Question 01: Explain the following concepts

a) Cyber Bullying
Cyber bullying is harassment that occurs using electronic technology.
Electronic devices include cell phones, computers and tablets. The most
accessible and frequent communication tools that are used are social media
sites, text messages, email and websites. Cyber bullying includes derogatory
and threatening messages, rumours, embarrassing or even pornographic
content sent to the one who is being harassed and creating fake profiles of
the one being harassed (Gouws, 2015: 212). The devices and tools in itself
are not harmful as they can be used in a positive way, such as communicating
with friends and family, helping students access various resources for school
work and for entertainment (stopbullying.gov). It is the abuse of these tools
and devices that make it seem negative. Cyber bullying is more frequent in
teenagers and statistics in the USA show that 7% of learners in grades 6-12
have experienced cyber bullying (stopbullying.gov). People who are cyber
bullied are often bullied in person as well, but with cyber bullying, it can
happen at any time of any day. Victims of cyber bullying often have a low selfesteem, do not want to attend school, receive poor marks in school and are
more susceptible to drug and alcohol use (stopbullying.gov). Maintaining an
open relationship with parents/guardians can prevent cyber bullying.
b) Information Processing
Information processing is the observed process of how people acquire, store
and use knowledge. In the same way a computer uses search engines,
software programmes and networks to process large amounts of information,
humans also receive/seek information, analyse it and present conclusions to
others (Gouws, 2015: 226). According to most researchers, there are three
mental system parts that are involved in processing information:
1) Sensory register: getting information into the system
2) Working or short-term memory: information gets sorted and linked with
each other, which then gets organised in a way that is suitable for longterm storage.
3) Long-term memory: stored information.
The central executive is the conscious, reflective part of the working memory,
which directs the flow of the information and decides what to attend to.
(Gouws, 2015: 226). Each of these steps develop with age.
c) Self-actualisation
This concept refers to people who can make decisions based on judgements
formulated by themselves and not allow others opinions to influence their
decision. They are physically, mentally and emotionally intelligent and are
aware of what affects other people. They are able to experience both intense
sadness and joy. They have a realistic concept of themselves and are able to
accept their flaws without feeling a sense of incompetence or decline in selfworth. They have a value system which guides and directs their lives and are
able to accept other peoples beliefs and opinions that differs from their own.

Self-actualisation is the ultimate goal of personality development (Gouws,

2015: 101).
d) Adolescent Depression
Depression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity that can affect an
adolescents thinking, feelings and behaviour. (Gouws, 2015: 168) Since pain
and loss are a part of life, everyone will experience symptoms of depression
that eventually passes. But if left unsupported in adolescents, these minor
symptoms that should have dissipated can develop into actual depression.
Adolescents are already dealing with developmental changes, which may add
to the challenge of depression. People who respond to pain and loss in a way
that leaves them in a state of inability to function, need professional help in
order to cope. Boys and girls experience depression equally and it is
important to take note of the behavioural problems that accompany
depression. One needs to be sensitive with adolescents as they find it difficult
to admit their self-criticism to themselves and others. (Gouws, 2015: 169).
Depression is hereditary and adolescents who suffer from it are likely to have
a close family member who also suffered from it.
e) Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner proposes that humans cognitive ability is pluralistic and that
people possess different strong intelligences that can be developed (Gouws,
2015: 59). It is believed that each intelligence carries credibility and is located
in different parts of the brain. There are 9 different multiple intelligences that
each possess different qualities and have an ideal environment to thrive in:
Verbal-linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Musical
Spatial
Bodily-kinaesthetic
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Naturalistic
Existential
Each intelligence does not come with a prescribed set plan for practice as
each approach can be adjusted for any setting. The Multiple Intelligence
theory has opened the door for more creative ways to teach and has
expanded the curriculum where the focus was only on verbal-linguistic and
logical-mathematical intelligences to a model of multiple intelligences.
(Gouws, 2015: 61). Gardner believes that each person has an area of
intellectual intelligence.

Question 02: Bronfenbrenners Ecological Model

Urie Bronfenbrenner has developed a theory where he defines that the
environment in which a person lives has a direct effect on how they develop.
The environment affects a person, and a person affects their environment.
Everything around a growing child affects how they grow and develop.
Bronfenbrenner has designed an ecological model to help us understand
social influences. It is divided into five systems, each affecting the next:
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem.
The microsystem consists of all the factors that influence an adolescent on an
almost daily basis. In my life that would be influences from my immediate
family, school, softball sports club, external music lessons and friends. These
factors directly influenced my life and I directly influenced theirs. The essence
of who you are (genetically, biologically and socially) affects how people treat
you. I remember coming out of my shell during my adolescent years largely
due to taking external music lessons. I was required to sing in front of my
singing teacher as well as an audience eventually. Because of this, I had a
new found confidence that helped me interact better with my peers at school. I
believe that people could sense that and were drawn to me because of my
confidence. The family factor has definitely influenced the way I am today.
Reflecting back to my adolescent years, I do not really recall my father being
around much. I have noticed how, through the years, I have always tried to
latch onto a father figure, whether it be at church or lecturers/mentors at
university.
The mesosytem consists of the interactions among the various influences in
the microsystem and how they affect each other. Due to family financial
matters and being forced to move homes, I was not given much attention to,
especially being the youngest of four children and having a brother who was a
drug addict. There were more important matters to be dealt with, and I was
doing fairly well in school. During this time I had no support structure to help
me process what was happening in my family, so I turned to smoking
cigarettes and consuming alcohol. Almost hoping that one of my parents
would notice and have an intervention with me, but that did not happen. This
behaviour directly impacted my schoolwork and my grades dropped
dramatically. I was also involved with a much older man and I decided to no
longer participate in the softball sports club. My family did not question me, as
there were important family matters to be dealt with. During this time I was
hardly home and often slept out at my friends houses. One of the only solid
structures that was thriving was my music lessons. Being away from home (at
my friends houses) and doing music lessons were my support structure for
what was happening in my microsystem.
The exosystem describes factors that the adolescent does not necessarily
function in directly, but still has a large influence in their life. Due to my
parents having busy jobs, I never really shared what was happening in my life
and they never seemed to take interest in it. Also seeing them stress about

my brother, who was often thrown in jail, has made me back off and allow
them to focus on that.
The macrosystem comprises cultural values, customs and laws. (Gouws,
2015:80). I was raised to attend church every Sunday, so that is what I did.
However, there was a period where I stopped attending, as I did not find the
value in religious ritual without understanding what I was doing. I tried delving
into what my friends and eldest sister were doing (Islam and Buddhism). My
macrosystem was blurred and it seemed as if I had no true value system
during my adolescence.
The chronosystem refers to the era in history that we are living in, example:
Apartheid or democracy. During my adolescence, the country was somewhat
settled into democracy already (10 years). I was free to do as I pleased
without any laws prohibiting me from going anywhere based on my race or
gender. I grew up in a generation who lived by doing anything and everything
at least once in their life. I was somewhat oblivious to the crime happening
around me and in my environment and, to myself, I seemed invincible.
Bronfenbrenners theory of ecological development emphasizes the
importance of understanding a person in relation to all these contexts.
(Gouws, 2015: 80). He believes that everything in ones environment is
interrelated, even if it does not form part of ones direct environment. His
theory can be seen as the physical structure that relates to the other theories
based on cognitive, emotional and biological development.

Question 03: Piagets Formal-Operational Thought Phase

The formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage of Piagets theory of
cognitive development. The emerging abstract though and hypothetical
reasoning mark this phase of development. Thinking becomes much more
sophisticated and advanced than before. That being said, there is no sudden
movement from the concrete-operational phase to the formal-operational
phase. (Gouws, 2015: 51). However, this phase does pose many challenges
to the developing adolescent.
Adolescents start to question everything around them, from their parents
authority to the governments decision how to spend the states money. They
compare everything to an ideal or as Piaget puts it, what ought to be. The
more they perceive logical inconsistencies in the real world, the more they
question and get frustrated.
The formal-operational thought phase gives rise to the adolescents
increasing need for introspection. They seek to develop their self-concept and
sense of identity. A normal part of this is for them to compare themselves to
their peers and what society deems as ideal. These comparisons may lead to
a negative self-concept and dissatisfaction with themselves.
Another aspect that this phase brings about is their belief of invincibility: bad
things happen to other people, but not to them. This is the underlying cause
for reckless adolescent behaviour and abuse of drugs, alcohol and other
substances, as well as unprotected sex and reckless driving (Gouws, 2015:
51). Adolescents in this phase do however have the ability to weigh their
actions with the possible consequences for themselves and others.
Adolescents begin to take on some adult responsibility and in turn consider
themselves equal to adults. They believe they are now able to judge adults in
the same way that adults judge them. Due to their idealist outlook on life, they
often want ideal solutions to their realistic problems. So when an adult
disagrees with them and fails to see their perspective on their proposed
solutions, they might rebel against the existing norms and values.
The future now becomes an important aspect in their life. They want to
change society and are often influenced by what their peers future plans are.
But as they develop cognitively, they begin to alter their life plans to more
realistic goals and have a better sense of perspective. It also affects their
concerns for social, political and personal values
As adolescents grow in independence, they tend to want to solve all of their
own problems and disregard advice from their parents. They begin to analyse
and judge their parents behaviour and no longer idealise them.
Adolescents who are capable of this phase of thought can be identified as
individuals who are able to solve intellectual tasks quicker and more
effectively than their peers. They not only can anticipate and identify

problems, but also have the ability to suggest strategic solutions to the
problem.
There is not a definite age that the formal-operational phase of thought
begins, but Piaget suggests approximately twelve years of age. This phase
lasts into adulthood and continues to develop. The formal-operational thinker
has the ability to consider many different solutions to a problem before acting.
This greatly increases efficiency because the individual can avoid potentially
unsuccessful attempts at solving a problem. They consider past experiences,
present demands, and future consequences in attempting to maximise the
success of his or her adaptation to the world. (Salkind, 2004)

References

Gouws, E. 2015. The Adolescent. 4th ed. Cape Town: Pearson Holdings
2016. Cyberbullying [Online]. Available at:
https://www.stopbullying.gov/cyberbullying/index.html [Accessed: 05
September 2016].
Cherry, K. 2016. Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
[Online]. Available at: https://www.verywell.com/formal-operationalstage-of-cognitive-development [Accessed: 06 September 2016].
Salkind, N. J. 2004. An Introduction to Theories of Human
Development. California: Sage Publications Inc.

Addendum C: Questionnaire

1) Have you started working through your prescribed book yet?

Yes, I have.
2) Have you started to study your prescribed book together with your
tutorial letters?
Yes, I have.
3) Do you think this module will be useful for your teaching career?
Yes, I do.
4) What do you like most about the module?
It includes relevant and interesting topics with suitable examples that
can help the reader understand concepts in a better way. The
activities/questions asked at the end of each topic helps to reflect on
what was learnt so that a better understanding is developed. It also
required me to reflect on my own life and how theories and models are
true to what I have been through and experienced.
5) What do you least like about this module?
There are not any physical classes offered by the university for this
module.
6) Do you have any study problems which you would like to bring to our
attention?
At this moment, no.