BASIC CONCEPTS OF FLUID TRANSPORT

A key factor involved in the design of systems providing the transport of

fluids from one location to another is the quantity of power that is required for this
particular operation. For example, mechanical energy may be necessary to
overcome frictional resistance, changes in elevation, changes in internal energy,
and other resistances encountered in the flow system.
The various forms of energy can be related to the total energy balance or the
total mechanical energy balance. On the basis of 1 kg of fluid flowing under steadystate conditions between the inlet and outlet locations in the system, the total
energy balance can be written in differentiated form as

Z 1 g + p 1 v 1+

V 21
V2
+u1 +Q+W =Z 2 g+ p 2 v 2+ 2 +u2
2
2

(1)

And the mechanical energy balance as

2

V 21
V 22
Z 1 g vdp+ +W o=Z 2 g+
+ F
2
2
1
WhereZ
g
p
v
V

=
=
=
=
=
=

u
=
Q
=
outside source
W
=
Wo
=
F
=

(2)

vertical distance above an arbitrarily chosen datum plane

local gravitational acceleration
absolute pressure
specific volume of the fluid
average velocity of the fluid
correction factor to account for the use of average velocity
(1.0 for turbulent flow and 0.5 for laminar/viscous flow)
internal energy of the fluid
heat energy transmitted across the fluid boundary from an
total shaft work provided from an outside source
mechanical work provided from an outside source
mechanical energy loss due to friction
2

Evaluation of the

vdp
1

term in Eq. 2 may be difficult if a compressible

fluid is flowing through the system because the exact path of the compression or
expression is often unknown. For non-compressible fluids, however, the specific
volume, v, remains essentially constant, and the integral term reduces simply to
v(p2 p1). Consequently, the total mechanical energy balance is especially useful
and easy to apply when the flowing fluid can be considered as non-compressible.

NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
For a Newtonian fluid in a smooth pipe, dimensional analysis relates the
frictional drop per unit length of pipe to the pipe diameter, density of the fluid, and
average fluid velocity through two dimensionless groups, namely the Fanning
friction factor given by

f=

D p
2 2 VL

(3-a)

and the Reynolds number, given by

DV

(3-b)

The friction factor in smooth pipes is a function of the Reynolds number.

However, in rough pipes, the relative roughness /D also affects the friction factor.
Figure 1 presents a plot of the friction factor as a function of the Reynolds number
and /D. Representative values for the surface roughness factor associated with
various materials are also indicated in figure 1.

Figure 1. Fanning Friction Factors for Long, Straight Pipes

Source: L.F. Moody, Trans. ASME. 66:671-684 (1944)

Below a critical Reynolds number of 2100, the flow of a fluid in a pipe is
laminar, and the Fanning friction factor is given by the Hagen-Poiseuille Equation

f=

16 16
=
2100
DV

(4)

A transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow occurs over the range 2100
Re 4000. Since there is doubt as to which type of flow is predominant in this
range, safe design practice favors the assumption of turbulent flow in this
transitional region.
For turbulent flow in smooth pipes, the Blasius Equation provides a
reasonably accurate friction factor over a wide range of Reynolds number as given
by

f=

0.079
5
4000<<10
0.25
()

(5)

The Colebrook Equation gives a good approximation of the friction factor

for rough pipes over the entire turbulent flow range:

1
f

0.5

=4 log

1.256
+
> 4000
3.7 D ( f 0.5 )

(6)

If the velocity, density, and viscosity of the flowing fluid remain constant and
the pipe diameter is uniform over the total pipe length, the mechanical energy loss
due to friction may be obtained from

F=

2f V2 L
D

(7)

In a strict sense, Equation 7 is limited to conditions in which the flowing fluid

is non-compressible and the temperature of the fluid is constant. When one is
dealing with compressible fluids such as air, steam, or any gas, it is good
engineering practice to use Equation 7 only if the pressure drop over the system is
less than 10% of the initial pressure. If a change in the fluid temperature
occurs, Equation 7 should not be used in the form indicated unless the
total change in viscosity is less than approximately 50% based on the
maximum viscosity. If Equation 7 is used when pressure changes and
temperature changes are involved, the best accuracy is obtained by using the linear

velocity, density, and viscosity of the fluid as determined at the average

temperature and pressure.
For turbulent flow in a conduit of non-circular cross section, an equivalent
diameter can be substituted for the circular section diameter, and the equations for
circular pipes can be applied without introducing too large errors. This equivalent
diameter is defined as 4 times the hydraulic radius, R H, where the hydraulic
radius is the ratio of the cross-sectional flow area to the wetted perimeter.
When the flow is viscous, substation of 4R H for D does not give accurate results, and
the exact expressions relating frictional pressure drop and velocity can be obtained
only for certain conduits.
FRICTIONAL LOSSES ENCOUNTERED IN PIPELINES
If the cross-sectional area of a pipe changes gradually to a new crosssectional area, the disturbances to the flow pattern can be small that the amount of
mechanical energy lost as friction due to the change in cross-section is negligible.
However, if the change is sudden, an appreciable amount of mechanical energy can
be lost as friction.
Similarly, the presence of bends, fittings, valves, orifices, or other
installations that disturb the flow pattern can cause frictional losses. All these
effects must be included in the friction term appearing in the total mechanical
energy balance. Recommended expressions for evaluating the important types of
frictional losses are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Expressions for Evaluating Frictional Losses in the Flow of Fluids

Through Pipeline Systems

POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR TRANSPORT OF LIQUIDS AND GASES

For non-compressible fluids, equation 2 can be reduced to
2

W o =g Z +

( )

V
+ pv + F
2

(8)

Since the individual terms in equation 8 can be evaluated directly from the
physical properties of the system and the associated flow conditions, the design
engineer can apply this equation to many liquid flow systems without making any
major assumptions.

PIPING IN FLUID TRANSPORT PROCESSES

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the American
Petroleum Institute (API) have established detailed standards for the most widely
used components of piping systems. Lists of these standards as well as the
specifications for pipe and fitting materials can be found in the ANSI B31 code
sections. Many of these standards contain pressure-temperature ratings that will be
of assistance to engineers in their design function. Even though safety is the basic
consideration of the code, design engineers are cautioned that the code is not a
design handbook and does not eliminate the need of engineering judgment.
Some of the specific requirements for pumping systems have been included
in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements. A few of
the more significant requirements of ANSI B31.3 have been summarized and
included in this section since they relate directly to the minimum requirements for
the selection and design of piping systems.
SELECTION OF PIPING MATERIALS
General aspects that need to be evaluated when selecting piping materials
are:
1. Possible exposure to fire with respect to the loss in strength or combustibility
of the pipe and supports;
2. Susceptibility of the pipe to brittle failure or thermal shock failure when
exposed to fire;
3. Ability of thermal insulation to protect the pipe from fire;
4. Susceptibility of the pipe and joints to corrosion or adverse electrolytic effect;
5. Suitability of packing, seals, gaskets, and lubricants used on joints and
connections;
6. Refrigeration effect during sudden loss of pressure with volatile fluids; and
7. Compatibility with the fluid handles.

Specific material precautions and/or alternatives that need to be considered

when selecting piping materials are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Specific Material Precautions for Piping Systems

Iron and steel pipes are specified according to wall thickness by a standard
formula for schedule number as designated by the American Standards Association

(ASA). Schedule number is defined by the American Standards Association as the

approximate value of

1000

Ps
=schedule number
Ss

(9)

Where Ss is the safe working stress and Ps, the safe working pressure, defined by

Ps=

Wheretm
Dm
Ps and Ss

=
=
=

2 S s tm
Dm `

(10)

minimum wall thickness, m.

mean diameter, m
kPa

For temperatures up to 120C, the recommended safe working stress is

62,000 kPa for lap welded steel pipe and 49,000 kPa for butt-welded steel pipe.
Thus, if the schedule number is known, the safe working pressure can be estimated
directly from equation 10. Ten schedule numbers are in use at present.
Pipe sizes are based on the approximate diameter and are reported as
nominal pipe sizes. Although the wall thickness varies depending on the schedule
number, the outside diameter of any pipe having a given nominal size is constant
and independent of the schedule number. This permits the use of standard fittings
and threading tools on pipes of different schedule numbers. A table showing outside
diameters, inside diameters, and other dimensions for pipes of different diameters
and schedule numbers is presented in table 3.
Table 3. Typical Nominal Pipe Diameters

Copper tubing and brass tubing are used extensively in industrial operations.
Other metals, such as nickel and stainless steel, are also available in the form of
tubing. Although pipe specifications are based on standard nominal sizes, tubing
specifications are based on the actual outside diameter with a designated wall
thickness. Conventional systems, such as the Birmingham wire gauge (BWG), are
used to indicate the wall thickness. Common designations of tubing dimensions are
given in table 4:
Table 4. BWG Tubing Dimensions

Threaded fittings, flanges, valves, flow meters, steam traps, and many other
auxiliaries are used in piping systems to connect pieces of pipe together, change
the direction of flow, regulate the flow, or obtain desired conditions in a flow
system. Flanges are usually employed for piping connections when the pipe
diameter is 3 in. or larger, while screwed fittings are commonly used for smaller
sizes. In the case of cast-iron pipe used as underground water lines, bell-and-spigot
joints are ordinarily employed rather than flanges.
The auxiliaries in piping systems must have sufficient structural strength to
resist the pressure or other strains encountered in the operation, and the design
engineer should provide a wide safety margin when specifying the ratings of these
auxiliaries. Fittings, valves, steam traps, and similar items are often rated on the
basis of the safe operating pressure.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Various items need to be considered by the design engineer when developing
the design for a piping system. The overriding factor in all these design
considerations is the provision of protective measures as required to ensure the safe
operation of the proposed piping system. General aspects to be evaluated should
include:
1. Hazardous properties of the fluid;
2. Quantity of fluid that could be released by a piping failure;
3. Effect of a failure on overall plant safety;
4. Evaluation of the effects of a reaction of the fluid with the environment;
5. Probable extent of human exposure to all aspects of the piping failure; and
6. Inherent safety of the piping system by virtue of materials of construction,
methods of fabrication, and history of service reliability.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

These safety considerations must also be exercised in such design items as:
Selecting pipe materials and pipe sizes;
Checking effects of temperature level and temperature changes on thermal
expansion, freezing and insulation requirements;
Ensuring flexibility in the piping system to withstand physical and thermal
shocks;
Establishing adequate support structure for the system; and
Providing a system configuration that is easy to install, inspect, and maintain.
Dynamic Effects. Thermal expansion and the resultant pipe stresses must
be considered in any piping system design. For example, if the temperature
changes from 10 to 315C, the increase in length would be 0.4 m per 100 m.
for steel pipe and 0.6 m per 100 m for brass pipe. This amount of thermal
expansion could easily cause a pipe or wall to buckle if the pipe were
fastened firmly at each end with no allowances for expansion. The necessary
flexibility for the piping system can be provided by the use of expansion
loops, changes in direction, bellows joints, slip joints, and other devices.
The piping design must provide for possible impact from the effect of
high winds, earthquakes, discharge reactions, and vibrations from piping
arrangement and support. For example, ater hammer may cause extreme
stresses at bends in pipelines. Consequently, liquid pockets should be
avoided in steam lines through the use of steam traps and sloping of the line
in the direction of the flow. Quick-opening or quick-closing valves may cause
damaging water hammer, and valves of this type may require protection by
use of expansion or surge chambers.
Ambient Effects. If cooling of the fluid in the system results in vacuum, the
design must provide for the additional pressure difference experienced by the
system, or a vacuum breaker may need to be installed. Provision must be
made for thermal expansion of fluid trapped between or in closed valves.
Nonmetallic or nonmetallic-lined pipe may require protection when the
ambient temperature exceeds the design temperature.

The possibility of solidification of the fluid should not be overlooked in

the design of a piping system. Insulation, steam tracing, and sloping the line
to drain valve are methods for handling this type of problem.
Pipe Sizing. Specification of the pipe diameter to be used in a given piping
system will depend on the economic factors involved. Theoretically, the
optimum pipe diameter recommended is the one that provided the minimum
total cost of both the annual pumping power and the fixed charges for a
particular piping system. Some general recommendations for use in design
estimates of pipe diameters are presented in table 5.
Table 5. Recommended Economic Velocities for Sizing Steel Pipes
TURBULENT FLOW
RECOMMENDED VELOCITY
TYPE OF FLUID
RANGES, m/s
Water or fluid similar to water
1-3
Low pressure steam (250 kPa)
15-30
High pressure steam (750 kPa)
30-60
Air (250-500 kPa)
15-30
VISCOUS FLOW
NOMINAL PIPE
RECOMMENDED VELOCITY RANGES, m/s
DIAMETER,
= 50 cP
= 100 cP
= 1000 cP
m(in.)
0.0254 (1)
0.5-1
0.3-0.6
0.1-0.2
0.0508 (2)
0.75-1.07
0.5-0.75
0.15-0.24
0.1020 (4)
1.07-1.5
0.75-1.07
0.24-0.36
0.2030 (8)
---1.2-1.5
0.4-0.55
The following equations can be used for estimating the optimum
economic pipe diameter:
For turbulent flow (Re2100) and Di 0.0254 m,
0.45

Di ,opt . =0.363 mv

0.13

(11)

For laminar/viscous flow (Re2100) and Di 0.0254 m.

0.40

0.20

Di ,opt . =0.133 mv f
WhereDi,opt.
mv

=
=
=
=

optimum pipe diameter, m.

volumetric flow rate, m3/s
density of fluid, kg/m3
fluid viscosity, Pa-s

(12)

Equation 11 and 12 should not be used when the flowing fluid is steam
because the derivation of these equations makes no allowance for the effects
of pressure on the condition of the fluid. Equation 11 is limited to conditions
in which the viscosity of the fluid is between 0.2 and 20 cP.