2016-17 NHD Annotated Bibliography

OPIUM ON HUMEN BEACH: THE

LAST STAND OF A FALLING EMPIRE

Works Cited

Primary Sources
. . Canton: n.p., 1839. Print.

In this document, Lin Zexu sought to persuade the people of Canton to abandon opium.

He raised points on the harms of opium - that it sucks away fortune and breaks apart

families. Throughout the entire document, Lin condemns opium and criticizes the people

who sell it and smoke it.

Set in the midst of Lins actions in Canton, March - June 1839, this document reflects the

extent of opiums spread before Lin took his aggressive stand. The texts tone borders that

of exasperation, which shows Lins determination in solving a deep rooted issue that has

huge implications on the Cantonese society at that time. Through Lins words, the reader

can also infer the many inherent harms of opium, and thus understand the drugs

capability to impact either individual health or collective prosperity, the rich or the poor,

the peasants or the scholar gentry, causing problems ranging from health concerns to

weakening of the economy. The reader can also gain insight on Lins motives for his swift

actions. However, Lin seemed to have brought his frustration upon the people, which

does not seem fair to some contemporaries.

China, and Great Britain. Treaty of Nanjing. Aug. 1842. Nanjing.

The Treaty of Nanjing was the first unequal treaty between China and a western nation.

This treaty dictated the transition of Hong Kong from Chinese to British rule. In addition,

China was required to hand over millions of silver dollars. The British also gained access

to numerous treaty ports.

This treaty is historically significant because it embodied the result of the First Opium

War. The document roused Chinese patriotism and inspired reform movements that

characterized the political and social landscape of early modern China. Almost all
 scholars unanimously agree that this treaty and the war it represents integrated the

isolated China with the changing world. In conclusion, this treaty marks an important

moment in global history - when Qing China began its fall and Victorian England reached

a monumental height in might and power.

Elliot, Charles. "Captain Elliot to the Imperial Commissioner." Letter to Lin Zexu. 28 Mar. 1839.

China: A Collection of Correspondence and Papers Relating to Chinese Affairs. N.p.:

Great Britain: Foreign Office, n.d. 375. Google Books. Web. 6 Jan. 2017.

On March 28, 1839, Captain Elliot, trapped in the Thirteen Factories by Lin, wrote this

letter and agreed to surrender the opium. This letter reflected the trapped Europeans

mounting panic and desperation. In addition, the document came from a book containing

hundreds of other papers that embodied the contact between the East and the West.

One can note the shift in tone from Elliots previous correspondences to correspondences

that occurred after Lins blockade in Canton. Elliots humble tone that resemble pleading

demonstrated the effectiveness of Lins strategies. However, these strategies also angered

the British, offending the dignity of the crown, and thus they served as a justification for

warfare.

Elmslie, Edward. Notes of Proceedings at Canton. 23 Mar. 1839. Thirteen Factories, Canton.

Elmslies primary account of Lins confiscation of opium in Canton documented the flow

of events that occurred. He noted the foreign discussions on how to respond to Lins

demands, the many tensions that strained relations, and Lins strategies of prohibition and

confiscation.

Elmslies account offers crucial insight into this event. The same proceedings were

documented, albeit from a foreigners perspective. This foreign perspective is extremely

 rare, and thus it serves an integral role in preventing bias in favor of the Chinese, making

the research well balanced.

Lin, Zexu. "Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria." Letter to Queen Victoria. 1839. Brooklyn

College. CUNY, n.d. Web. 6 Jan. 2016.

In this letter, Lin condemned British importation of opium into China. In addition, he

harshly criticised the British government for the lack of control on their merchants.

Finally, Lin claimed that the Celestial Emperor is furious, and demanded whether Queen

Victoria would sell opium to her own subjects.

This resolute letter again showed Lins determination in eradicating opium. It is also one

of the most important sources for research on the opium trade that exists in English. It

offered insight on how the Chinese viewed the British, and how that view has come to

change drastically.

. "." . N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. .

Web. 6 Jan. 2017.

This document is a chapter from a comprehensive work recording the entire history of the

Qing Dynasty. It offered a brief summary of Lins life and deeds.

This work is a basic primary source that can serve as the foundation for more detailed

research. It describes the events surrounding opium in a matter of fact tone, and it seems

quite objective, lacking the bias that characterises various other primary sources.

, . . Vol. 3. : , 2002. Web.

The Full Works of Lin Zexu is a book that compiled all documents by Lin, including

memorials, diaries, letters, and other important writings. Ten volumes exist, and all these

together serve to offer a great amount of knowledge into Lins life and deeds. Volume 3
 compiles some of his memorials to the emperor, including his own reports (sometimes

Lin is the only author; Lin can also be joined by other notable bureaucrats) from Canton.

Memorials that relate to the confiscation and destruction of opium often recount

significant events, offer advice on prohibition, or report specific information that can be

of use.

Lins own works serve an instrumental role in research, since all memorials are usually

rich in detail. Since these writings came from the person who is responsible for and who

is deeply involved in the events of focus, they are undoubtedly extremely valuable. For

example, they offer first hand detail on all proceedings, such as the blockade of the

Thirteen Factories or the proceedings of confiscation. In addition, these documents can at

times vividly reflect the tense atmosphere and the way Lins aggressive stand

dramatically unfolds. Finally, these works offer integral insight into Lins own viewpoints

- his view on foreigners, his view on opium, his view on the people, and of course, his

personal view on whether the destruction was a success.

Zexu, Lin. "." Letter to Daoguang Emperor. 1838.

. , n.d. Web. 6 Jan. 2017.

This document is a memorial from Lin Zexu to Emperor Daoguang. It outlined the major

problems of opium on Chinese society, analysing the impacts of this drug from an

economic, political, and social perspective. He also cited the affordability of opium for

the people, the economic and health burden of addiction, and deterioration of the military

and the bureaucracy with the spread of opium. Lin is known for his resolute claim at the

end of this memorial: that without properly enforced, large scaled, hardlined, and
 aggressive prohibition policies, after ten years China would have neither enough bullion

to fill the treasury nor a military for national dfense.

This memorial is essentially a bureaucrats analysis of opium, and arguably a very

accurate one. Daoguang was thought to have profoundly agreed with Lins claims, and

thus he appointed Lin as imperial commissioner to resolve this pressing crisis. Therefore,

this document offers insight on how Lin was willing to stand up despite the complicated

political atmosphere, and take on a challenging task that would, and did, jeopardise his

entire career. This stand essentially led to his stand in Canton and Humen - the

confiscation and destruction of opium.

Secondary Sources

Baidu. "." _. Baidu, n.d.

Web. 06 Jan. 2017.

This source was a detailed Chinese biography of Lin. It was extremely

informative. Its commentary and assessment on Lin was largely positive, praising Lin as

an ethnic hero.

Baidu. "." . Baidu, n.d. Web. 06 Jan. 2017.

This source provided detailed proceedings of the destruction of opium on Humen

Beach. It was quite informative, citing multiple primary accounts and offering significant

statistics. However, its commentary on the event was very consistent with generic
Chinese thought, which formed an interesting contrast with western analysis of the same

event.

Cone, Daniel. "An Indefensible Defense: The Incompetence of Qing Dynasty Officials in

the Opium Wars, and the Consequences of Defeat." (n.d.): n. pag. Emory College,

Department of History. Emory College. Web. 6 Jan. 2017.

This is a scholarly paper discussing the reasons for Qings loss in the Opium War. It

detailed the events of the war, British invasions and Chinese dfenses, and provided

commentary. The paper claimed that China could have been successful in the war despite

its inferior technology, and that it was the incompetence of the bureaucracy, the lack of

training for the troops, and various other factors that contributed to the humiliating defeat.

The paper concluded that the loss of the Opium War was an avoidable catastrophe, since

China could have easily utilised its geographical and defensive advantages to attain

victory.

Cones viewpoint is persuasive and effective. It also offers insight on the inherent

problems that existed in the Qing administration. The information provided can educate

readers in the proceedings of the opium wars. However, it seems that the loss is in fact

inevitable, since the intrinsic problems of the Chinese bureaucracy are rooted deeply in

hundreds of years of history. This, this paper led to the conclusion that the Qing

administration is incompetent, and that no stand can stop its fall.

Hayford, Charles W. "Lin Zexu." Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica,

Inc., 09 Dec. 2011. Web. 06 Jan. 2017.

This source was biography of Lin, a good western source to begin research with.
Marchant, Leslie. "The Wars of the Poppies." History Today. History Today, n.d. Web. 06

Jan. 2017.

This is a paper by an Australian scholar discussing the cultural and ideological factors of

the opium war. It also offers a summary of the events, from Lins arrival in Canton to the

Second Opium War. The author analyzed the causes, effects, ideological differences, and

situations of the two empires involved in the warfare.

Marchants rhetoric was clear and intriguing, offering new insights on the Opium Wars.

The better understanding of warfare allows for comprehension of the impacts of Lins

actions in Canton and Humen.

. "." .

, n.d. Web. 06 Jan. 2017.

This is a scholarly paper presented by the Opium War Museum. First, the

document opened with a summary on the origins, development, prosperity, decline, and

tensions associated with the Thirteen Factories. Then, the author turns to analyze how Lin

worked with and against the Thirteen Factories. The paper outlined and described major

strategies Lin utilized during the prohibition and confiscation of opium. These include:

solving the problem from the roots, dividing and categorizing foreigners, learning from

the foreigners, swiftness and aggressiveness, etc.

This secondary source offers information on the historical context of the topic:

how the Canton system rose the prominence and its situation in the middle of a conflict in

trade. In addition, the paper also relates Lins various strategies to events that occurred in

March 1839. Thus, the paper offered a good analysis on the proceedings of the

confiscation with citation of primary sources. However, the paper closed by praising Lin
as a national hero, which is, of course, an arguable statement. But it is definitely

necessary to praise Lin for his determination, patriotism, and diligence.

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Jan. 2017.

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Perdue, Peter. "The First Opium War." MIT Visualizing Cultures. MIT, n.d. Web. 06 Jan.

2017.

This source documents the causes of the First Opium War and its proceedings. It

offered a summary on the production, consumption, and prohibition of opium. This

source offers valuable visuals - countless pieces of works of art that offers a new

perspective into the events leading up to and during the Opium War.

This is perhaps one of the most helpful secondary, western sources.

Perdue, Peter. "Rise & Fall of the Canton Trade System." MIT Visualizing Cultures. MIT,

n.d. Web. 06 Jan. 2017.

This source documents the development and decline of the Thirteen Factories,

detailing how the trade system rose to prominence, transformed a city, and brought many

to prosperity, and how the trade system was caught in an ongoing tension, eventually

perishing in a fire.

This source offers countless works of art that demonstrated the integral role the

Thirteen Factories played in the life of Canton. Thus, this source was perhaps one of the
most informative western, secondary sources, and the most helpful source regarding

historical context.

Su, Christine. "Justifiers of the British Opium Trade: Arguments by Parliament, Traders,

and the Times Leading Up to the Opium War." Stanford Undergraduate Research Journal

(n.d.): n. pag. Stanford University. Stanford University. Web. 6 Jan. 2017.

This paper analyzed the parliamentary debate on whether to go to war with China.

The author claimed that the proponents cited free trade, national prestige, the Indian

economy, etc. as primary motives for warfare. On the contrary, those against the war cited

morality, pointing out that this is an unjust invasion. Of course, the advocates for the

Opium War emerged slightly triumphant.

This document provides good insight into the impacts of Lins stand. This is

because Lins blockade and humiliation of the British merchants became a major reason

for war. However, the author concluded that the British used an arbitrary justification to

cover up an invasion of China to further its own power.