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Ruhr-Universitt Bochum
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K eyw ords: hydro shield , slurry shield, support fluid, bentonite suspension, rheology, Marsh funnel
1. Introduction
For the face support during slurry shield tunnelling, the rheology of the bentonite suspension has
to meet strict requirements. Determination of the rheological properties follows the international
standards API 13B [1] and DIN 4126 [2]. On the construction site, simple and robust
measurement methods are required for quality control of the suspension parameters during the
tunnelling process. Here, the Marsh-funnel is commonly accepted as a useful and reliable
measuring device.
The Marsh-time is recorded in [s] for a certain suspension volume. Based on this single point
measurements only relative conclusions are derived concerning the viscosity of the bentonite
suspension. In comparison to detailed rheological measurements using a viscometer or rheometer,
exact determinations of viscosity and yield stress are not possible with a Marsh funnel.
For detailed analysis of the rheological parameters of bentonite suspension flow curves are
recorded by measurement with standardized viscometer or rheometer. A flow curve is diagram,
which describes the relation of the shear stress and the shear rate of a fluid. Based on this
information further the viscosity and yield point are determined.
However, by adoption of additional equipment (e.g. a scale with data logging and a computer for
data processing) the informative value of the standardized Marsh-funnel measurements for
tunnelling practice can be increased considerably.
Here, a mathematical model adapted from capillary viscometry is presented. Application of this
model provides the opportunity to pre-processes the logged data into various information sets. The
volume flow at the funnel outlet, the development of the wall yield stress in reference to the
suspension level in the funnel over time and the characteristic flow curve of a fluid are valuable
results of these calculations. They provide the opportunity for further rheological analysis.
Using the constitutive equations of the Herschel-Bulkley flow model, which is applied to describe
the flow behaviour of non-Newtonian fluids, calculations of the yield point of the tested bentonite
suspensions can be performed.
By extending the measurement equipment slightly and adopting the mathematical equations of
capillary viscometry, the informative value of a simple and standardized Marsh-funnel
measurement provides advanced rheological analysis. Especially the yield point can be determined
for certain fluid conditions. Up to now this possibility was only a subject for advanced
measurements using a viscometer or rheometer.
Formula 1
All fluids, which exhibit a non-proportional relationship between shear stress and shear rate
Figure 1: The six main classes of time-dependent fluids presented in flow curves of stress against strain rate in shear
flow [3]
Further, the Herschel-Bulkley model provides the ability to describe flow behaviour of Newtonian
fluids and of non-Newtonian fluids. This model delivers consistent and appropriate results in
reference to measured rheological data. In general, the six main classes of flow curves presented
in figure 1 can be determined using the approach of the Herschel-Bulkley model under certain
boundary conditions:
For
For
For
For
For
For
and
and
and
and
and
and
In this study the standardized measuring equipment was extended by an electronic scale with
automated data logging (figure 3). The scale transfers the measured data of the spilling fluid mass
m of the bentonite suspension in an interval of [1 s] to a computer. Here, the data is transcribed
to an spreadsheet for further calculations.
Figure 4 shows the diagram derived from the logged data in suspension mass over time. According
to DIN 4126 [2] the Marsh-time for a suspension volume of 1000 cm can be determined using the
suspension density. In this example, the density of the suspension made of a Wyoming bentonite
in a concentration of 35 kg of bentonite per m of water is = 1,017 g / cm . Hence, the mass for
1000 cm is 1017 g and the associated Marsh-time t M = 66 s can be derived directly from the
diagram. The total drainage time of the suspension volume of 1500 cm is t M 1500 = 153s .
Figure 4: Diagram derived from the logged data: mass [g] of the spilling bentonite suspension over time [s]
V=
Formula 6
With the common formula for the volume of a cone V = 1 / 3r 2 h the volume of the Marsh-Funnel
becomes under consideration of the Marsh-funnel geometry r = R0 / Z1 :
V=
(R0 / Z1 )2 h3
Formula 7
By introducing the practical geometric dimensions of the standardized funnel, formula 8 is derived:
V=
Formula 8
In reference to the calculated fluid, volume V in the funnel and by converting formula 8, the
actual suspension level in the Marsh-funnel can be determined:
Z = 3 V /
Formula 9
As a result from the mass balance equation, the flow rate Qmeasured for the spilling suspension out
of the funnel is calculated:
V
= Qmeasured (h )
t
Formula 10
These calculations are based on the measured data for the spilling suspension out of the funnel.
Due to an a discrete flow out of the funnel respectively due to the measuring time span of [1 s]
the diagram of Qmeasured shows several points of discontinuity. Therefore, the flow rate Q predicted
was approximated using the Herschel-Bulkley model for a cylindrical tube [9] (formula 11). By
means of the Excel Solver, the Herschel-Bulkley parameters flow index n , consistency index C
and yield point 0 are estimated.
Q predicted =
R 3 ( w 0 )1 / n+1 ( w 0 )2 2 0 ( w 0 )
02
+
+
1/ n + 2
1 / n + 1
C 1 / n w3
1/ n + 3
Formula 11
4.
A flow curve shows the relation between the shear stress acting in a fluid in reference to the
shear rate . Typically, this data is recorded by a viscometer or rheometer. To perform flow curves
by means of Marsh-funnel data, additional calculations are required.
4.1
The wall shear stress w is determined by balancing the forces acting in the cone-shaped part and
the cylindrical part of the Marsh-funnel [3, 6]. Balancing the hydrostatic downward force and the
upward acting wall shear stress w only in the cone results in the following formula:
Rw2 Pcone = Rw L w
Formula 12
Pcone =
wZ
cos {RL + ( Ro RL )( Z / Z1 )}
Formula 13
In the same way the pressure is determined for the cylindrical part of the funnel:
Pcylinder =
2 w Z 2
RL
Formula 14
The total pressure gradient within the Marsh funnel is derived from:
P = Pcone + Pcylinder =
wZ
cos {RL + ( Ro RL )( Z / Z1 )}
2 w Z 2
RL
Formula 15
By replacing P with the description of the fluid height in the Marsh-funnel P = gZ ( as fluid
density and g as the acceleration due to gravity) formula 15 turns after conversion to the wall
shear stress w to a more common form:
2Z
Z
+ 2
cos {RL + ( Ro RL )( Z / Z1 )} RL
w = [g ( Z + Z 2 )]/ (
Formula 16
Now, the wall shear stress w can be determined in reference to the actual fluid volume V
(formula 6) respectively to the fluid height Z (formula 9) in the Marsh-funnel.
4.2
The wall shear rate w describes the flow velocity of the spilling bentonite suspension at the
surface of the capillary. The estimation of the wall shear rate w was deduced in [4a] and is
derived in detail in [6].
3 4Q 1 4Q d log 4Q /(RL3 )
w = 3 +
d log w
4 RL 4 RL3
By substituting
obtained:
)
Formula 17
d log 4Q /(RL3 )
1
= with n' as flow behaviour index, the more convenient form is
d log w
n'
w =
3n'+1 4Q
4n' RL3
Formula 18
Based on the measured values and the calculated volume flow rate Q predicted the actual wall shear
rate w (formula 17) is determined.
4.3
Yield stress / yield point is an important parameter for the description of the flow behavior of
bentonite suspension. It represents the transition of a fluid from solid state to liquid state.
Bentonite suspensions start to flow when a certain amount of yield stress is obtained the yield
point 0 .
Considering the flow behavior of bentonite suspensions during drainage out of the Marsh-funnel,
two groups can be divided:
1) After a certain time the bentonite suspension stagnates within the funnel. The corresponding
height Z of the fluid in the funnel is named stagnation height.
2) The bentonite suspension drains completely out of the funnel.
For the first group, the yield point 0 can be determined. In case of stagnation of the fluid
following boundary conditions are valid:
no drainage
Q = 0 and dh / dt = 0
system is at equilibrium, the acting wall shear stress w matches the
0 =w
value of the yield point 0 of the bentonite suspension
For determination of the yield point 0 formula 16 is applied. Here, the variable Z represents the
stagnation height of the bentonite suspension in the Marsh-funnel.
The flow curves of bentonite suspension W 2.5% determined using Marsh-funnel, viscometer
FANN 35 and rheometer Rheolab QC are presented in figure 6. The x-coordinate shows the shear
rate and the y-coordinate the shear stress .
Figure 6: Comparison of the flow curves for suspension W 25 kg/m drawn by Marsh-funnel, viscometer and rheometer
5.2
Figure 7 shows the flow curves for bentonite suspension W 3.5% determined using Marsh-funnel,
viscometer FANN 35 and rheometer Rheolab QC. Within the diagram the x-coordinate shows the
shear rate [1/s] and the y-coordinate the shear stress [Pa]. This suspension shows a complete drainage out of the Mash-funnel.
Due to the higher solid content of the bentonite suspension, higher values for wall shear stress
and shear stress in the fluid are measured. Even a slight difference between the values of viscometer and rheometer are visible. The more sensitive measuring system of the rheoemter might be
a reason for this. Compared to figure 1, this suspensions shows a kind of ideal flow curve of a
shear thinning fluid with yield stress. In general, the induced shear rates within the Marsh-funnel
exceed the the mechanically enforced shear rates of viscometer and rheometer explicitly
Figure 7: Comparison of the flow curves for suspension W 35 kg/m drawn by Marsh-funnel, viscometer and rheometer
5.3
The flow curves for the bentonite suspension W 4.5% determined using Marsh-funnel, viscometer
FANN 35 and rheometer Rheolab QC are presented in figure 8. Within the diagram the x-coordinate shows the shear rate [1/s] and the y-coordinate the shear stress [Pa]. Even with this
relatively high amount of solid content, this suspension shows a complete drainage out of the
Mash-funnel.
Figure 8: Comparison of the flow curves for suspension W 45 kg/m drawn by Marsh-funnel, viscometer and rheometer
In this case, the shape of the flow curve of the Marsh-funnel is completey different to the flow
curves in figures 6+7. Here, the induced shear rates within the Marsh-funnel are very small
compared to the mechanically induced shear rates of viscometer and rheometer. At the same time,
Figure 9 shows the flow curves for the bentonite suspension W 5.5% determined using Marshfunnel, viscometer FANN 35 and rheometer Rheolab QC. Within the diagram the x-coordinate
shows the shear rate [1/s] and the y-coordinate the shear stress [Pa]. Here , an incomplete
drainage out of the Mash-funnel was performed.
Figure 9: Comparison of the flow curves for suspension W 55 kg/m by Marsh-funnel, viscometer and rheometer
This suspensions shows the same effects as bentonite suspension 45 kg/m with tendency to rise.
The occuring shear rates in the Marsh-funnel are very limited. Due to the incomplete drainage the
maximum wall shear rate remains below the shear stress of viscometer and rheometer. For the
choosen Wyoming bentonite, this solid content comes very close to the maximum that might be
measurable with the Marsh-funnel.
6. Conclusion
The bentonite suspensions with solid contents of 25, 35 and 45 kg/m water show a complete
drainage out of the Marsh-funnel, the suspensions with solid contents of 55 kg/m water stagnate
at a certain fluid height. In genereal, with an increasing solid content the flow rate respectivly the
shear rate decreases considerably (figures 6-9).
However, the mathematical formulas 6-18 provide the opportunity to draw flow curves from a
simple measurement using Marsh-funnel and to compare these flow curves with the flow curves
resulting from advanced measurement principles and testing procedures using viscometer and
rheometer.
Furthermore, figure 6-9 point out the physical limits of the measurement principle of Marsh-funnel:
on case of a complete drainage, the yield point 0 of the suspension is beyond the minimum
value, that could be measured with the Marsh-funnel. This limiting value can be calculated using
formula 16. By introducing the boundary conditions Z = 0 , R0 = RL and cos = 1 in formula 16,
the minimum wall shear rate w can be determined for the intersection to the cylindrical part of
the Marsh-funnel:
1
2
w = gRL
Formula 19
Here, the wall shear rate depends only from the density of the suspension; RL and g are
constant parameters. Using formula 19, the lower limit for a measurable yield point 0 can be
calculated in reference to the Marsh-funnel geometry. For the bentonite suspension 25 kg/m
water with a density of = 1.012kg / cm3 the lower limit of wall shear rate is 11,78 [Pa]. Due to
the fact that this suspension drains completely out of the funnel, the yield point 0 is below this
limit. In case of a complete drainage, determination of the yield point is not possible using the
Marsh-funnel. This is also valid for the complete drainage of the bentonite suspensions with a solid
content of 35 and 45 kg/m.
Tabular 1: Determined values for yield point
Density
W
W
W
W
25
35
45
55
kg/m
kg/m
kg/m
kg/m
[g/cm]
1.012
1.017
1.022
1.029
Drainage of
Marshfunnel
complete
complete
complete
incomplete
Marsh-funnel
FANN 35
Rheometer
[Pa]
25,35
[Pa]
2,23
6,63
14,66
24,96
[Pa]
3,16
5,98
14,52
23,72
On the contrary, with the value for a stagnation height in the funnel the yield point can be
determined for the bentonite suspension with solid content of 55 kg/m water. The yield point is
calculated using formula 16 under consideration of the stagnation heigth Z and the corresponding
fluid volume V in the Marsh-funnel. Results of measured and calculated yield point for suspension
W 55 kg/m are presented in table 1.
However, the flow curves shown in figure 6-9 show no uniform distribution. This can be established to the fact that the shear rate is imposed by the viscometer and rheometer mechanically in
defined values and within the Marsh-funnel only imposed by the variation of suspension density in
accordance to the acceleration due to gravity. In general, a higher viscosity of the bentonite
suspension leads to a considerable moderate flow behavior.
By means of the flow curves derived from viscometer and rheometer measurements, the yield
point for each bentonite suspension is determined by extrapolation of the single flow curve to a
shear rate of 0. Comparing the calculated value derived from Marsh-funnel tests with the
extrapolated values from viscometer and rheometer tests, the values show a relative good
compliance.
7. Nomenclature
V actual volume of funnel [cm]
V0 total volume of funnel [cm]
M mass of suspension [g]
Q volumetric flow rate [cm/s]
R0 maximum radius of funnel [cm]
Z1 maximum height of funnel [cm]
RW radius of funnel during drainage [cm]
Z height of funnel during drainage [cm]
RL radius of capillary [cm]
Z 2 length of capillary [cm]
angle of funnel []
g
n
C
8. References
[1] API 2009 RP 13B-1: Recommended Practice for field testing of water-based drilling fluids. 4th