Science-10 Biology PDF

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2012 General Applied Sciences and Technology

www.gktoday.in Module 10: General Biology-2
Contents
1. Bryophytes 29. AbscisicAcid
2. ImportanceofBryophytes 30. PlantNutrition
3. Pteridophytes 31. AbsorptionofWater
4. ImportanceofPteridophytes 32. PlantAdaptations
5. Gymnosperms 33. Hydrophytes
6. LifeCycleofGymnosperms 34. Xerophytes
7. ImportanceofGymnosperms 35. Halophytes
8. Angiosperms 36. RedTides
9. MonocotsandDicots 37. FlameofForest
10. Roots 38. Ribbonplant
11. AdventitiousRoots 39. Hydroponics
12. Modificationsofadventitiousroots 40. Frankensteinfoods
13. Typesofstems 41. Guttation
14. Modificationsofstems 42. NotillFarming
15. Leaf 43. Palynology
16. Flower 44. GravelCulture
17. Fruit 45. Allethrins
18. Annualrings 46. Sciophytes
19. Secondarygrowth 47. Xeriscaping
20. Photosynthesis 48. Creepersandclimbers
21. PlanthormonesAuxin 49. Switchgrass
22. HeliotropisminSunflower 50. ApomixisandAmphimixis
23. AgentOrange 51. Micropropagation
24. Artificialparthenocarpy 52. HayFever
25. Gibberellins 53. Thigmotropism
26. Cytokinin 54. CaliforniaRosewoods
27. Howdoescalciumcarbideripemangoes? 55. Florigen
28. We are advised not to keep banana inside the
refrigerator.Why?
Bryophytes
The land plants or Embryophytes are placed in Embryophyta or Metaphyta. Plants of this group live
primarily in terrestrial habitats, in contrast with the related green algae that are primarily aquatic. The
embryophytesincludetrees,flowers,ferns,mosses,andvariousothergreenlandplants.
Alloftheseplantsarecomplexmulticellulareukaryoteswithspecializedreproductiveorgans.
With very few exceptions, embryophytes obtain their energy through photosynthesis (that is, by
absorbinglight);andtheysynthesizetheirfoodfromcarbondioxide.
Amongtheembryophytes,thesimplestareBryophyteswhicharegenerallyknownasMosses.
BraunusedthetermBryophytaforthefirsttimein1864.ThebranchofsciencethatdealswithBryophytes
iscalledBryology.
ThefirstthingabouttheBryophytesweshouldknowisthattheydonthaveavasculartissuesuchas
XylemandPhloem,whichwefindinplantsofhigherorders.
Duetothis,theyarealsoknownasAtracheateswhichmeansnotrachea.
InIndia,SRKashyapdidacommendablejobinthestudiesofBryphytesandthatiswhyiscalledFatherof
IndianBryology.
Bryophytescommonlygrowclosetogetherinclumpsormatsindamporshadylocations.Theydonothave
flowers or seeds, and their simple leaves cover the thin wiry stems. Please note that in Bryophytes, the
dominantphaseoflifeisnottheplantitselfbutoneofitsphasesinreproductioncalledgametophytes.
TheonlythingyouneedtorememberisthatgametophytecontainsasinglesetofChromosomeandthatis
whytheBryophytesareinHaploidstateinmostoftheirlives.
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w.gktoday.in Module 10: General Biology-2
Attcertaintim
mes,mossesp
producespo
orecapsuless,whichmay
yappearasbeaklikecaapsulesborn
nealoftonthin
staalks.
Th
hese gameto
ophyte prod
duces male or female or both gam
metes (term used
u nts) by mitosis.
for sperms or ovum lower plan
W
When male an
nd female gametes
g fusee, they mak
ke a diploid zygote, which develop
ps by repeatted mitotic cell
c
div
visionsinto
oa multicelllularSporop
phyte. ThisSporophytteisdiploid
dbecauseitis a produ
uctoffusion
n of
tw
wo haploid gametes.
g Th
his Sporoph
hyte is NOT
T independeent in Bryo
ophytes and
d needs to get
g nutritio
onal
su
upportfromthegametophyte.
No
ow, this dip
ploid phase Sporophytee again prod
duces sex ceells via meio
osis, which are called spores.
s Durring
maaking of sp
pores, the ch
hromosomee pairs are separated once
o again to form sin
ngle sets. The
T spores are
therefore oncce again haaploid and develop intto a haploid gametoph
hyte. This iis how the lifecycle of
o a
Brryophytegoeeson.
Im
mportanceo
ofBryophyttes
No
owherearesomemoreeimportantp
pointswhichyouneedtoknowabo
outbryophyytes:
phytes are called the amphibian
Bryop ns of the plant
p kingd
dom. They ccan live on
n land but for
reproductionand
dfertilizatio
on,needwatteressentially.Bryophy
ytearealso thefirstlan
ndinhabitatting
plantss.
TheB
Bryophytesw
werethefirsstplantsinw
whichaltern
nationofgenerationwaasseenfortthefirsttimeein
the embryophyt
e tes as Gam
metophyte Mitosis gametes Sporophyyte Sporres Meioosis
metophytes.
Gam
Oneo
ofthefamou
usBryophyteeisPeatMo
oss.ItsbotaanicalnameisSphagnum
m.Itgrowsiinswampsaand
damp
p areas. Thiss is one of the most economically
e y importantt Bryophytee. You mustt know thatt in
World
dWarI,itw
wasusedasdressingcottonforwo
oundedsoldiiers.PeatisobtainedfromSphagnu
um.
Typically,aBryop
phyteis14
4cmslongbutDawsonia
aisalargeaandperhapsslargestBry
yophyte,wh
hich
reachesupto6070cm.
SomeBryophytesslivinginw
watersuchassRicciafluitans,Riccioca
arpusnatansandSphag
gnum
SomeBryophytessaresaprop
phytesmean
nstheythriv
veondeadaanddecayinggmatter.Exxampleisso
ome
specieesofBuxbau
umia.
SomeBryophytessareepiphy
yticsmeansttheyliveonanotherplaants.Examp
pleisDendro
oceros.
Physcomitrella patens
p is increasingly
y used in biotechnolo
ogy. Promiinent exam
mples are the
identiification of moss geness with impliications for crop imprrovement o
or human health
h and the
safep
productiono
ofcomplexb
biopharmaceeuticalsinth
hemossbioreactor.
Ptteridophyte
es
Pteridophytess are comm
monly know
wn as Fernss. There aree around 12
2,000 speciees of Ferns,
maany of them
m are generrally used a
a decoratio
on / ornam
mental plants. In the eevolutionary
y
staages,Fernsaarenextadv
vancedlevellafterBryop
phytes.
Assweread ab
bovetheBrryophytesdon't haveth
hevascular tissues,butttheFerns haveBOTH
H
xy
ylem and phloem, thu
us they are the first va
ascular plants. They have
h stems, leaves, and
d
rootslikeotheervascularp
plants.
Theyd
differfromttheadvanceedplantson
nthebasiso
oftheRepro
oductionpro
ocedures.Th
heydifferfrom
gymno
ospermsand
dangiosperrmsastheyd
donothave
eneitherflo
owersnors
seeds.
:A
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AsweereadaboveethatincasseoftheBry
yophytes,tthedominan
ntphaseof lifeisgameetophytes.T
This
reverssesfromPteeridophytesONWARDS..
Thism
meansthatiinPteridoph
hytesthedo
ominantphaaseoflifeisSporophytee.ThisSporrophyteisN
NOT
onlyin
ndependenttbutalsolon
nglived.
The plant, like th
he advanced
d plants is divided
d into
o root, stem
m and leaf. B
But some off the primittive
dophyteshav
Pterid vefalseroo
ots,meansttheycannot becalledtrrueroots.T
Thestemisd
dichotomou
usly
branch
hedwhichm
meanstwob
branchesem
mergefromo
onebranchaasshowninthefigure.
The leaves can be small as
a well as big makingg them eith
her microp
phyllous or
phyllous.Iflleavesaressmall,thesteemwouldb
megap begenerally largeandiffleavesare
big,th
hestemwou
uldbegeneraallysmall.
The Xylem
X and Phloem
P are the vasculaar tissues bu
ut they are primitive. T
This means
thatth
heXylemlacckstheVesselsandPhlo
oemlacksth
hecompanio
oncells.
Th
hereproductioninFern
nsisgeneralllyasexualb
buttheyhav
vesexualrep
productionaalso.Sexual
Reeproduction
n causes thee alternation
n of generattions, charaacterized by
y a diploid SSporophyte and a haploid
gaametophyte phase. Unliike the gym
mnosperms and
a angiosp
perms, the ferns'
f gametophyte iss a freeliviing
orrganism.
Im
mportanceo
ofPteridop
phytes
ThePtteridophyteeshavevascu
ulartissuesandsohaveetheGymno
ospermsand
dAngiosperrms.Sothey
yall
togeth
herarecalledVascularP
PlantsorTracheophytesorTracheo
ophyta.
Thesm
mallestfernisAzolla.W
WemustnottethatAzolllahasthecaapabilityofN
NitrogenFixxationandtthis
hasled
dtoAzollab
beingwidely
yusedasab
biofertiliserr,especiallyinpartsofssoutheastAssia.Indeed,the
planth
hasbeenusedtobolsteeragriculturralproductiv
vityinChinaaforoveratthousandyeears.
When ricepaddieesarefloodeedinthespring,theycanbeinocu
ulatedwithA
Azolla,whicchthenquicckly
pliestocoveerthewaterr,suppressin
multip ngweeds.Therottingp
plantmaterialreleasesn
nitrogentothe
ricepllants,provid
dinguptoninetonneso
ofproteinpeerhectarep
peryear.
Inadd
ditiontoits traditional cultivation asabioferttilizerforw
wetlandpadd
dy(duetoitsabilitytofix
nitroggen),azollaiisfindingin
ncreasingusseforsustaiinableprodu
uctionoflivvestockfeed
d.Azollaisrrich
in pro
oteins, essen
ntial amino acids, vitam
mins and minerals.
m Stu
udies describ
be feeding azolla
a to daairy
cattle, pigs, duck
ks, and chicckens, with reported increases in
n milk prod
duction, weiight of broiiler
chickeensandegg production
noflayers,aascompared
dtoconven
ntionalfeed.OneFAOsttudydescrib
bes
howaazollaintegraatesintoattropicalbiom
massagricullturalsystem
m,reducingtheneedforrinputs.
Osamu
undaregalissisknownaasIndianRoyalFern.
Dryopterisfilixma
asisusedan
nantihelmiinthmeansaantiworm,u
usedinPharrmacy.
Parts ofPteridium
maquilinum orPteridiu
umesculentu
um,are used
das acookeedvegetableinJapan and
a
are beelieved to be
b responsib
ble for the high rate of stomach cancer
c in Jaapan. It is also
a one of the
world's most imp
portant agriicultural weeeds, especiially in the British high
hlands, and often poiso
ons
cattleandhorses.
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Gymnosperms
Gymnospermsarecalledsobecausetheyhavenakedseeds.Therefore,theyaresuperiortoPteridophytes
because they are seedbearing plants, while Pteridophytes dont have seeds. They are inferior to
AngiospermsorFloweringplantsbecausetheirovulesareinanunenclosedconditionmeansnaked.In
the flowering plants or Angiosperms, the ovules are covered. The plants in this group are the conifers,
cycads,Ginkgo,andGnetales.Sincebothangiospermsandgymnospermshaveseeds,bothofthemareplaced
inSpermatophytes.
Generally, the plants of Gymnosperms are woody trees, shrubs and climbers. Many of them are
xerophytesmeanstheycansurvivewherethereisnowatersuchasdeserts.
Gymnospermshavetaproots.Taprootsaresomewhatstraighttotaperingplantrootthatgrows
vertically downward. It forms a center from which other roots sprout laterally. One common
example of Tap root in Angiosperms is Carrot. Please note that plants which have tap roots are
difficulttorelocateortransplant.
TherootsofmanyGymnospermshavesymbioticrelationswithalgaeorfungi(mycorrhiza).For
example,therootsofPinushavemycorrhizalrelationswithafungus.
Thestemiserectandsimilartoadvancedplants.Itmayormaynotbebranched.Leavesareeither
greenorbrown.TheXylemhasborderedpitsBUTthereareNOvessels.VesselsinXylemarefound
inONLYAngiosperms.TherearenocompanioncellsinPhloem.CompanioncellsinPhloemisfound
inONLYAngiosperms.
LifeCycleofGymnosperms
The dominant phase of life is Sporophyteasinallothervascularplants.The gametophyte is relatively
shortlived. Two spore types, microspores and megaspores, are, in general, produced in pollen cones or
ovulatecones,respectively,whichcanbecalledmaleconesandfemalecones.Maleconeissmallandshort
lived. Female cone is large and longlived. A shortlived multicellular haploid, gametebearing phase
(gametophyte) develops inside the spore wall. Pollen grains (microgametophytes) mature from
microspores, and ultimately produce sperm cells; megagametophyte tissue develops in the megaspore of
each ovule, and produces multiple egg cells. Thus, megaspores are enclosed in ovules (unfertilized seeds)
and give rise to megagametophytes and ultimately to egg cells. During pollination, pollen grains are
physicallytransferredbetweenplants,frompollenconetotheovule,beingtransferredbywindorinsects.
Whole grains enter each ovule through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat (integument) called the
micropyle.Thepollengrainsmaturefurtherinsidetheovuleandproducespermcells.
Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms. Cycads and Ginkgo have motile sperm that
swimdirectlytotheegginsidetheovule,whereasconifersandgnetophyteshavespermwithnoflagellathat
areconveyedtotheeggalongapollentube.Afterfertilization(joiningofthespermandeggcell),thezygote
develops into an embryo (young Sporophyte). More than one embryo is usually initiated in each
gymnospermseed.Competitionbetweentheembryosfornutritionalresourceswithinpolyembryonicseeds
produces programmed cell death to all but one embryo. The mature seed comprises the embryo and the
remainsofthefemalegametophyte,whichservesasafoodsupply,andtheseedcoat(integument).
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ImportanceofGymnosperms
Coast Redwood of California, which we know as the tallest plant / trees of the world are
Gymnosperms.Itsbotanical nameisSequoiasempervirensspp.gignatica.Theheight is420fits and
theyarelonglivingplantscanliveupto12001800years.Theplantisanimportanttimber.
ManyGymnospermsarecalledthelivingfossils.Thisisbecausemanyofthemrepresenttheoneof
thefew,ifnottheonly,survivingmembersofataxonomicgroup,withnocloselivingrelatives.Well
knownexampleofalivingfossilsareCycasandGinkgoBiloba,atreewhichisliterallyinaclassby
itself.Likemanyotherlivingfossils,Ginkgoisalsoremarkablysimilaranatomicallytoolderrelatives
inthefossilrecord.
CanadabalsamisobtainedfromAbiesbalsamea,aGymnosperm.Thisistheresinoftheplant,very
sticky,colorlessandodorless.Ithashighopticalqualityandwasusedonceuponatimeinmaking
theinvisiblewhendryglueforglass.Similarly,itwasusedasaglueforprisms.Todayitisusedtofix
thescratchesintheglassesandalsoincoughsyrups.
Ephedrine, which is used in Medicines as stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid,
decongestant, and to treat hypotension associated with anaesthesia, is obtained from Ephedra
distachya,whichisalsoaGymnosperm.Ithasbeenusedinthetreatmentofasthmaandbronchitis
forcenturies.PleasenotethatEphedraisanaturallygrowingGymnosperminRajasthan.
Sago is a major staple food for the lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Moluccas. It is
traditionallycookedandeateninvariousforms,suchasrolledintoballs,mixedwithboilingwaterto
form a paste, or as a pancake. Sago is often produced commercially in the form of "pearls". Sago
pearlscanbeboiledwithwaterormilkandsugartomakeasweetsagopudding.Itisobtainedfrom
Cycasrevolutaand Metroxylon. Please note that Sabudana, which is used as a staple food in India,
particularly in Hindu rituals and Vratas is NOT obtained by Cycas BUT is obtained from tapioca
rootswhichisanAngiospermoffamilyEuphorbiacae.
ChilgozaisobtainedfromPinusgerardiana,knownastheChilgozaPine.Chilgozaisoneofthemost
important cash crops of tribal people residing in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, which
seemstobetheonlyplaceinIndiawhereChilgozapinesarefound.
Cedar wood is obtained from many species of the Gymnosperms. Similarly Chir wood is obtained
from Chir Pine or Pinuslongifolia. The Pinus species of Gymnosperms contain the winged pollen
grains.PinusaristataisoldestlivingGymnosperm.
Angiosperms
Angiosperms,floweringplants,orMagnoliophyta,arethemostadvanced,mostdiverseandmostdominant
groupoflandplants.Theyareseedproducingplantslikethegymnospermsandcanbedistinguishedfrom
the gymnosperms by a series of derived characteristics such as flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and
theproductionoffruitsthatcontaintheseeds.TheyhavedevelopedfromGymnospermsovertheperiodand
replacedthemasmostdominantgroupofplantssome100millionyearsago.
BenefitofFlowers: Due to Flowers, Angiosperms were able to adapt a wider range of ecological
niches,makingthemlargelydominateterrestrialecosystems.
Reduced Male and Female Parts: Instead of cones in Gymnosperms, the Angiosperms have
stamens, reduced male parts and an enclosed ovule. The Stamens are much lighter than the
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corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms

through time with adaptations to specialized pollination methods. In some advanced species, the
Stamensweremodifiedtopreventselffertilization,enablingfurtherdiversification.
DominantSporophyte: The main plant of Angiosperms is a Diploid Sporophyte which is divided
intoroots,stemsandleaves.Themalegametophyteinangiospermsissignificantlyreducedinsize
compared to those of gymnosperm seed plants. The smaller pollen decreases the time from
pollination the pollen grain reaching the female plant to fertilization of the ovary; in
gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, whereas, in angiosperms, the
fertilizationbeginsverysoonafterpollination.Theshortertimeleadstoangiospermplants'setting
seedssoonerandfasterthangymnosperms,whichisadistinctevolutionaryadvantage.
Double Fertilization: Double Fertilization is a rule on Angiosperms. This means that the
FertilizationinAngiospermsinvolvesthejoiningofafemalegametophyte(megagametophyte,also
calledtheembryosac)withtwomalegametes(sperm).Itbeginswhenapollengrainadherestothe
stigma of the carpel, the female reproductive structure of a flower. The pollen grain then takes in
moisture and begins to germinate, forming a pollen tube that extends down toward the ovary
through the style. The tip of the pollen tube then enters the ovary and penetrates through the
micropyle opening in the ovule. The pollen tube proceeds to release the two sperm in the
megagametophyte. One sperm fertilizes the egg cell and the other sperm combines with the two
polar nuclei of the large central cell of the megagametophyte. The haploid sperm and haploid egg
combinetoformadiploidzygote,whiletheotherspermandthetwohaploidpolarnucleiofthelarge
central cell of the megagametophyte form a triploid nucleus (some plants may form polyploid
nuclei). The large cell of the gametophyte will then develop into the endosperm, a nutrientrich
tissue which provides nourishment to the developing embryo. The ovary, surrounding the ovules,
developsintothefruit,whichprotectionstheseedsandmayfunctiontodispersethem.Pleasenote
thatinDoubleFertilization,fivenucleiareinvolved.
Generally, the endosperm formation begins after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote.
Endospermisahighlynutritivetissuethatcanprovidefoodforthedevelopingembryo,thecotyledons,and
sometimestheseedlingwhenitfirstappears.
Please note that Endosperm which is formed after fertilization is Triploid (3n). This is a major
differencewithGymnospermsbecauseinGymnosperms,theEndospermisalwaysHaplod(n).
Pollination can be selfpollination or crosspollination. Insects (Entomophily) can facilitate the
pollination,similarlycanWind(anemophily),Water(Hydrophily),Animals(Zoophily).
Pollination taking place in a single flower is called self pollination, while pollination taking place
betweentwoflowersiscalledcrosspollination.Ifthecrosspollinationisbetweenflowersofasame
plant, it will be called Geitonogamy, while if it takes place between two separate plants, it will be
calledasXenogamy.
Insomeplants,theflowersarebisexualandclosedcalledCleistogamous.Hereonlyselfpollination
takesplace.
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Classification:MonocotsandDicots
Angiospermsareclassifiedintotwocategories
1. Monocotyledonae(monocot):Intheseedofmonocotyledonaeicplant,onecotyledonisfound.Therootsof
these plants are not developed. The plant flower has three parts or its multiples. In the vascular pool,
cambium doesnt exist. So, they dont so secondary growth. Today, at least more than 50,000 monocot
speciesareknown.Monocotleavesaremuchlongerthantheyarebroadandtheirveinsusualrunin
thesamedirection.Someexamplesaregrasses,bamboo,sugarcane,cereals,bananas,palms,lilies,orchids
etc.
2. Dicotyledonae(dicot):Intheseedofdicotyledonaeicplanttwocotyledonsarefound.Inthevascularpool
cambiumexists.Thefloweroftheplanthasmultiplesoffourorfivepetals.Theyshowsecondarygrowth.
While the monocots have only one seed leaf in the embryo, the dicots have two seed leaves. Dicots have
veins forming a network in their leaves. Dicots have almost all the hardwood tree species, pulses and the
mostfruits,vegetables,speciesbeveragecropsandornamentalfloweringplants.
Roots
RootsofAngiospermsalwaysmoveoppositetothesunlighttowardstheland.Therearenorootnodesand
internodesasthatinstemsoftheseplants.Thesoftpartsofrootsandroothairsabsorbwaterandmineral
salts from the soil. The root transports water and mineral salts to the stem and ultimately to the leaves.
Somerootslikeofcarrot,radishetc.storefoodsandincontingencyplantsusethesefoods.Therootsareof
followingtypes:
1. Tap root: The radical of such root develops itself and forms a main root and such roots exist in
dicotyledonousplants.
2. Conical shape: This type of root is thickened towards base but thin near the side of the plant.
Examplecarrot.
3. Napiform: This type of root is extremely thickened and becomes inflated spherical at the base
(bottom)butitbecomesextremelythinatthetopoftheplant.Examplesturnip,beetrootetc.
4. Fusiform : This type of root is inflated in the middle portion, while towards bottom and top it
becomesthinned.ExampleisRadish.
5. Pneumatophores:Thistypeofrootisfoundinsaltysoiloftheseaandfortherespiratoryactivities
itundergoestowardsnegativegeotropic.ExamplesareRhizophora,etc.
AdventitiousRoots
Adventitious roots develop necessity if circumstances. All I wanted to say is that these develop to avoid
stressorfightwiththeproblemofnutritiondeficiencyortogetsufficientoxygen,oravoidtoomuchoxygen.
Onemoreimportantworkoftheserootsistohelpinvegetativepropagationinmanyplants.Thisabilityof
plantstemstoformadventitiousrootsisutilizedincommercialpropagationbycuttings.Understandingof
the physiological mechanisms behind adventitious rooting has allowed some progress to be made in
improvingtherootingofcuttingsbytheapplicationofsyntheticauxinsasrootingpowdersandbytheuseof
selectivebasalwounding.
ThefirstthingabouttheAdventiuousrootsyoumustnoteisthattheydevelopneartheexistingvascular
tissue,sothattheycanconnecttothexylemandphloem.Thereareseveralkindsofmodificationssuchas:
1. Tuberousrootsarewithoutanydefiniteshape;example:SweetPotato.
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2. Fasciculatedroot(tuberousroot)occurinclustersatthebaseofthestem;example:asparagus,dahlia.
3. Noduloserootsbecomeswollennearthetips;example:turmeric.
4. Stiltrootsarisefromthefirstfewnodesofthestem.Thesepenetrateobliquelydownintothesoiland
givesupporttotheplant;example:maize,sugarcane.
5. Prop roots give mechanical support to the aerial branches. The lateral branches grow vertically
downwardintothesoilandactsaspillars;example:banyan.
6. Climbingrootsthese roots arising from nodes attach themselves to some support and climb over it;
example:moneyplant.
Modificationsofadventitiousroots

Roots Examples
Fibrousroot Onion
Leafyroot Briophylem
Climbingroot Betelleaf,pothos
Buttressroot Terminolia
Suckingroot Cuscuta
Respiratoryroot Juicia
Epiphyticroot Orcede
Aerialroot Orcede
Assimilatoryroot Tinspora
Parasiticroot Kascutta
Moniliformroot Grapes,bitterguard
Noduloseroot Mangoturmeric
Proproot Banyantree
Stiltroot Maize,sugarcane
Fasciculatedroot Dahlia
Typesofstems
Onthebasisofthepositionofthesoil,stemsareofthreetypes:
Underground stem: The branch or part of the stem which intruses inside the soil is called
undergroundstem.Thesestemsstorethefoodinthestem,node,internode,budandscaleleafare
found.Examplesbanana,potato,colocasiaetc.
Subaerialstem:Ifafewpartofstemisinsidethesoilandrestisinairthensuchstemiscalled
subaerialastem.ExamplesGrassroot,waterplant,etc.
Aerialstem:Thestemwhichiscompletelyconfinedandlocalizedinairandentirelyoutsidefrom
the soil then it is called aerial stem. In this type of stem branches, leaves, node, internodes, buds
flowerfruitetcarefound.ExamplesGrapes,lemons,rosesetc.
Modificationsofstems
To perform some specific works, stems sometimes do exclusive works other than common work then
shapesandsizesofthestemsarechangedanditiscalledmodificationsofstems.Usuallythereexiststhree
typesofmodificationsinthestems
Undergroundmodifications:
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Inthediverseconditions,undergroundstemsstoretheirfoodinsidethestemsandbecomethickenedand
tuberous.Therearevarioustypesofmodificationsoccurinundergroundstem
StemtuberPotato
BulbOnion,garlic,tulips,liliesetc.
CormGladiolus,crocus,saffronetc.
RhizomeGinger,turmeric,arrowrootetc.
Subaerialmodifications:
Therearevarioustypesofmodificationsexistsinsuchtypesofstem
RunnerGrassroot,mereiliaetc.
StolonMint,jasmine,straberietc.
OffsetWaterplant,pestiaetc.
SuckerRoses,gillyfloweretc.
Aerialmodifications:
Therealsooccurvarioustypesofaerialmodifications
StemtendrilGrape.
StemthornLemon,roses,jujube,plumorChinesedate.
PhyllocladeCactus.
BublisRuscus.
Leaf
Leaves prepare food for the plants. Respiratory activities are performed by the leaves through stomata.
Leaves perform the vascular and execratory activities of foodstuffs. Leave help in performing conducive
reproductionandpollination.Someleavesworktostorefoodstuffs.
Modificationofleaves:
Leavesundergothroughvariousmodificationslikethefollowing
Leafspines:Inthisclassofmodificationleavestransformintospines.ExamplesCactus,lemonetc.
Floralleaves:Inthisclassofmodificationfloralactivitieslikecalyx,corollaetcareperformedby
theleaves.
Bract : In this class of modification leaves become colored and fascinate the insects towards
themselves.
Scalyleaves:Sometimes leaves modified themselves to protect buds and other soft organs of the
plant, called scaly leaves. Sometimes scaly leaves also store the foodstuffs. ExampleGarlic, onion,
etc.
Leafroot:Inthisclassofmodification,leavestransformintoroots.ExampleBriophylemetc.
Leaftendril:Inthisclassofmodificationleavestaketheformoftendrils.ExamplePeaplant.
Storage leaves : In this class of modification leaves store foodstuffs and become thickened and
tuberous.
Picher:Inthisclassleavesaccommodatetotraptheinsectsandmodifiedthemselvesintheformof
bags.ExamplePitcherplant.
Bladder:Inthisclassofmodification,leavestransformthemselvesintheformofbladdertotrap
theaquaticinsectslikeutriculeriaetc.
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Leafhooks:Inthisclassofmodificationleavesturnlikenails.Examplebignoniaetc.
Phyllode:Australianacaciaetc.
Flower
A Flower is a composite system of modified leaves and knots, which directly participates in the
reproductiveactivityandproducesfruitsandseeds.Usuallyafloweriscomposedfromfourmodifiedleaves
whichareattachedtothethickenedreceptaclethalamus.Thisreceptaclethalamushasfourtypesofcycle
calyx,corolla,androeciumandgynoecium.
Theflowerwhichhaveallfourcyclesiscalledcompleteflower,whileifanycyclebeabsentthenitiscalled
incompleteflower.Theorganellescalyxandcorollaandcalledauxiliaryorganelles,whileandroeciumand
gynoeciumandcallednecessaryorganelles.
Calyx:Thisisanextremelycycleofthefloweranditisgreencoloredcycleofsepals.Themainwork
ofcalyxistoprotectthesoftpartsofbudsandperformsphotosynthesis.Insomeflowers,itbecomes
coloredanditsmainfunctiontofascinateinsectsforthepollination.
Corolla:Thisisthesecondcycleoftheflowerwhichisconfinedinsidetheorganellecalyx.Corolla
ismainlycomposedfrom26petalsanditisalsocoloredwhosemainfunctiontofascinateinsects
forthepollination.
Androecium:Thisisthethirdcycleofsepalswhichisthemadefromstamens.Thestamenisthe
malesexorganoftheflower.Eachandeverystamenhasitsthreeparts
1. Filament
2. Anther
3. Connective
Gynoecium:Thisisthecentralpart(fourthcycle)ofthefloweranditisthefemalesexorganofthe
flower.Eachandeverygynoeciumismadefromoneormorecarpelsanditproducesfemalesovule.
Thecarpelismadefromthreecomponentsovary,styleandstigma.
Ovary:Abovethepedicel,thereexistsathickenedtuberousstructurecalledovaryandinsideof
thereexistssomeverysmallknotslikestructureandthesearecalledovules.Intheseovulesfemale
embryosacexistsandinthevariousplantsandnumberofovulesarefixed.
Style:Thisisbasicallytheupperlengthenedandthinnedpartabovetheovary.
Stigma:Thisistheuppermoststickypartofthestyle.
Please note that the vital component of androecium is basically stamen and in which pollen grains are
foundinpollensac.
SomeImportantPoints
Theedibleportionofthecoconutisendosperm.
Insomedicots,cotyledonsabsorbentirestorefoodstuffsfromendospermandduetoitendosperm
iscompletelydestroyedandtheseseedsarecallednonendospermic.ExamplePea,gram,beans
etc.
Insomeplantswithoutfertilization,fruitsareproducedthroughovaryandtheprocessofthisnon
fertilization is called parthenocarpy and such fruits are seedless. Examplesbanana, papaya,
orange,grapes,etc.
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Fruit
Thefruitisusuallyformedintheovaryoftheplantandpericarpisformedfromthematureovarywalls.But
intheformationofsomefruitslikeapple,jackfruitetc,calyx,corolla,thalamusetcparticipateandsuchfruits
arecalledfalsefruits.
Usuallypericarphasthreelayersoutermostlayeriscalledepicarp.MiddleLayeriscalledmesocarp,while
innermostlayeriscalledendocarp.PleasenotethatCoconutcoirisMesocarp.
Typesoffruit:
Onthebasisoffertilizationoftheflowertherearetwotypesoffruits
True fruit The fruit forms in the ovary of the flower by the process of fertilization and zygote
formationiscalledtruefruit.
Falsefruit:Whenfruitformationoccursotherthanovaryandflowersorganelleslikecalyx,corolla,
thalamusetctakeplacethenitiscalledfalsefruit.ExamplesApple,jackfruit,pearetc.
Butinangiospermstoomuchdiversitiesarefoundintheirfruits,thusonmacroleveltherearethreeclasses
inthem.
Simplefruitbean,mustard,mango,lemonetc.
Aggregatefruitstrawberry,lotus,raspberry,custardappleetc.
Compositefruitjackfruit,mulberry,banyan,figetc.

SomecommonFruitsandtheiredibleparts.Thislistisimportant.
Fruits Edibleparts
Mango Mid.Pericarp
Apple Thalamus
Pear Thalamus
Tomato Pericarpandperisperm
Litchi Pulpyaerial
Coconut Endosperm
Guava Pericarp
Groundnut Seedleavesandembryo
Woodapple Mesocarpandendocarp
Grape Pericarp
Jackfruit Sepals,bract,seeds
Wheat Endospermandembrya
Coriander Thalamusandseeds
Custurdapple Pericarp
Waterchestnut Seedleaves
Lemon Juicypore
Chinesedate Epicarpandmesocarp
Mulberry Bract,sepalsandseeds

Stomata:
Thereexistvarioustinyopenings(calledpores)onthesurfaceoftheskinofstemsandleavescalledstomata
whicharesurroundedbytwokidneyshapedguardcells.Inaleafthenumberofstomatavaryfrom14to
1040mm.Thesestomataexchangethemoistureandhelpintranspirationactivitiesintheplants.
Annualrings
Thebranchofbotanyunderwhichannularingsoftheplantarestudiediscalleddendrochronolgy.Bythe
elevation of number of annual rings in the plants or trees, the ages of the plants or trees are estimated
exactly.
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Pleasenotethatdendrochronolgyisapplicableonlytoaperiodofafewthousandyearsandonlyin
thefewareaswhereoldwoodsampleshavebeenpreserved,radiocarbondatingcandateeventsup
tosixtythousandyearsold.
Howdoesitwork?
Duetothechronological,climaticchangesthecoreactivitiesofthecambiumofanyplantthatofanyplaceis
regularly changed. In spring season this activityisincreased, while in the winter season it is decreased,
consequentlydistinctannualringsformwhichistheindicativeparameteroftheyeargrowth.
Secondarygrowth
Wheneverplantissmallalmosttissuesarecomposedfrommeristematictissue,calledprimarytissue.But
speciallyindicotyledonaeicplants,astheagespass,somenewcellsaccesstotheseplantsandthesenew
cellsappearaspermanentparenchymatissuesofmeristematicnature,calledsecondarytissue.Dueto
thesesecondarytissuetheorgans(roots,stems)oftheplantsbecomethickened,calledsecondarygrowth.
Secondary growth takes place in dicot plants only because of presence of cambium and cork
cambiuminthesecondarytissues.Thusinmonocotplantssecondarygrowthdonottakeplace
becauseoflackofcambium.
Pleasenotethataslongasthevascularcambiumcontinuestoproducenewcells,thestemorroot
will continue to grow in diameter. In woody plants, this process produces wood. But it is NOT
alwaysnecessarythatonlywoodyplantsshowthesecondarygrowth.SomeplantssuchasTomato,
whichisnonwoodyalsoshowsecondarygrowth.
Photosynthesis
The `food' for plantsissunlight, waterandair(carbondioxideandoxygen). Plants have the amazing
abilitytoharvestenergyfromthesunusingchlorophyllandconvertitintochemicalenergy.
They then utilize it to produce carbohydrates such as sugars and starch (`photosynthesis'). These
carbohydrates serve as chief energy source for almost all living beings in the world, including plants
themselves. Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other micronutrients are taken up by
plantsinverysimpleformsanduseddirectly.
Plantcellsoxidizethesugarstoreleasecarbondioxideandenergyandutilizetheenergytodrivereactionsfor
normalfunctionsofthecell.
In addition, cells use carbohydrates and derived products as building blocks for proteins and lipids (fat).
Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are the chief components of several subcellular organelles (parts of a
cell).
Photosynthesis is the process through which the food is prepared by the plant from chlorophyll, carbon
dioxide(CO2)andwater(H2O)inthepresenceofsunlight.Thus,thelivingcellsoftheplantbythehelpof
chlorophyllandsunlightabsorbCO2fromatmosphereandtheninthepresenceofwater(H2O)carbohydrate
isformed.Thechemicalinvolveinthephotosynthesisis
6CO2+12H2OC6H12O6+6H2O+6O2
Theabovereactionhappensinpresenceofsunlightandcanbewrittengenerallyasfollows:
Carbondioxide+electrondonor+lightenergycarbohydrate+oxidizedelectrondonor
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Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, lightdependent reactions or light reactions
capturetheenergyoflightanduseittomaketheenergystoragemoleculesATPandNADPH.During
the second stage, the lightindependent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon
dioxide.
Mostorganismsthatutilizephotosynthesistoproduceoxygenusevisiblelighttodoso,althoughthere
areplantswhichuseinfraredradiationtoo.
HerearesomemoredetailsaboutthetwostagesofthePhotosynthesis:
Photochemical reaction: This process (reaction) occurs in the grana of the chlorophyll and the
reactioninvolvesiscalledhillreaction.Inthisprocesswater(H2O)disassociatesandformsH+and
electronandforthisdecomposition ofwater(H2O)energyisobtained fromlight.Ultimately,APT
andNADPHareemancipatedintheformofenergy.
Chemicaldarkreaction:Thisprocess(reaction)occursinthestromaofthechlorophyllandfor
this reaction energyissuppliedbythephotochemicalreaction and thats why it is called dark
reaction. In this reaction, the produced energy in the forms APT and NADPH are utilized in the
synthesisofcarbohydratesfromCO2.
Factorsinfluencingphotosynthesis
Light:The process of photosynthesisonlyoccursforviolet,blueandredlight, while it doesnt
occurforultraviolet,green,yellowandinfraredlight.Forthelowintensitylightphotosynthetic
activityismaximum,butastheintensityofthelightincreasesphotosyntheticactivitydecreases.
Temperature : As the process of photosynthesis is the complex chemical reaction of the various
enzymes and these enzymes only being normal to participate in the chemical reaction up to a
moderate and optimum temperature. Thus photosynthetic activity increase from 0C to 37C but
37Conwardssuchactivitydecreasesabruptly.
Carbondioxide(CO2):UptoadefinitelevelonincreasingtheconcentrationofCO2,photosynthetic
activity increases, but after the certain limit, the increase of its concentration does not affect the
photosyntheticactivity.
Water (H2O): Due to the lack of water, the photosynthetic activity abruptly decreases because of
steepfalloftherateofevaporation.Infacttheporesoftheplantleavesbecomepartiallyclosedand
ultimatelythetranslocationofCO2isdisruptedthroughtheleaves.
Themetalmagnesiumisfoundinthechlorophyllofplantleaveandinthenucleusofthechlorophyll
onatomofthemagnesiumexists.Thechemicalsubstancechloroplastiscalledthenucleusofthe
photosynthesis.

Planthormones
Theplanthormonesarepreparedbytheapicalmeristem,youngermatureleavesandtransportedthrough
thevasculartissuephloemtotheotherorgansoftheplants.Theplanthormonesarethenaturalorganic
substances whosepresenceof very smallamountonlyinfluencestheinneractivities oftheplantssharply
andsubstantially.
Therearevarioustypesofplanthormones.
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Auxins:
Mostfundamentalplanthormone,whoseimpactswerefirst seenbyDarwinin1880,butwas first
described by the Dutch scientist FritsWent. Kenneth V. Thimann isolated this phytohormone and
determined its chemical structure as indole3acetic acid. Went and Thiman then coauthored a
bookonplanthormones,Phytohormones,in1937.
Its a weak organic acid which actively participates in the cell division and the cell elongates
consequently thus plants growth occurs. Auxin participates in phototropism, geotropism,
hydrotropism and other developmental changes. The uneven distribution of auxins, due to
environmental cues such as unidirectional light or gravity force, results in uneven plant tissue
growth. And generally Auxin governs the form and shape of plant body, direction and strength of
growthofallorgansandtheirmutualinteraction
Helps in stems growth and thus called growth inhibitor, which acts like controller or regulator of
rootsandcolumngrowth.
PleasenotethatAuxinalsoworksincontrollingtheleavesandfruitsabscission.Sometimesduetolarger
concentrationofthishormoneinthestems,fruitsfallbeforeripening.
HeliotropisminSunflower
Please note that heliotropic flowers track the sun's motion across the sky from East to West. In Sunflower, the young buds and
leaves show these phenomena but the mature flowers permanently face East. The Auxin hormone plays a role in Heliotropism.
AuxinworksonthesideofthestemoppositetheSun.ThedirectionoftheheadlagsbehindtheSun'spositionbyabout12degrees,
oratimeof48minutes.Themotionisperformedbymotorcellsinaflexiblesegmentjustbelowtheflower,calledapulvinus.The
motor cells are specialized in pumping potassium ions into nearby tissues, changing their turgor pressure. The segment flexes
becausethemotorcellsattheshadowsideelongateduetoaturgorrise.Further,alsonotethatHeliotropismisaresponsetoblue
light.Ifweuseatransparentglass,whichblocksbluelight,thesunflowerwillstopresponsetosun'sdirection.
Duringthenight,theflowersmayassumea randomorientation,whileatdawntheyturnagaintowardstheEastwhere thesun
rises.TheBotanicalnameofSunflowerisHelianthusannus,whereHelianthusisfromtheGreekhelios"sun"andanthos"flower."
ApplicationsofAuxin
AgentOrange
Usedinhighdoses,Auxinstimulatestheproductionofethylene.Excessethylene(alsonativeplant
hormone)caninhibitelongationgrowth,causeleavestofall(leafabscission),andevenkilltheplant.
This is why, Auxin is used as a herbicide. Some synthetic auxins such as 2,4D and 2,4,5
trichlorophenoxyaceticacid(2,4,5T)weresoldasherbicides.PleasenotethattheDicotplantsare
more susceptible to Auxin than the Monocot plants. 2, 4D was used as Agent Orange, a defoliant
used extensively by American forces in the Vietnam War. The 2,4dichlorophenoxyacetic acid was
actuallyfirstwidelyusedherbicideintheworldanditactuallyisstillthemostwidelyusedherbicide
intheworldsince.
Artificialparthenocarpy
Thehelpofauxinshormonescanproduceseedlessfruits.IfsomeAuxinappliedontheflowerofthe
plants then without fertilization and without seeds formation ovary wall becomes tuberous and
forms the fruit. This is called the artificial parthenocarpy. This technique is used today in the
productionofseedlessfruitsliketomato,apple,grapesetc.
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Bythemoreconcentrationofthishormoneintherootsthenaturalgrowthisabruptlydecreasebut
thebranchesofrootsareenhanced.
Gibberellins
Gibberellicacid(orGibberellinA3,GA,and(GA3)wasfirstrecognizedin1926byaJapanesescientist,Eiichi
Kurosawa,studyingbakanae,thefoolishseedlingdiseaseinrice.
It was first isolated in 1935 by Teijiro Yabuta, from fungal strains (Gibberella fujikuroi) provided by
Kurosawa. Yabuta called the isolate gibberellin. Its chemical formula is C19H22O6. When purified, it is a
whitetopaleyellowsolid.
Functions&Applications
Gibberellinsareinvolvedinthenaturalprocessofbreakingdormancyandvariousotheraspectsof
germination.
Before the photosynthetic apparatus develops sufficiently in the early stages of germination, the
stored energy reserves of starch nourish the seedling. Usually in germination, the breakdown of
starchtoglucoseintheendospermbeginsshortlyaftertheseedisexposedtowater.
Gibberellin affects decomposition of plants and helps plants grow if used in small amounts, but
eventuallyplantsdeveloptoleranceforit.
GibberellicacidstimulatesthecellsofgerminatingseedstoproducemRNAmoleculesthatcode
forhydrolyticenzymes.
SinceGAregulatesgrowth,applicationsofverylowconcentrationscanhaveaprofoundeffectwhile
toomuchwillhavetheoppositeeffect.
Bytheuseofthisplanthormonethetimetakeninblossomingtheflowersandthefruitformationtime
canbereduced.
Thisplanthormonebreaksthestagnationandcomesintoplayintheseedsandprovokestosprout
them.
Gibberellinshavebeenprovedtomotivatetheactivitiesofcambiuminwoodplants.
Through the comprehensive spread of this hormone the production of fruits and flowers can be
achieveduptoanoptimumlevel.
Viathespecificuseofthishormoneseedlessfruitscanbeproduced.
Cytokinin
CytokininsorCKsareagroupofchemicalsthatinfluencecelldivisionandshootformation.Theywerecalled
kininsinthepastwhenthefirstcytokininswereisolatedfromyeastcells.Becausecytokininpromotesplant
cell division and growth, it is commercially utilized by produce farmers to increase the yield of a crop. A
studyshoweda510%increaseincottonyieldunderdroughtconditionswhencytokininwasappliedtothe
seedlings
Ethylene
Intheformofhormone,ethylenewasinventedin1962byBurg.
Ethylene is the only natural gaseous hormone, which is a growth controller or regulator, and this
hormoneissynthesizedinalmostorgansoftheplants.
EthyleneformsthroughtheYangCyclefromthebreakdownofmethionine,whichisinallcells
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Ethylenehasverylimitedsolubilityinwateranddoesnotaccumulatewithinthecellbutdiffusesout
ofthecellandescapesoutoftheplant.
Itseffectivenessasaplanthormoneisdependentonitsrateofproductionversusitsrateofescaping
intotheatmosphere.
Ethyleneaffectsfruitripening:Normally,whentheseedsaremature,ethyleneproductionincreases
andbuildsupwithinthefruit,resultinginaclimactericeventjustbeforeseeddispersal.
Functions&Applications
Ethyleneisusedasthefruitripeninghormone.
Bytheuseofthishormonethenumberofthefemaleflowerscanbeincreased.
Thishormonepromotesthegrowthactivitiesinstems,embryonicdevelopmentinthemaleflowers
etc.
Thishormonealsoprovokestheabscissionactivitiesofleaves,flowersandfruits.

Howdoescalciumcarbideripenmangoes?
For reasons of safe transportation of fruits, mangoes, bananas etc are picked before they ripen fully. Slightly green
harvestedmangoesaresubjectedtosmallcontainersofCalciumCarbide(CaC2)withaplasticcovering.CaC2reacts
with the moisture in the air to release acetylene (or ethyne) gas, whichis a ripening hormone. Industrialgrade
calcium carbide contains arsenic and phosphorus, and its use for ripening is illegal in many countries. One can
distinguishtheartificiallyripenenedfruitbytheuniformskincolourinfruitsliketomato,mango,papaws,etcandin
thecaseofbanana,yellowcolourfruitwithdarkgreenstem.

Weareadvisednottokeepbananainsidetherefrigerator.Why?
Weshouldknowthatwhilemanyfruitsarestabilizedbyrefrigeration,mosttropicalandsubtropicalfruits(bananasinparticular)
exhibitchillinginjury.Chillinginjurycanresultingreatlossesinthequalityandshelflifeofthefruit.Fruitsandvegetablessubject
tochillinginjuryincludesbanana,lemon,lime,eggplant,tomato,avocado,cucumber,pineapple,jackfruitandpapaya.
Bananaisoneofthemostsensitivefruitsbecauseitdevelopsinjurybelowabout12C.Apparently,coldhardyfruits,suchasapple
andpear,arenotaffectedastheyevolvedtolerancetochillingtemperatures.Theblackeningofthebananaskiniscausedbythe
frelease of enzyme, polyphenoloxidase (PPO) as well as Ethylene. PPO is an oxygendependent enzyme, which polymerises
naturallyoccurringphenolsinthebananaskinintopolyphenolssimilarinstructuretomelaninformedinsuntannedhumanskin.
Ethylene is produced as a gaseous hormonein banana. Ethylene diffuses into the fruit and hastens the process of ripening. It is
yellow when the fruit is ripe and turns black with the production of more and more ethylene. The large number of enzymes of
Krebs cycle converts citric acid, mallic acid and oxalic acid into glucose in a banana, to make it sweet during the process of
ripening. When the banana is kept in the refrigerator, the enzymatic reactions are stopped by the cold but the production of
ethylenehormonecontinues.
AbscisicAcid
Abscisicacidowesitsnamestoitsroleintheabscissionofplantleaves.Inpreparationforwinter,ABAis
producedinterminalbudsandslowsplantgrowthanddirectsleafprimordiatodevelopscalestoprotect
the dormant buds during the cold season. ABA also inhibits the division of cells (mitosis) in the vascular
cambium,adjustingtocoldconditionsinthewinterbysuspendingprimaryandsecondarygrowth.
Thishormonewasfirstdiscoveredin1965.Thishormonecanbeusedinpreventingthesproutingactivities
inseedsandbuds.Otherfunctionsareasfollows:
AntitranspirantInducesstomataclosure,decreasingtranspirationtopreventwaterloss.
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Inhibitsfruitripening
Responsibleforseeddormancybyinhibitingcellgrowthinhibitsseedgermination
InhibitsthesynthesisofKinetinnucleotide.
Downregulatesenzymesneededforphotosynthesis.
ThehormoneAbscisicacid(ABA)isaterpenoidwhosesynthesisoccursinleaves,stems,flowersand
seeds.
When the fruits mature in the plants then to prevent these to downfall the hormone Abscisic acid
(ABA)isspreadout.
PlantNutrition
The plants can be autotrophs or heterotrophs. Autotrophs are self nourishing plants which manufacture
their own food (organic substances) from inorganic substances. The photoautotroph plants use mineral
nutrients,waterandcarbondioxideandcomposecomplexorganiccompoundsinpresenceofsunlight.
Plantsrequireessentialnutrientsfornormalfunctioningandgrowth.Aplantssufficiencyrangeisdefined
astherangeofnutrientnecessarytomeettheplantsnutritionalneedsandmaximizegrowth.Thewidthof
thisrangewilldependuponindividualplantspeciesandtheparticularnutrient.
Nutrient levels outside of a plants sufficiency range will cause overall crop growth and health to
declineduetoeitheradeficiencyortoxicity.
Nutrientdeficiencyoccurswhenanessentialnutrientisnotavailableinsufficientquantitytomeet
therequirementsofagrowingplant.
Toxicityoccurswhenanutrientisinexcessofplantneedsanddecreasesplantgrowthorquality.
However, please note that Nutrient toxicity is less common than deficiency. There are 17 essential plant
nutrients.Carbonandoxygenareabsorbedfromtheair,whileothernutrientsincludingwaterareobtained
from the soil. Plants must obtain the following mineral nutrients from the growing media. The major and
minorplantnutrientsarementionedbelow:
MajorPlantnutrients(RememberbyCHOPKNSCafMg) MinorPlantNutrients
MacroTraceElements Microelements
Carbon Iron
Hydrogen Molybdenum
Oxygen Boron
Phosphorus Copper
Potassium Manganese
Nitrogen Zinc
Sulfur Chloride
Calcium
Magnesium
Apart from the above, some elements such as Cobalt, Sodium, Selenium, Silicon, Gallium, Vanadium have
been proved to be essential for some particular plant species. Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by
cationexchange,whereinroothairspumphydrogenions(H+)intothesoilthroughprotonpumps.These
hydrogenionsdisplacecationsattachedtonegativelychargedsoilparticlessothatthecationsareavailable
foruptakebytheroot.
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AbsorptionofWater
The main source of soil water is rainfall. Water is held in soil in many ways such as gravitational water,
capillarywater,Hygroscopicwaterandcombinedwater.OutofthemGravitationalwateristhewaterthat
moveddownwardsthroughthesoilduetoforceofgravity.Thiswaterisbeyondthereachoftherootsofthe
plants and trees and NOT available for plants. The Capillarywater is held by the thin capillaries or pore
spacesformedbythesoilparticles.Thisisthemainsourceofwaterforplantsasitiswhatleftafterwater
hasdraineddownduetogravity.Hygroscopicwateristhewaterthatisheldtightlyintheformofthinfilm
aroundthecolloidalparticlesofsoilororganicmatter.Thiswatercannotbeeasilyremovedbyplantsso
this is also almost not available. Then we have the combined water which is in the form of chemical
compositionoftheparticles.ItisalsoNOTavailableforplants.

With the above small discussion, we come to the conclusion that it is the Capillary Water which is mostly
availableforplants.Hereweneedtoknowaboutthreelessusedwords.
TotalAmountofWaterPresentinsoilisHolard
TheamountofHolard,whichcanbeabsorbedbyPlantsisChresard
TheamountofHolard,whichisNotabsorbedbyplantsisEchard
ThismeansthatHolard=Chersard+Echard
Further,theamountofcapillarywateravailableinsoilddependsupontextureandstructureofthesoil.This
means that Sandy soil and clay soil are NOT suitable for growth of plants. The best soil is the Loam soil
whichiscocktailofsand,siltandclay.
Themaximumabsorptionofwatertakesplaceatthetipoftherootsofsmallplantsandtipsofbranchesof
rootsinlargerplants.
The growing root tip contains four regions viz. a root cap, meristematic
region (apical meristem), region of cell elongation, region of cell
differentiationandmaturation.Outofthemtheregionofcelldifferentiation
possessesroothairs.Theseroothairsareslenderunicellularoutgrowthsof
theepidermalcells.Mostofthewaterabsorptiontakesplaceinthisregion.

The large number of root hairs increases the absorption area. Please note
that in some plants leaves also absorb water. Example is Sequoia. Orchids
canabsorbmoisturefromatmospherebytheirmodifiedroots.

Theabsorptioncanbepassiveoractive.Inthepassiveabsorption,thereisnoroleofrootcells.Therapid
evaporation of water from the leaves during the transpiration creates a tension in water of the xylem of
roots,throughthexylemofstemandwaterisliftedupwardly.Waterisabsorbedbytheroothairsdueto
diffusionpressuregradientproducedbytranspiration.
Intheactiveabsorption,thereisNOroleoftranspirationandthejobisperformedbythecellsofrootsby
developmentofforces.ItmaybeosmoticorNonosmotic.Hereweshouldnotethattheosmoticpressureof
therootsishigherthantheosmoticpressureofthesoilwater,duetowhich,thewaterentersintothecell
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plasma via cell membrane. This will increase the osmotic pressure of these cells in comparison to the
corticalcells,thuswaterisdrawnintothesecells.Byosmoticdiffusionwaterentersintothecells.

However,pleasenotethatitisalwaysNOTnecessarythatthereshouldbelowosmoticpressureofsoil
togetthewaterabsorbed.Therootcellsareabletoabsorbthewaterevenifthereishighosmoticpressure
inthesoilwater,butforthis,themetabolicenergyofrespirationisused.
PlantAdaptations
ThestudyofrelationshipsbetweentheindividualplantsandtheirenvironmentiscalledAutecology.While
thestudyofrelationsbetweentheplantcommunitiesandenvironmentiscalledSynecology.Accordingly,
thereareseveralgroupsofplants,whichdespiteofbelongingtodifferenttaxonomicgroups,actuallybelong
to broad groups based upon their environment and adaptations. For example, the water plants are called
Hydrophytes. The plants that can live only on those lands which are neither dry nor moist are called
mesophytes.TheplantswhichliveindesertsandverydryconditionareXerophytes.
Thisisjustasimpleclassification.Somemorewordsaretheretodefinespecializedhabitatsandtheyareas
follows:
PlantsthatliveonacidsoilsareOxylophytes
PlantsthatliveonsalinesoilsareHalophytes.
PlantsthatliveonsandarecalledPsammophytes.
PlantsthatgrowonrocksarecalledLithophytes.
PlantsthatgrowincoldsoilsarecalledPsychrophytes.
PlantsthatgrowinwastelandsarecalledChersophytes.
PlantsthatgrowonmarshyareaarecalledHelophytes.
PlantsthatgrowinfullsunlightareHeliophytes
Plantsthatgrowwellindark/lowlightconditionsareSciophytes.
Onthebasisofthetemperatureconditions,thevegetationingeneralcanbeasfollows:
Megatherms:Itreferstothehightemperaturethroughtheyear.ExamplesareTropicalrainforests.
Mesotherms: It refers to the alternation of high and low temperatures. Examples are tropical
deciduousforest.
Microtherms:Itreferstolowtemperature.Exampleisconiferousforests
Hekistotherms:Theserefertoverylowtemperature.Exampleisalpinevegetation.
HerearesomebriefimproatntpointsaboutHydrophytesandXerophytes.
Hydrophytes
Since there is lot of water available to Hydrophytes, they have less developed Roots. This is one
importantfeatures.InsomeplantssuchasWolffiaandSalvinia,therearenorootsatall.
InsomeaquaticplantssuchasJussiaea,floatingrootsdevelopwhichworkinrespiration.
InsomeplnatssuchasTrapa,therootsbecomegreenandPhotosynthetic.
Thestemofaquaticplantsisusuallyweakandspongy.Insomeplantsthestemisfreelyfloatingon
water.Theseplantsprefervegetativepropagationandsometimesbecomeproblematicforourlives.
The cortex of the roots has a large number of air cavities which work in exchange of gases and
providebuoyancy.
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Tar
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Ifthe plantsaressubmerged inwater,th

heleavesareethin.Iftheeplantisflo
oating,theleavesarevery
broad and upper surface is covered
c witth wax. Thiss wax makees them hate water and
d keep it aw
way
fromaaccumulatin
ngonthesurrface.
The su
ubmerged aquatic
a plan
nts usually have no flo
owers. The flowers of floating plaants and oth
her
plantssarenicebu
uttheyseldo
omproduced
dseeds.
Theprrotectivecoveringonbo
oththeroottsandstemisthin,poorrlydevelopeedandsomeetimesabsen
nt.
Xe
erophytes
Th
heseplants havetosurv
viveinscarrcityofwateerandvery hightempeeratures.So,,theyaread
daptedtosu
uch
co
onditions.So
omexerophy
ytesappearthattheyhavediedinaridconditiionsbutasssoonasmoisturebecom
mes
av
vailabletoth
hem,theyfllourishwith
hincreased biomassandproductio
onrate.Allxxerophytes areadapted
dto
thecycleof periodicaldr
p roughts.Ifttheygrowin
n sandand pebbles,theey arecalledpsammop
phytes,ifth
hey
growonrockss,theyareccalledLithop
phytesandiftheygrow
wincolddeserts,theyaarecalledPssychrophyttes.
part from th
Ap hat there arre plants th n very high saline soilss and devellop special organ such
hat grow on h as
sp
pecializedro
ootscalledPneumatophores.TheyaarecalledHa
alophytes.

he plants which
Th w avoid the drough
ht condition
n by storingg water in Fleshy orgaans are called succuleents
exxampleisAlo
oevera.
The most
m importtant thing about
a the roots
r of thee Xerophytees is that th
hey are hugge and viviidly
branch
hed so that they dont leave a fracction of watter availablee till the lasst inch of deepth , they can
c
reach.
otswillbew
Obviouslytheroo welldevelopeedinXeroph
hytes.Theyrootcapsan
ndroothairrsareexcellent
intheiirrespectiveejobs.
Insom
meplantslik
keOpuntiattherootsbecomefleshy
yandgreen andlookassiftheyare stemsorev
ven
leavess.
ThesttemsofmostoftheXero
ophytesisco
overedwith
hhairsorwaax.
Leavesareturned
dintospikessandareverythornylik
keinCactussandOpuntiia.
mecasesleav
Insom vesbecomefleshylikeiinAloeveraa.
Insom
meplantslik
keammophiilia,theleav
vesbecome rolledsoth
hatlesstran
nspirationtaakes
place.
meplantsleaavesaresmaall(microph
Insom hyllous)tosstopthelosssofwater.
In Ausstralian Acaacia, the com
mpound leav
ve soon falll off. The peetiole or any other parrt of the racchis
soonb
becomesleaaflikeandstaartsdoingth
hejobsofalleaf.ThisisknownasP
Phyllode.
Ha
alophytes:
Th
he Xerophyttes which grow in salin
ne soil with
h heavy con
ncentration of salts succh as NaCl, MgCl2 etc. are
called Haloph
hytes. Pleasse note thaat most of the Haloph
hytes are succulents.
s uce negativ
They produ vely
geeotropic roo
ots called Pn
neumatopho
ores which are primarrily meant for Gas excchange. Maany halophy
ytes
sh
howviviparo
ousgerminaationofseed
dswhichmeeansthatseeedsgerminaatewhilestilllonparentplant.
Th
he halophytes may grow in either salt swamp
ps or in litttoral swamp
ps. In Littorral swamps,, they produ
uce
haracteristicvegetation,,whichiscaalledMangro
ch oves.Mangrovesfound intropicalaandsubtropicalregions.
:A
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Target
SelectedQuestionsand2markersinBotany
RedTides
Redtidesaretheresultofamassivemultiplicationoftiny,singlecelledalgaecalledKareniabrevis,usually
foundinwarmsaltwater,butwhichcanexistinlowertemperatures.Itisanaturalphenomenon,apparently
unrelatedtomanmadepollution.Inhighconcentrations,K.brevismaycreateabrownishredsheenonthe
surfaceofthewater;inotherinstances,itmaylookyellowgreen,ormaynotbevisibleatall.
FlameofForest
The Royal Poiniciana or Flamboyant tree, Delonix Regia (family Fabaceae), is the most colourful tree. Its
vivid orange/ red flowers and bright green foliage make it an exceptionally striking sight. It is sometimes
known as the Peacock Tree or Flame of the Forest. The tree is native to Madagascar, found in the West
Malagasyforest.
Ribbonplant
The scientific name of the ribbon plant is Dracenasanderiana and it belongs to family Agavaceae. It is a
tropicalperennialrequiringpartialshadeforgrowth.Ithastoxicpropertiesthatharmpetssuchascatsand
dogs.Itisalsocalledtheluckybamboowhengrowninwaterthoughitdoesnotbelongtopoaceae(grass)
family.Oneofthegeneraofribbonplantsiscalledthetapewormplantduetoflatstemswhileanotheris
thespiderplantduetoelongatedcascadingleaves.
Hydroponics
Hydroponics is cultivation of plants in water. Since many aggregates or media support plant growth, the
definition has been broadened to read the cultivation of plants without soil. Growers use hydroponics
techniques due to lack of water supply or fertile farmland. Home gardeners have used it to grow fresh
vegetablesyearroundandtogrowplantsinsmallerspaces.Greenhousesandnurseriesgrowtheirplantsin
asoilless,peatorbarkbasedgrowingmix.
Frankensteinfoods
Frankensteinfoodsareproducedfromgeneticallymodifiedorganisms(GMO)whichhavehadtheirgenome
alteredthroughgeneticengineeringtechniques.ThegeneralprincipleofproducingaGMOistoinsertDNA
taken from another organism and modified in the laboratory into an organisms genome to produce both
new and useful traits or phenotypes. These foods have been available since the 1990s, with the principal
onesderivedfromplantsbeingsoyabean,maize,canolaandcottonseedoil.
Guttation
Guttationisthelossofwaterintheformofwaterdropletsfromhydathodes(smallpores)ontheleafmargin
of a small herbacious plant. Water has the ability to rise up to 2 feet on its own through the xylem of the
plant. During the evening or early morning, when the rate of absorption by roots exceeds the rate of
transpiration(evaporation)byleaves,alotofwatergetsaccumulatedintheplantbodywhichcandamage
thecells.Plantshavehydathodesattheendoftheveins,throughwhichthisexcesswaterislostintheform
ofdroplets.Ittakesplacemostlyinsmallplantslikebanana,rose,etc.
NotillFarming
Notillfarmingisacultivationtechniqueofplantingcropsinpreviouslyunpreparedsoilorpieceoflandby
openinganarrowslot,trenchorbandonlyofsufficientwidthanddepthtoobtainproperseedcoverage.It
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Target
requiresnootherpreparationasrequiredinconventionalfarming.WidelyacceptedinEnglandandEurope,
thissoilconservationtechniqueisalsoknownasconservationtillageorzerotillage.
Palynology
Palynology is the branch of science dealing with study of decayresistant remains of certain plants and
animals. It can be classified as an interdisciplinary science and is a branch of earth science (geology or
geological science) and biological science, particularly plant science (botany). The term Palynology was
introducedbyHydeandWilliamsin1944,onthebasisoftheGreekwordspalunomeaningtosprinkleand
palemeaningdust.
GravelCulture
Gravel culture is a kind of hydroponic culture (a method where plants are grown without soil for
experimental and hobby purposes). Here, peasized gravel supports and distributes the root system. This
coarsegravelallowsanutrientsolutiontoflowdownaslopeortoseepfromasurfacedripandfilterdown
throughtheroots.Whenthenutrientsflowbackintothecontainer,theycanberecirculated;otherwise,they
arereplenishedweekly.Thiscyclemaximisesbothnutrientdeliveryandaerationtotheroots.
Allethrins
Allethrinsarecompoundsusedinhouseholdinsecticideslikemosquitocoilsbecausetheyhavelowtoxicity
forhumans.Theyaresourcedfromchrysanthemumflowers,foundinAsiaandeasternEurope.Theseplants
arecultivatedforornamental,culinaryorinsecticidepreparationpurposes.Theflowersarepulverizedand
theallethrincompoundsfoundintheseedcellsareextractedandsoldtoinsecticidemakers.
Sciophytes
Sciophytesareshadelovingtreesorplants.Theseplantshavelargerphotosyntheticunitsthansunplantsor
heliophytes.Sciophytesarealsoknownasphotophobousplantsandtheyreachtheirsaturationlevelinonly
20% sunlight. Shadeplants essentially follow strategies of optimum use of available energy and
conservationofenergy.Adaptationtoachievethesestrategicgoalsincludethinnerleaveswitharelatively
higherchlorophyllcontentperunitleafvolume;lensshapedepidermalcellsthatfocusincominglightinto
and within the mesophyll; a redcell layer that reflects outgoing light back into the mesophyll, and greater
allocationofavailableenergytodefencemechanismsagainstherbivory.
Xeriscaping
ThewordisderivedfromtheGreekwordxeros,meaningdry.Itreferstolandscapingwhichdoesntrequire
additional water. It uses plants which are suited to the local climate, and practitioners ensure that water
doesnt evaporate or run off. Xeriscaping is also called zeroscaping, droughttolerant landscaping,
smartscapingandwaterconservinglandscapes.
Creepersandclimbers
Bothcreepersandclimbersareweakstemmedplantsand,hence,cannotgrowerectwithoutsupport.The
differenceisthatcreepersspreadhorizontallyalongthesoil.Atthenodalregionswhereleavesgrow
theyproducefibrelikerootsarisingfromthebaseofthestem,whichgetfixedandgrowfurther.Suchstems
increepersarecalledprostratestems.Climberstakethesupportofanobjectforclimbing.Someclimbers
twinearoundsupportingplantsinaspiralmanner;someofthemproducehookstoclimb,andsomeothers
producespecialrootsservingasholdfasts.
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Switchgrass
Switchgrass,(PanicumVirgatumL).,istheperennialtallgrassfoundinNorthAmericaandMexico.Itsheight
variesfrom5ftto12ft,andthediameterofitsstematgroundlevelisabout20inches.Itcangrowinpoor
quality soil, with low requirement of fertilizers, and can tolerate hostile conditions, including floods and
drought.Thegrasshasmainrootsthatpenetrateintothesoil,andtemporaryfineroots,whichenableitto
conserve the soil in which it grows, and make it nutritionally rich. Hence, switch grass has been grown
traditionallyforsoilconservationandtoserveasfodder.Sincethe1990s,interestinthisplanthasincreased
becauseitgeneratesalotofbiomass,whichcanbeusedforproducingfibre,ethanol,electricity,andother
chemicals.
ApomixisandAmphimixis
Apomixis is asexual reproduction without fertilization developing or producing without sexual union.
Thisisabotanicalterm(alsoknownasapogomy)usedwithrespecttomanyplants.Apomixiscanoccurin
twoways:whentheembryoarisesfromunfertilizedeggproducedwithoutmeiosis,calledagamugenesis;a
nucellarembryoisformedfromsurroundingnucellustissues.Theseedsproducedaregenerallyidenticalto
themainplant.Examplesofapomixisarehawthorns,shadbush,whitebeams,blackberries,dandelions,etc.
Recently,ithasbeendiscoveredthatSaharacypressseedsaregotfrompollenwithnogenetichelpfromthe
femaleparent.Thisdiffersfromamphimixiswhichisreproductionthroughthesexualprocessinvolvingegg
fertilizationthroughsperm.
Micropropagation
Micropropagationisthetechniqueofmultipleproductionofplantsinvitro.Itisusedforplantsthatdonot
produce seeds or respond to normal vegetable reproduction. Micropropagations main advantage is to
producediseasefreeplantsinmultiplenumbersandcloningofplants.
HayFever
Allergicrhinitis,alsoknownaspollenosisorhayfever,isanallergicinflammationofthenasalairways.It
occurswhenanallergen,suchaspollen,dustoranimaldander(particlesofshedskinandhair)isinhaledby
anindividualwithasensitizedimmunesystem.Duringcertainseasons,manyplants,grassesreleasetheir
pollensintotheairinlargequantities.Apersonissaidtohavehayfeverwhenhe/sheissensitivetothese
pollensandothersubstancespresentintheair.Itiscalledhayfeverbecausethesymptomsofthedisease
appear during spring and fall in England. In such individuals, the allergen triggers the production of the
antibodyimmunoglobulinE(IgE),whichbindstomastcellsandbasophilscontaininghistamine.
Thigmotropism
Thigmotropismisthegrowthofaplantaroundasupport.Tropismisaphenomenabywhichaplant,usually
climberlikemoneyplantandivy,respondstoastimulus.Stemsofthepeaplant,forinstance,areweakand
have coillike structures called tendrils. When tendrils approach a support (stick), a phytohormone called
auxinisreleasedinthesideofthetendrilawayfromthesupport.Auxin,agrowthhormone,elongatesthe
cellsofthatportionandmakesitstrong.Theotherportion,devoidofauxin,becomesweakandcoilsaround
thesupport.
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CaliforniaRosewoods
Redwoodsareamongtheworldstallestlivingtrees.Theyare60to85metresinheightand2.5to4metres
in diameter. A redwood in northern California is the tallestknown tree in the world it is about 110
metreshigh.Itiscalledaredwoodbecauseoftheredcolourofitswood.Theredwoodgrowsalongthewest
coastoftheUnitedStates,fromcentralCaliforniatosouthernOregon.TheredwoodisalsocalledasCoastof
Californiaredwood.Itbelongstotaxodiumfamily,Taxodiaceae.ItisclassifiedasSequoiasempervirens.
Asofnow,theworldslargesttree,thatis,theonewiththegreatestmass,istheGeneralSherman,agiant
sequoialocatedinSequoiaNationalPark,California,US.Itis84meterstallandhasagirthof31.3meters.
Florigen
Likeallotherfloweringplants,jasminealsoproducesaflowerinducinghormoneinitsleaveswhenexposed
to bright sunlight. This hormone is called florigen (flowergenerating hormone) and it migrates from the
leavestofloweringshootsduringtheday.Itaccumulatesinthefloweringshootsofthejasmineplantand
inducesfloweringduringthenight.
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2012 General Applied Sciences and Technology

corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms

Ifthe plantsaressubmerged inwater,th

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