fixed on timber frame
work
75 cm. thick hollow clay block wall
with 13mm. thick plaster on both
sides

268

45

185

45

67

45

108

36

Floors
Transmission of sound takes place more easily through floors.
This is on account on the fact, that invariably the sound producing source
has actual contact with the floor. Hence the floor serves as the most common
path for the transmission of impact noise. The ordinary R.C.C. floor weighing
less than 220 kg. /sq. m. has a sound reduction of only 45 dB Thus bare
concrete and timber floor do not function effectively as barrier against
impact sound. A floating floor resting on a resilient material like glass wool,
mineral wool, quilt, hair felt, cork, rubber etc., has an increased rating for
impact sound insulation. The Principle underlying the design of the floating
floor is its insulation from any other part of structure. To achieve this , the
resilient layer on which the floor rests is turned up at all edges which abut
the walls, partitions or other parts of the structure. The Partition should be
built off the structural floor so that the floating screed is self-contained within
each room. The various types of floating floor construction are shown in
Figures

Figures showing different methods of sound insulation

of floors
The wood raft floating floor as shown in figure B consists of 50 mm.
deep x 50 mm. wide wooden battens, on which 20 mm thick resilient quilt is
laid over the structural floor slab.
The concrete screed floating floor as shown in figure A consists of 70
mm. thick layer of 1:1 : 3 concrete screed laid on a 25 mm. thick resilient
layer of mineral wool quilt. The quilt is covered with waterproof paper to
prevent the moisture from concrete screed travelling below on the structural
floor slab.
Floors with suspended ceiling have added advantage of insulation
against air borne sound; provided a soft floor finish is provided on top to give
necessary insulation against impact sound refer figure C.
Wooden Joist floors: The performance of wooden Joist floors is greatly
influenced by the amount of indirect or flanking sound transmitted
through the walls. This factor is not important in concrete floors, since the
concrete floors are considered heavy, rigid and still enough to restrain the
vibrations from the walls. In Timber floor, this factor can be taken care of by
increasing the stiffness and thickness of the wall below the floor.
Alternatively, the floor should be made heavy and stiff enough to reduce the
vibrations of the walls. The two different types of wooden joist floors which
give adequate sound insulation are shown in Figures below.

A note worthy feature in the insulation of these floors is the floating floor
effect achieved by using a 25 mm thick mineral wool or glass wool quilt
which is dropped over the joist and turned up at the edges of the boards. The
efficiency of the flooring system is improved by increasing its weight with
plugging between the joints.

Acoustical Design of Auditorium

The important factors which influence the acoustical design of an
auditorium are the volume, the shape and the sound absorption.
The Volume of the auditorium should be in proportion to the
intensity of the sound that is expected to be generated in the hall. In
deciding the volume of the hall, its height plays a significant role than its
length or breadth. This is on account of the fact that a small increase in
height increases the volume considerably. The volume required for musical
concert halls is larger than that required for halls to be used for speech
alone. This is necessary from the point of view of proper distribution of
musical sound. In case, however, the auditorium is to be used for both
musical concerts as well as speech, the volume of the auditorium should be
so chosen as to have a value intermediate between the two. The following
data may be used as a rough guide for deciding the volume of an auditorium.

Figures showing different methods of sound insulation of

timber floors
i.
ii.
iii.

For Cinema Theatres =3.7 to 4.2 cu. m. per person.

For public lecture halls= 2.8 to 3.7 cu. m per person.
For concert Halls = 4.2 to 5.6 cu. m per person.

The shape of the auditorium is the Governing factor in avoiding the

defects like echoes or other types of reflections of sound waves. On account
of the introduction of sound amplifiers, this aspect of planning has become
still more important. Since the behavior of sound in a hall is different from
that in the open, it is rather easier to create desirable acoustical condition in
an auditorium rather than in an open air theatre. Rectangular, fan horse
shoe, circular or oval are the typical possible shapes of the floor plan of an
auditorium.
The side walls and ceiling are advantageously used to provide
favorable reflections. The walls of the Hall are so shaped and placed as to
minimize the possibilities of echoes. Plain walls are normally found suitable.
The convex shaped walls are, however, considered best to reduce echoes to
a great extent. In general, the ceiling height of the Hall should be about to
2/3rd of the width. For reducing the focusing effect of a curved ceiling, the
radius of curvature of the ceiling should be made at least twice the height or
less than half the ceiling height. Ceiling plays a significant role in reflecting
the sound to the rear areas of the auditorium. A noteworthy point in the
selection and installation of the ceiling as that it should be ensured that the
sound waves get reflected either directly or via the walls to the audience in
such a manner that the waves do not concentrate at certain spots.

Sound absorbing materials are also used to minimize objectionable

reflection of sound. However, to ensure effectiveness of the sound absorbing
material, the zones of installations have to be decided very carefully. A
variety of acoustical materials are manufactured these days. While making a
selection, due consideration should be given to their appearance, light
reflection, flame resistance, workability, durability and cost.
In addition, the furnishings and the audience contribute to a great
extent to the absorption present in the room. In fact the audience may be
largest contributors to the absorption from the audience, the seats in the hall
are raked so that the heads in one row do not intercept the passage of direct
sound to the persons in the row immediately behind. A typical raking
arrangement of the seats in auditorium is shown in Figure.

Questions for Review

1. What is meant by the term reverberation? Explain what do you
understand by Optimum time of reverberation.
2. Write a short essay on the acoustical design of auditorium.
3. Show by sketches the method of sound insulation of a cavity wall and a
wooden joist floor.
4. Write short note on:
i. Air borne sound
ii.
Echoes
iii.
Transmission loss
iv.
Resonant absorbents.