PROPOSITIONAL AND DEDUCTIVE LOGIC

PRELIMINARIES
Logic may be defined as the organization of knowledge, or science, which evaluates arguments: it is often defined
as the process of correct reasoning. It comes from the Greek word logos, roughly translated as word, but with
the implication of an underlying structure or purpose.
Reasoning can be classified as either deductive or inductive. The latter is the body of methods used to generate
correct conclusions based on observation or data (usually used in the natural sciences and statistics). This type
carries with it the risk of incorrect generalizations, thus validity of this kind of argument is essentially probabilistic
in nature.
On the other hand, the former is the type of reasoning where it starts from the general principles and from it derive
these principles particular facts and relationships. This type usually denotes processes of proving theorems within
an axiomatic system, i.e., if one accepts the validity of the axiomatic system, one is forced to accept the validity of
the derived theorem.
An axiomatic system can be thought of as consisting of the following four components.
1.

The set of allowed symbols. These are sometimes called the "primitives" or undefined terms of the
system.

2.

The well-formed formulas. These are sequences of the allowed symbols constructed according to some
allowed rules. Definitions of new symbols are allowed as well-formed formulas of old symbols.

3.

The axioms or set of "self-evident" truths of the system. These are well-formed formulas which are taken
as statements of fact which can not be proven within the system. In some sense, the axioms must be
"accepted on faith".

4.

The rules of inference. These are rules which allow or license moves from certain well-formed formulas
to other well formed formulas. As with the axioms the rules of inference are accepted as being selfevidently valid.

To some people one of the disturbing aspects of deductive logic is the difference between the syntactic and
semantic content of a conclusion. An argument is syntactically valid if it "follows" the correct form or syntax of
the language. The semantic content of an argument is related to its meaning or interpretation. By and large
deductive logic is concerned with the syntax of an argument and ignores the semantics of the sentences in the
argument.
An argument is a group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or
reason to believe, one of the others (the conclusion). A proposition or statement is a sentence that is either true or
false, typically a declarative sentence or a sentence component that could stand as a declarative sentence.
Categorical Propositions are propositions that relates two classes or categories. The classes are denoted by the
subject term and the predicate term, and the proposition asserts that either all or part of the class denoted by the
subject term is included in or excluded from the class denoted by the predicate term. An example of a categorical
proposition is Oprah Winfrey publishes magazines.
A syllogism is a deductive argument consisting of two premises and one conclusion. It can then be said that a
categorical syllogism consists of three categorical propositions and containing a total of three different terms, each
of which appears twice in distinct proposition.

THE ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS

Propositions and Truth Tables
A proposition in logic is a statement, declarative in form, which could either be true or false. This condition is
sometimes referred to as a "dichotomy" or an example of "binary logic". This restriction to only two truth values is a
source of difficulty in "real life" where ambiguity and "shades of truth" often cloud our reasoning and decisions.
Illustration:
1. Tigers are mammals.
2. All Filipinos are lefthanded.
3. Many people enjoy science fiction.
4. The set of real numbers satisfy the Closure Axiom.
5. Today is raining.
6. n + 3 = 8
A proposition is said to be simple (or atomic or primitive) if it has no connectives or quantifiers. Propositions can be
represented by a single letter of the alphabet (normally p or q). On the other hand, compound propositions (or composites)
are composed of sub-propositions and various connectives discussed subsequently.
The truth-functional structure of such a statement can be represented by a truth table in which all possible truth values are
displayed. A simple truth table is shown below.
p
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F

q
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F

r
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F

(Note: All possible truth values of all three propositions are displayed. Since each of the three propositions has 2 possible
truth values, there are 23 = 8 rows in the truth table. More generally, if there are n propositions there will be 2n rows in the
corresponding truth table.)

Five Standard Connectives of Compound Statements

1.

Negation (, ) transforms a proposition into its opposite truth value.

2.

Disjunction () is sometimes referred to as inclusive OR and is true as long as one of the propositions is true.

3.

Conjunction () is used to join two statements (conjuncts) with the understanding that conjuction is true if and
only if all of the conjuncts are true. It is normally connected by the word AND.

4.

Implication or Conditional () are two simple statements connected by the words ifthen. The first
statement is called the premise or hypothesis, and the second statement is called the conclusion.

5.

Biconditional () is a statement of equivalence, usually connecting two simple statements with the words if and
only if (iff). This means that the biconditional has a true value when statements are identical.

Remarks:
The following words have been identified to signal the use of correct connectives:

not, it is not the case that, it is false that

and, yet, but, however, moreover, nevertheless, still, also,
although, both, additionally, furthermore
or, unless
ifthen, only if, implies, given that, in case, provided
that, on condition that, sufficient condition, necessary
condition
if and only if, is equivalent to, sufficient and necessary
condition for

Also defined on the table above is the order of priority for compound statements that are not grouped, with the use
of grouping symbols (parentheses, brackets, braces) reading from left to right.

Example: Consider the following propositions:

p:
q:

Today is Monday
It is raining today

r:
s:

John studies mathematics

John gets a good grade

Translate the following propositions into textual form.

1.

~p

_____________________________________________________________________________

2.

qr

_____________________________________________________________________________

3.

sq

_____________________________________________________________________________

4.

~r p

_____________________________________________________________________________

5.

(p q) r

_____________________________________________________________________________

Example: Consider the following propositions:

p: You pass the final exam

q: You do every exercise in class

r: You pass this course.

Translate the following in symbolic form using the logical connectives.

1.

You pass the final exam and this course.

___________________________

2.

You pass this course but do not do every exercise in class.

___________________________

3.

If you either do every exercise in class or pass the final exam,

then you will pass this course.

___________________________

You will pass this course if and only if you both do every exercise
in class and pass the final exam.

___________________________

You will not pass this course if you neither pass the final exam nor
do every exercise in class.

___________________________

4.

5.

Conditional Statements and its Variations

Consider the propositions p: The sun is shining

and

q: I will go to the store.

Conditional:

pq

If the sun is shining, then I will go to the store.

Converse:

qp

If I go to the store, then the sun is shining.

Inverse:

p q

If the sun is not shining, then I will not go to the store.

Contrapositive:

q p

If I will not go to the store, then the sun is not shining.

Also, the conditional statement p q can be expressed in a variety of ways. The following statements are
equivalent to p q:
if
if
p
q
q
q

p then q
p, q
is sufficient for q
whenever p
when p
unless not p

p
p
q
q
q

implies q
only if q
if p
is necessary for p
follows from p

Example: Given the conditional statement

If a triangle is right, then it contains a 90 angle.
Give the converse, inverse and contrapositive form of the statement.
Inverse

_____________________________________________________________________________

Converse

_____________________________________________________________________________

Contrapositive

_____________________________________________________________________________

Example: Rewrite each of these statements in the form if p then q

1.

Classes will be suspended if storm signal is raised to level 3.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

2.

Doing every exercise in the book is sufficient for getting a good grade.
____________________________________________________________________________________________

3.

Mark will go swimming unless the water is too cold.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

4.

You will receive a passing grade only if you comply with all the requirements.
____________________________________________________________________________________________

5.

Having a password is necessary for logging on to the server.

____________________________________________________________________________________________
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Truth Tables
Statements can be classified as being a tautology (all true), a contradiction (all false) or a contingent (at least on
true or at least one false).
In comparing statements, their relationship can be of the following: logically equivalent (same truth value for each
line), contradictory (opposite truth value on each line), consistent (there is at least one line on which the truth
values are both true), or inconsistent (there is no line on which the truth values are both true).
Testing of arguments could either be valid or invalid.

Examples:
A. Use truth tables to determine whether the following statements are tautologous, contradictory or contingent.
1.
2.
3.
4.

(p q) (p q)
(p q) (q p)
[(p q) (q p)] q
[p (q p)] [(q p) (q p)]

5.
6.
7.

[(p q) (p r)] [(q r)]

[p (q r)] [(q p) (r p)]
[(p q) (r s)] [(r q) (p s)]

B. Use truth tables to determine whether the following pairs of symbolized statements are logically equivalent,
contradictory, consistent or inconsistent.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

D B
K L
R S
A X
(E C) L
W (B T)
C Z P

(D B)
K L
S R
(X A) (A X)
E (C L)
W (T B)
Z (C P)

C. Identify the premise/s and conclusion of each argument.

1.

Titanium combines readily with oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, all of which have an adverse effect on its
mechanical properties. As a result, titanium must be processed in their absence.

2.

Every art and every inquiry, and similarly ever action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good; and for this
reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim.

3.

It is vitally important that wilderness areas be preserved, for wilderness provides essential habitat for wildlife,
including endangered species, and it is a natural retreat from the stress of daily life.

4.

Not to honor men of worthy will keep the people from contention; not to value good that are hard to come by will
keep them from theft; not to display what is desirable will keep them from being unsettled.

5.

There are three stages of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Solid objects ordinarily maintain their shape and volume
regardless of their location. A liquid occupies a definite volume, but assumes the shape of the occupied portions of
its containers. A gas maintains neither shape nor volume. It expands to fill completely whatever container it is in.

6.

In areas where rats are a problem, it is very difficult to exterminate them with bait poison. Thats because some
rats eat enough poison to die but others eat only enough to become sick and then learn to avoid that particular
poison taste in the future.

D. Translate the following arguments into symbolic logic. Then determine whether each is valid or invalid by constructing
the truth table.
1.

If national elections deteriorate into TV popularity contests, then smooth-talking morons will get elected.
Therefore, if national elections do not deteriorate into TV popularity contests, then smooth-talking morons will not
get elected.

2.

Brazil has a huge foreign debt. Therefore, either Brazil or Argentina has a huge foreign debt.

3.

If there are dried-up riverbeds in Mars, then water once flowed on the Martian surface. There are dried-up
riverbeds on Mars. Therefore, water once flowed on the Martian surface.

4.

Manila is the capital of the Philippines. Therefore, it is either raining or it is not raining.

5.

If insider trading occurs, then investors will not trust the securities market. If investors do not trust the securities
market, then business in general will suffer. Therefore, if insider trading occurs, then business in general will
suffer.

E. Determine whether the following symbolized arguments are valid or invalid by constructing the truth table.
1.

(G M)
M G .
G

2.

K L
(L K) .
KL

3.

J (K L)
KJL .
JKL

4.

5. G H
RG
H G .
RH
6. S T
S T
T S .
S T
7. A R
(N C)
RC
C N .
AC

A (N V)
(N A)
.
AQ

NATURAL DEDUCTION IN PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

Natural deduction is a method for establishing the validity of propositional type arguments that is both simpler and
more enlightening than the method of truth tables. Natural deduction resembles the method used in geometry to derive
theorems relating to lines and figures, but each step in a logical proof depends on a rule of inference. These rules of
inference is composed of a number rules, which can be classified as Rules of Implication and Rules of Replacement.
Rules of Implication I
1.

Modus Ponens
pq
p
.
q

3. Hypothetical Syllogism
pq
qr.
pr

2.

Modus Tollens
pq
q
.
p

4. Disjunctive Syllogism
pq
p .
q
6

Remarks: Here are some strategies for applying the first four rules of inference
1.

Always begin by attempting to find the conclusion in the premise

2.

If the conclusion contains letters that appears in the consequent of a conditional statement in the premise, consider
obtaining that letter via modus ponens.

3.

If the conclusion contains a negated letter that appears in the antecedent of a conditional statement in the premise,
consider obtaining the negated letter via modus tollens.

4.

If the conclusion is a conditional statement, consider obtaining it via hypothetical syllogism.

5.

If the conclusion contains a letter that appears in a disjunctive statement in the premise, consider obtaining that letter
via disjunctive syllogism.

Examples: Use the rules of inference to derive the conclusions of the following arguments
A. C (A C)
C
B. J
JK
KL
C. F G
FH
G
HGI

/ A

/ L

/ FI

D. (A B) [(E F) (C D)]
(A B)
(E F)
DG
/ CG
E. A B
C A
CD
D

/ B

F. E (K L)
F (L M)
GE
G
F

/ KM

G. P (G T)
Q (T E)
P
Q

/ GE

H. S D
S (D K)
D

/ K

I. R (G A)
(G A) S
GS
R

/ A

J. (B M) (T S)
BK
K M
S N

/ TN

K. G [G (S G)]
(S L) G
SL

/ L

Rules of Implication II
5.

Constructive Dilemma
(p q) (r s)
pr
.
qs

8. Conjunction
p
q
.
pq

6.

Destructive Dilemma
(p q) (r s).
q s
p r

9. Addition
p
.
pq

7.

Simplification
pq
p

10. Equivalence
pq
p
.
q

or

pq
q
.
p

Remarks: Listed below are additional strategies for applying the next six rules of implications.
6.
7.

If the conclusion contains a letter that appears in a conjunctive statement in the premises, consider obtaining that letter
via simplification.
If the conclusion is a conjunctive statement, consider obtaining it via conjunction by first obtaining the individual
conjuncts.

8.

If the conclusion is a disjunctive statement, consider obtaining it via constructive dilemma or addition.

9.

If the conclusion contains a letter not found in the premises, addition must be used to introduce that letter.

10. Conjunction can be used to set up constructive dilemma.

Examples: Use the rules of implication to derive the conclusions of the following symbolized arguments.
L. M Q
R T
M R
M. A B
(B C) (D E)
A
N. K L
(M N) S
NT
KM

/ Q T

Q. (F X) (P T)
FP
P

/ T

/ D

R. (C G) (P L)
(P C) (C D)
C R

/ DR

/ LT

S. (U P) Q
O U
P O
O T

/ Q

T. (U W) (T R)
UH
R J

/ U T

O. M N
PM
QR
(P Q) S

/ ST

P. (H B) R
(H M) P
H

/ RP
8

Examples: Translate the following arguments into symbolic form and use the rules of implication to derive the conclusion
of each. The letters to be used for the simple statements are given in parentheses after each exercise. Use the
letters in the order in which they are listed.
1.

If the average child watches more than five hours of television per day, then either his power of imagination is
improved or he becomes conditioned to expect constant excitement. The average child does watch more than five
hours of television per day. Therefore, the average child is conditioned to expect constant excitement. (W, P, C)

2.

If teachers are allowed to conduct random drug searches on students only if teachers are acting in loco parentis,
then if teachers are acting in loco parentis, then students have no Fourth Amendment protections. Either students
have no Fourth Amendment protections or if teachers are allowed to conduct random drug searches on students,
then teachers are acting in loco parentis. Therefore, teachers are not allowed to conduct random drug searches on
students. (R, L, F)

3.

If topaz is harder than quartz, then it will scratch quartz and also feldspar. Topaz is harder than quarts and it is also
harder than calcite. Therefore, either topaz will scratch quartz or it will scratch corundum. (T, Q, F, C, O)

4.

If the Astros win the playoff, then the Braves will lose the pennant. If the Astros do not win the playoff, then either
Connolly or Davis will be fired. The Braves will not lose the pennant. Furthermore, Connolly will not be fired.
Therefore, Davis will be fired. (A, B, C, D)

5.

If either manufacturers will not concentrate on producing a superior product or they will not market their product
abroad, then if they will not concentrate on producing a superior product, then the trade deficit will worsen. Either
manufacturers will concentrate on producing a superior product of the trade deficit will not worsen. Therefore,
todays business manager lacks imagination. (C, M, B, T)

6.

If half the nation suffers from depression, then if either the insurance companies have their w ay or the
psychiatrists have their way, then everyone will be taking antidepressant drugs. If either half the nation suffers
from depression or sufferers want a real cure, then it is not the case that everyone will be taking antidepressant
drugs. Half the nation suffers from depression. Therefore, it is not the case that either the insurance companies or
the psychiatrists will have their way. (H, I, P, E, W)

Rules of Replacement I
11. De Morgans Law
(p q) (p q)
(p q) (p q)

14. Distributivity
p (q r) [(p q) (p r)]
p (q r) [(p q) (p r)]

12. Commutativity
(p q) (q p)
(p q) (q p)

15. Double Negation

p (p)

13. Associativity
(p q) r p (q r)
(p q) r p (q r)
Remarks:
Rules of implication derive their name from the fact that each is a simple argument form in which the premise
implies the conclusion. To be applicable in natural deduction, certain lines in a proof must be interpreted as
substitution instances of the argument form in question. In simple terms, rules of implication are applicable only to
the whole lines in a proof.
Rules of replacement on the other hand are not rules of implication but rules of logical equivalence. Logically
equivalent statements statement forms can always replace one another in a proof sequence, the rules of
replacement can be applied either to a whole line or to any part of a line.
9

Rules of implication are one-way rules whereas rules of replacement are two-way rules. The rules of
implication allow us to proceed only from the premise lines of a rule to the conclusion line, but the rules of
replacement allow us to replace either side of an equivalence expression with the other side.
Remarks: The following are additional strategies for applying the first five rules of replacement.
11. Conjunction can be used to set up De Morgans rule.
12. Constructive dilemma can be used to set up De Morgans rule.
13. Addition can be used to set up De Morgans rule.
14. Distribution can be used in two ways to set up disjunctive syllogism.
15. Distribution can be used in two ways to set up simplification.
16. If inspection of the premises does not reveal how the conclusion should be derived, consider using the rules of
replacement to deconstruct the conclusion.

Examples: Derive the conclusions of the following symbolized arguments using the rules of inference.
1.

/ (F S)

/ B

2.

JKL
K

5. A (B C)
AC

/ J

T (B E)
E T

6. D (E F)
D F

/ DE

/ B

(E I) (M U)
E

7. K (F B)
GK

/ (F G) (B G)

/ (E M)

3.

4.

Rules of Replacement II
16. Transposition/Contrapositive
(p q) (q p)

19. Exportation
[(p q) r] [p (q r)]

17. Material Implication

(p q) (p q)

20. Tautology/Idempotent
p (p p)
p (p p)

18. Material Equivalence

(p q) [(p q) (q p)]
(p q) [(p q) (p q)]
Remarks: Additional strategies are listed below,
17. Material implication can be used to set up hypothetical syllogism.
18. Exportation can be used to set up modus ponens.
19. Exportation can be used to set up modus tollens.
20. Addition can be used to set up material implication.
10

21. Transposition can be used to set up hypothetical syllogism.

22. Transposition can be used to set up constructive dilemma.
23. Constructive dilemma can be used to set up tautology.
24. Material implication can be used to set up tautology.
25. Material implication can be used to set up distribution.
Remarks: These laws may also be used in proving arguments.
Identity Law
pFp
pTp
pTT
pFF

Complement/Negation Law
p p T
p p F
T F
F T

Absorption Law
p (p q) p
p (p q) p

Examples: Use the rules of inference to derive the conclusions of the following symbolized arguments.
(S K) R
K

/ SR

4. F G
FG

/ G

2.

SQ
S

/ Q

5. M N
MO

/ M (N O)

3.

(B M) (D M)
BD

/M

1.

11