Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PR/CSS/03/04
STBF/013/00003C, CC 2486
This report has been prepared for DTI/WRAP is unpublished and should not be referred to in any
other document or publication without the permission of DTI/WRAP. The views expressed are those
of the authors and not necessarily those of DTI/WRAP.
Approvals
Project Manager
Quality Reviewed
This report has been produced by TRL Limited, under/as part of a Contract placed by DTI/WRAP.
Any views expressed are not necessarily those of DTI/WRAP.
TRL is committed to optimising energy efficiency, reducing waste and promoting recycling and re-
use. In support of these environmental goals, this report has been printed on recycled paper,
comprising 100% post-consumer waste, manufactured using a TCF (totally chlorine free) process.
CONTENTS
Executive summary i
1 Introduction 1
5 Acknowledgements 15
6 References 16
Executive summary
Status Report SRA material selection and pilot test programme (October 2003)
Milestone Report Pilot study of the use of SRA in SCC (December 2003)
Status Report Draft strategy for future use and guidance for producers,
specifiers and users (December 20003)
Milestone Report Strategy for future use and guidance for producers,
specifiers and users (January 2003)
Summary
This report represents the final output of the project and proposes a Strategy for future use of SRA in
SCC and offers Guidance for producers, specifiers and users.
The pilot scale investigation indicated that, for the limited testing that could be undertaken in the
timescale of this project, it is feasible to substitute SRA for up to 50% of the fines in SCC. It was
concluded that further testing should be undertaken to determine if higher levels of replacement were
feasible, making the use of SRA even more attractive, and that different SRA could be considered. It
was also suggested that other further testing should be undertaken for pumpability, durability and
other engineering properties.
This report indicates a number of SRA materials that may be suitable for use in SCC depending upon
their availability, location and being fit for purpose. The tests required to determine if an aggregate is
fit for purpose are discussed.
The Strategy and Guidance for SRA in SCC is dependent upon the marketing of SCC itself. The
market size and projected future growth of SCC is discussed and the main advantages of SCC over
conventional concrete are indicated. These are:
Reduction in noise levels and hence it is possible to work longer hours
There is less wear on shuttering
Savings can be made on labour costs and power requirements
Better conformity with health and safety requirements
Improved durability may be achieved
Some applications and case studies for the use of SCC are given and examples, mainly from Japan,
and the use of SRA in SCC is also discussed.
The Guidance to promote SRA in SCC is divided up into information for producers, specifiers and
users, these cover:
For producers:
Material requirements; aggregates, binders, admixtures and fillers
The mix design procedure
SCC properties: in the plastic and hardened states
Production and transportation
For specifiers:
End-performance specifications are required
Requirements of European standards for concrete and aggregates must be met
A schedule of aggregate tests is proposed
For users:
The advantages and possible disadvantages are highlighted
Site quality and control is discussed
This project has indicated that from the limited testing undertaken, the use of SRA in SCC is feasible
but it is proposed that further testing should be considered. This Strategy and Guidance document will
be of use in promoting SCC and the use of SRA as a replacement for natural fine aggregate in SCC.
ii
TRL Limited ii PR CSS/03/04
Unpublished Project Report Version: 1.1
1 Introduction
In April 2002, the Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP) launched a new Aggregate
Research Programme funded by the Aggregates Levy Sustainable Fund, which aims to reduce
demand for primary materials in England by encouraging the use of secondary and recycled
aggregates (SRA). National targets have been set for the use of alternative aggregates, rising from 40
million tonnes in 2001 to 55 million tonnes by 2006. In 2003, SRA arisings from a variety of
industries were estimated to be some 154 million tonnes annually with 1236 million tonnes stockpiled
(Ellis, 2003). These materials contain a significant proportion of fine aggregate, i.e. passing 4mm,
with limited applications in the concrete industry. However, these fine fractions could be used in a
high value application such as replacement for natural fine aggregate in self compacting concrete
(SCC). This report gives a strategy for the future use and guidance for producers, specifiers and users
to promote the wider use of SRA in SCC.
SCC was developed to overcome problems associated with sensitivity to labour quality and the
generation of noise and dust. High consistence (workability) is one of the main characteristics of SCC,
which is mainly achieved through the use of high fines content (fine aggregate and powder) and
chemical admixtures. The ratio of coarse to fine aggregates in SCC tends to be much less than for
conventional concretes, indicating the greater potential for accommodating SRA fine aggregates in
SCC.
The concept of SCC or vibration free concrete was proposed at Tokyo University in 1986. The
principal was to design a dense, flowable concrete that could fill the formwork and flow around
congested reinforcement without the need for vibration. Development relied upon the advent of
superplasticers which are essential to achieve the required consistence. Other admixtures which may
be incorporated are viscosity modifying agents (VMA) to control segregation and impart stability, air
entraining agents (AEA) to provide freeze-thaw resistance and retarders to control the setting.
Much research and development took place in Japan in the 1990s which culminated in the publishing
of a State-of-the Art Report (Uno, 1998) in August 1998. In Europe, Sweden has been in the forefront
of the use of SCC and has carried out intensive research (Billberg, 1999). The first bridge outside
Japan cast entirely of SCC was constructed in Sweden in 1998. Interest has grown around the world
and RILEM started a Technical Committee (TC-174 SCC) to present the current state-of-the art
(2000) and harmonise test methods. The first RILEM symposium on Self-Compacting Concrete
(1999) was held in Stockholm in September 1999. Papers were presented on the rheology/workability,
properties, mix design, constituents materials and applications of SCC. Subsequently, in 2000, a
further RILEM Committee (TC-188 SCC) was formed to collect and disseminate information through
workshops and publications on casting SCC. EFNARC, the European federation dedicated to
specialist construction chemicals and concrete systems (www.efnarc.org), published specification and
guidelines for SCC in 2002. The Swedish Concrete Association gave recommendations for the use of
SCC in 2002.
As both SCC and SRA are relatively new to the concrete industry in the UK, it is difficult to
differentiate a strategy for the use of SRA in SCC with one for the use of SCC in general. This
strategy for future work takes into account the suitable SRA materials for use in SCC, suppliers views
on the use of SRA, existing and potential applications for SCC, and methods of promoting the use of
SRA in SCC.
Table 1: Alternative aggregate arisings, stockpiles and locations in the UK (Ellis, 2003)
Material Arising Stockpile Location
Mt/a Mt
Construction and demolition 99 0 Principally urban areas
wastes
China clay by-products 22.6 600 Cornwall, Devon
Slate waste 6.3 466 Wales, Scotland,
Pennines
Power station fly ash 4.9 55 Coal-fired power
stations
Coal and other mining waste 7.5 15 Coalfields, mineral
(colliery spoil) workings
Spent oil shale 0 100 West Lothian
Blastfurnace and steel slag 5 * N and E England, S
Wales
Others: foundry sands, glass 9.0 *
cullet, municipal solid waste,
scrap tyres, track ballast and
waste plastic
Total 154 1236
* Not determined
Secondary materials from power stations and steel works are available at various locations across the
UK.
Substantial stocks of pulverized fuel ash (PFA) are available, and the material has been widely used in
various construction applications, both in powder and expanded form as cement additions and
lightweight aggregate, respectively. PFA could contribute to both improved concrete consistence and
long-term strength and durability.
The use of blastfurnace and steel slags is well established in the asphalt industry as aggregate. When
ground to powder size, blastfurnace slag could contribute to enhanced long-term strength and
durability of concrete.
Other SRA in Table 1 are available in small quantities, with the exception of colliery spoil that is
mainly located in Scotland and possesses high variability in material properties. Arisings of foundry
sand and municipal solid waste are relatively small when compared to china clay and slate wastes.
Waste plastic, rubber and glass are also available in relatively small quantities although the processing
costs to produce fine-graded aggregate could be high.
three of the SRA listed above (blastfurnace slag, china clay fines and slate fines). The properties of
these materials were checked against the requirements in BS EN 12620 (2002a). It was found that the
samples of blastfurnace slag and slate fines obtained for the study were within the general grading
requirements for material passing the 8, 5.6 and 4 mm sieves specified, whereas unsieved china clay
fines contained excessive coarse material. Additionally, the grading curve for china clay fines was
outside the limits for 0/4(CP) and 0/4(MP) given in BS EN PD6682-1 (2003). The slate fines was
classed as 0/4(CP) and the blastfurnace slag could be classified in either category.
Each of the SCC performed satisfactorily, but it was necessary to adjust the effective water content,
and the quantities of superplasticer and viscosity modifying agent to achieve the specified flow (650-
750mm in the slump flow test) for each concrete. The flow is influenced by such properties of the
aggregates as grading, angularity and water absorption. The fact that the specified flow was achieved
with mixes containing china clay fines with excessive coarse material demonstrates that SRA which
do not fully conform to BS EN 12620 (2002a) can be considered as being a suitable replacement for
fines in SCC.
SCC containing slate fines required higher effective water contents than a control mix designed by
Tarmac and the other mixes containing blastfurnace slag and china clay fines. It is believed that this is
a reflection of the fact that slate is inherently more angular and therefore has a higher water demand.
In the pilot study, the content of cementitious material (ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and ground
granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS)) was 500kg/m3 for all the mixes. This high value resulted in a
robust mix design that could accommodate a range of effective water contents and enable the
specified flow to be achieved. It was the effective water content that controlled the water/cement ratio
which varied from 0.34 to 0.41, with 28-day compressive strengths between 59 N/mm2 and
87 N/mm2. These values were generally well in excess of the requirements for structural and
pavement quality concretes. All the mixes conformed to the requirements of BS EN 206-1 (2000a).
The pilot study clearly demonstrated that SRA can be used with up to 50% replacement of natural fine
aggregate. It is also clear that when a particular material is being considered, it is necessary to
examine the aggregate properties and carry out trial mixes to confirm that the material can produce
concrete which is fit for purpose. The engineering properties and durability of the hardened concrete
also need to be considered by the specifier (see recommendations for further work in Section 4).
(top, middle and bottom), were compared with the cube strength. A reduction of about 22% in the
compressive strength was observed for the core samples. However, the coefficient of variation of SCC
cores was less than 3%, indicating uniformity of strength at different depths.
A number of case studies of both precast and in situ applications have been cited in the draft BRE
Information Paper on Self-Compacting Concrete (to be published early in 2004).
The main advantages of SCC over conventional concrete are:
Reduction in noise levels and hence it is possible to work longer hours
There is less wear on shuttering
Savings can be made on labour costs and power requirements
Better conformity with health and safety requirements
Improved durability may be achieved
In Europe, the use of SCC is only well established in Sweden. Gaimster and Foord (2000) presented
costs based on data obtained from Swedish concrete frame contractors, indicating that nearly 50% of
total construction costs are related to manpower. Whilst the increased cementitious content required
for SCC compared with conventional concrete will probably increase the material costs, some
economic and environmental benefits could be achieved by partial replacement of the fine aggregate
with SRA. In addition, savings can be made in labour costs associated with formwork, concrete and
remedial work.
entrained and made with replacing 30% of the cement with PFA to achieve a minimum compressive
strength of 20 N/mm2 at 28 days. This case study demonstrated the innovative way of achieving
extreme flow conditions in restricted areas with an economical solution in material selection and
allowing rehabilitation without excavation and interruption of industrial plants.
Khurana and Sacomme (2001) reported that SCC requires a powder content (material <0.1mm) of
500-600 kg/m3. This is made up of cement, fillers and fines. The cement content can vary from
250-450 kg/m3. Fly ash (PFA) is an ideal material to provide the additional powder. SCC with a
characteristic strength of 30 N/mm2 were designed with 200 kg/m3 and 300 kg/m3 of fly ash. The
properties of the fresh concrete, the compressive, flexural and indirect tensile strengths, elastic
modulus, shrinkage and durability were measured. Comparisons were made with a conventional
concrete mix. The results demonstrated that fly ash can be used in SCC. The strength properties were
significantly improved and it was shown that fly ash can effectively reduce the required cement
content; it was estimated 200 kg/m3 and 300 kg/m3 of fly ash would provide 106 kg/m3 and 146 kg/m3
of cement for these mixes respectively. The elastic modulus was lower than for conventional concrete
and the shrinkage was 6-9% higher. Significant improvements in the water penetration and freeze
/thaw performance were also reported.
In Japan, concrete rubble is heated to 300oC and then ground to remove the cement portion to make
recycled aggregate. Recycled concrete powder with a specific surface area of 400-800 m2/kg is a by
product of the process. Experiments were carried out by Kasami et al (2001) to determine if recycled
concrete powder could be used to reduce segregation in SCC. Two series of experiments were carried
out. The first was to compare the properties of SCC cast with recycled concrete powder as a mineral
additive with ground blast furnace slag and ground limestone. The second series was to investigate the
plasticizing effect of a high-range water reducer (HRWR) of SCC. The results showed that recycled
concrete powder can be used as a mineral additive to produce SCC without further processing, but an
increase in the super plasticiser dosage was required to achieve desirable values of slump-flow and
shrinkage. However, the addition of GGBS with recycled concrete powder improved the fresh and
hardened properties of SCC.
2.5 Marketing
In order to market the use of SRA in SCC, it is first necessary to publicise and persuade the civil
engineering industry that SCC is a viable alternative to conventional concrete. The technical and
economic advantages of SCC discussed in other sections of this report must be highlighted. Once this
has been achieved, the advantages of replacing the fine aggregate with SRA must be explained.
Economic, technical and environmental issues are of paramount importance and the use of SRA may
lead to cost advantage.
Publicity should be sort through articles and guidance in the Technical Press, presentations at
conferences, by holding seminars and workshops and providing information on web sites, such as
AggRegain.
It is strongly recommended that the outcome of this current project is published and widely advertised
in the media listed above. One route to publication would be through the TRL Report Series. These
reports are widely advertised by sending lists of reports to interested parties at regular intervals, and
are available via the TRL web site (www.trl.co.uk). A seminar could also be held specifically to deal
with the issues raised in this report and advertise the outcome of the project.
3.1.1.1 Aggregates
The use of the aggregates in concrete is subjected to standards and specifications to meet certain
requirements. BS EN 12620 (2002a) specifies the properties of aggregates and filler aggregates for
use in concrete. Generally the European Standards do not preclude the use of alternative aggregates as
they do not discriminate between aggregates obtained by processing natural, manufactured or recycled
materials and mixtures of these aggregates. The use of SRA in SCC will be dependent on several
factors including availability, consistency, grading and some physical and chemical properties. SRA
materials may be inherently more variable than natural aggregates and therefore will require a higher
rate of quality control testing.
The general requirements for aggregates given in BS EN 12620 (2002a) and the guidance on the use
of BS EN 12620 given in BS EN PD6682-1 (2003) shall be followed. The maximum coarse aggregate
size is generally 20mm (4/20), however, a larger particle size could be used when compatible with the
reinforcement spacing.
In this guidance, consideration is given to the partial replacement of the fine aggregate (up to 50%) in
SCC. Fine aggregate is defined as material with a size of less than 4mm: 100%, 95-100% and 85-99%
of the material is required to pass 8, 5.6 and 4mm sieves respectively. Grading limits for classes 0/4
(CP) and 0/4(MP) as defined in BS EN 12620 (2002a) for the material are also given and are
reproduced in Table 2. The combined grading of the natural fine aggregate and SRA should be
checked against these limits, and if necessary adjusted by screening. It must be noted that segregation
may occur when aggregates with significantly different densities are blended (see section 3.1.3.1).
The filler aggregate, particles smaller than 0.125mm, are considered as powder and have an important
effect on the rheology of SCC; a minimum amount of fines, including filler aggregate, binder or
powder additives, must be achieved to avoid segregation.
3.1.1.2 Binders
The cementitious content in SCC is generally higher than that of conventional concrete. The
requirements for the cementitious materials are similar to those of conventional concretes containing
natural aggregates. The cement should comply with the requirements laid down in BS EN 206-
1(2000a), i.e. conforming with BS EN 197:Part 1 (2000b). The use of cement replacement materials
such as GGBS to BS 6699 (1992) and PFA to BS EN 450 (1995) would be suitable.
The relative densities of OPC, PFA and GGBS are approximately 3.1, 2.3 and 2.9. Harrison and
Spooner (1986) report that the use of PFA will increase the workability (consistence) for a given
water content. This is probably due to the increase in the powder volume for a given content of
cementitious material. The water content and hence cementitious content required for consistence and
strength for a particular mix will be less for OPC/PFA blends than for OPC. Slight improvements in
the consistence of mixes are also achieved with blended OPC/GGBS.
The producers of SCC will primarily be concerned with the compressive strength. This should be
measured by the method given in BS EN 12390-3 (2002b). Normally, due to the high cementitious
content required for flowability of SCC, there should not be a problem with achieving the required
strength at 28 days for a variety of aggregates, including SRA. Typically concrete strengths are
between 60 N/mm2 and 100 N/mm2 but lower strengths can be designed. These are well in excess of
the strengths of 50 N/mm2 and 60 N/mm2 for typical Grade 40 pavement quality and Grade 50
structural concrete respectively.
It is also advisable to check the density of the strength cubes prior to test to ensure that full
compaction is achieved. The method is covered in BS EN 12390-7 (2000e).
3.2.1 General
The specification for work permitting the use of SCC must be written to ensure that performance is
comparable to conventional concrete. The main requirements are that the formwork is filled with fully
compacted concrete of adequate strength and durability. There are examples from several countries
where SCC has been used successfully with natural aggregates. This guidance is concerned with the
replacement of part of the fine aggregate (up to 50% by volume) with SRA. TRL and Tarmac Group
have shown that SCC containing blastfurnace slag, china clay and slate waste fines as a replacement
material provide adequate flow properties and strength (Calder, 2003). However, further work may be
required to demonstrate that these materials provide adequate resistance to the ingress of aggressive
species (i.e. chloride ingress and carbonation) and can control reinforcement corrosion.
SCC is likely to be an economic alternative in areas where the reinforcement is very congested which
would mean that vibration would be difficult and in underground working where access is limited.
SCC has also been suggested for casting road pavements inside forms (as opposed to conventional
paving methods) and where large volumes are required, such as dams.
It is envisaged that most specifying authorities would provide general specifications for the SRA in
SCC and these would need to be adapted for particular applications. Most of the information provided
in the previous section is also relevant to specifiers. In addition, consideration of the European
standards is relevant.
Currently there is no specific provision for the use of SCC in European standards, but work is in
progress to develop European standards for testing of SCC. However, BS EN 206-1 (2000a) does not
preclude the use of SCC.
There is a requirement that maximum chloride content expressed as the percentage of chloride ions by
mass shall not exceed the selected class given in Table 10 of BS EN 206-1(2000a).
The economic case for using SRA will probably be based on the location of the source of SRA in
relation to the mixing plant. Many SRA are low cost materials, but the source may be a long way from
the plant. It would therefore be necessary for a user to balance the low cost of the material with the
potentially high transport costs for a given application.
There are savings to be made on labour costs, as SCC can be placed with relatively few, less skilled
personnel. However, in the case of in-situ construction, there may be personnel who would normally
be employed on site doing other jobs who are then brought in for a concrete pour on the day. Hence
the savings may not be very great for in-situ casting.
Calder (2003) has demonstrated that adequate flow and strength properties can be obtained when up
to 50% of the fine material in SCC is replaced with blastfurnace slag fines, china clay fines or waste
slate fines. Consideration should be given to carrying out further experimental trials, increasing these
replacement levels, possibly up to 100%. If it can be shown that adequate performance can be
obtained with higher levels of replacement, then the use of SRA in SCC becomes even more
attractive. Further encouragement could also be given by demonstrating with further trial mixes that
adequate flow, pumpability (mainly in high rise applications), and strength properties can be achieved
with SRA. This work could be extended to the other SRA listed in Section 2.3.1.
In order for specifiers to be more confident about accepting SRA as a replacement to natural fine
aggregate in SCC, test data on the engineering and durability properties of concretes incorporating the
SRA most likely to be used are required. It is therefore suggested that further testing should be
commissioned to measure pumpability of SCC and a range of engineering properties (flexural
strength, modulus of elasticity, shrinkage) and durability (permeability, resistance to chloride ingress
and corrosion control, freeze/thaw, carbonation, and alkali-silica reaction).
It is envisaged that the work to evaluate the durability described above could be completed within a
18-24 month period, although it may be necessary to run the chloride ingress and corrosion control
experiments for longer.
5 Acknowledgements
The work described in this report was carried out in the Infrastructure Division of TRL Limited. The
authors are grateful to Dr Tony Parry who carried out the quality review of this report. The authors
would like to thank the following for providing useful comments:
John Chandler TRL Ltd
Richard Day Concrete Society
Howard Robinson Tarmac Group
Anna Scothern The Concrete Centre
Ben Sealey Tarmac Group.
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