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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental test of two contemporary motivation theories in the physical domain. The study
combined experimentally-induced achievement goal involvement with autonomous and controlling communication styles
based on self determination theory to examine young peoples enjoyment, free-choice behavior and performance in relation
to a golf task. Results showed that those in the autonomous condition, regardless of their goal involvement, reported greater
enjoyment, persisted longer at the task and performed better than those in the controlling communication condition.
Participants in the task involved condition performed better than those in the ego involved condition. Findings point to the
need for further studies that test multiple theories in sport. The motivational impact of goal involvement may be better
understood when considered concurrently with the autonomous or controlling nature of the context. Promoting autonomy
and task involvement is likely to enhance positive affect and adaptive behaviors in sport among young people.
Correspondence: Dr Christopher Spray, Institute of Youth Sport, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Loughborough University, UK.
ISSN 1746-1391 print/ISSN 1536-7290 online # 2006 European College of Sport Science
DOI: 10.1080/17461390500422879
advocated testing the conceptual convergence of 1998). Despite this, relatively few studies have
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motivation is between whether a behavior is auton- than those in the controlling condition, regardless of
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more than 4 on the same putting task. Those scoring Free-choice period. After the assessment trials, each
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less than 2 were eliminated from further analyses participant was told that the session had finished.
(n /7). Participants were reassured of their high The experimenter then said that he needed a few
competence through positive feedback during the minutes to fetch another participant from the class.
assessment trials. Participants were told that while they waited they
were free to do whatever they wanted, including
reading magazines or practicing golf putting. Each
Manipulation of autonomous and controlling
participant was left alone in the room for four
communication. After the participants had been told
minutes. During this free-choice period, a second
about the purpose of the task through the appro-
experimenter, unaware of the participants experi-
priate goal involvement induction, they were as- mental condition, observed the individual through a
signed to one of the two communication conditions. small glass panel and recorded the amount of time
Those assigned to the autonomy condition were the participant spent putting (free-choice behavior).
given a rationale , acknowledgement , and choice con- Caution was taken not to allow the experimenter to
cerning participation (Deci et al., 1994). The be seen by the participant. After the free-choice
rationale for participation in the task-involving con- period, the first experimenter returned to the room.
dition was given as: All participants were then carefully debriefed.
Seeking improvement is very important in daily Closing procedure. After completion of the final
lives. This is one of the main reasons you attend questionnaire, but before returning to their PE class,
school. You seek to improve everything you do. each participant was told not to inform anyone about
the experiment. As a check, participants were invited
In the ego-involving condition, participants were
to take part in a game to guess the correct number of
told that: mini golf balls in a jar. They would win a prize for
the correct answer. The actual number of golf balls
Competition is a fact of life. That is how society
was such that a correct guess would be highly
moves forward. You always seek to do better than
unlikely. Each participant was informed of the
others.
correct answer as they left the room. If subsequent
participants correctly guessed the number, they may
The acknowledgement of the participants possible
have received information concerning the study. Five
disinterest in the task was considered through the participants were eliminated from the experiment
following statements for each condition: based on this procedure (although it is recognized
that these pupils may only have been informed of the
I know that you may not like to improve (task
number of golf balls in the jar and not necessarily
involvement condition)/compete (ego involvement
about the experiment itself).
condition) in golf putting or even find the task
boring. I can perfectly understand and accept that
you might not find it very interesting or may not Measures
want to improve (task involvement)/compete (ego Two weeks before the experiment, the participants
involvement). dispositional goal orientations were measured using
the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ;
After the rationale and acknowledgement were Roberts et al., 1998). Satisfactory Cronbach alpha
given, the participants were then given a consent coefficients were reported for both task (0.86) and
form to sign to indicate their choice to take part. Five ego (0.87) subscales. The 6 items from the Sport
participants refused to participate and were with- Competence subscale of the Physical Self-Perception
drawn from the study. In the controlling commu- Profile (PSPP-PC; Whitehead, 1995) were used to
nication condition, no rationale, acknowledgement measure general perceived physical competence, and
or choice were given. Participants were told that internal consistency was satisfactory (0.78). Re-
You will be taught exactly how to hold the golf club sponses were given on 5-point scales ranging from
and how to hit the ball. You should learn the 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) for both
techniques and ought to improve your skills as you the POSQ and PSPP-PC.
practice. You must practice the skills as taught. After the experimental manipulations but before
Throughout the giving of instructions, words such as taking part in the task, participants completed the
should, must, and have to were used, for first questionnaire. This contained manipulation
example you should learn the techniques and you check items to measure goal involvement and
should putt now. perceived autonomy.
Motivation in sport 47
Goal involvement. Four items from the POSQ were Table I. Intercorrelations among study variables and covariates.
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M SD M SD F h2 M SD M SD F h2
Task involvement 4.41 0.72 4.21 0.89 0.29 0.00 4.32 0.79 4.33 .82 1.18 0.01
Ego involvement 2.33a 1.16 2.88b 1.30 10.74 0.07 2.45 1.16 2.72 1.36 0.92 0.01
Choice 4.74 1.92 4.70 1.52 0.02 0.00 5.34a 1.40 3.82b 1.84 24.41 0.15
Responsibility 5.02 1.67 5.05 1.43 0.06 0.00 5.59a 1.25 4.21b 1.63 27.27 0.16
Note . Means within the same row not sharing the same superscript are significantly different (p B/0.05).
scores are presented in Table III. Task enjoyment the task-involving condition performed better in the
and free-choice enjoyment were entered as depen- assessment trials than those in the ego-involving
dent variables and were analyzed using a 2/2 (goal condition [F(1, 136) /11.56, p B/0.001, h2 /0.08].
involvement /communication) MANCOVA. A sec- Those in the autonomous condition also performed
ond MANCOVA examined free-choice behavior and better than those in the controlling condition [F (1,
performance scores as the dependent variables. Goal 136) /35.37, p B/0.001, h2 /0.21]. Participants in
orientations and perceived competence again served the autonomous condition spent more time putting
as covariates in these analyses. However, in both golf balls during the free-choice period compared to
cases, there were no significant effects of the those in the controlling condition [F(1, 136) /4.79,
covariates (see Table I for correlations between the p B/0.05, h2 /0.03]. There was no interaction be-
covariates and the dependent variables). tween goal involvement and communication condi-
In the first analysis, neither a main effect for goal tions [Wilks l/0.966, F(2, 135) /2.40, p /0.05,
involvement [Wilks l/0.976, F(2, 133) /1.67, h2 /0.03] (see Table III).
p /0.05, h2 /0.02] nor an interaction [Wilks l/
0.975, F(2, 133) /1.70, p /0.05, h2 /0.02] were
found. A significant main effect existed, however, for Discussion
the communication induction [Wilks l /0.930, The purpose of this study was to test the motiva-
F (2, 133) /5.03, p B/0.01, h2 /0.07] for both types tional impact of communicating achievement goals
of enjoyment. Participants in the autonomous con- in autonomy-supportive or controlling ways among
dition reported greater enjoyment than did those in young people engaged in a sport task. Researchers
the controlling condition for both task enjoyment have suggested that testing multiple theories of
[F (1, 134) /3.79, p B/0.05, h2 /0.03] and free- motivation in physical activity contexts can provide
choice enjoyment [F (1, 134) /9.82, p B/0.01, h2 / a more comprehensive understanding of achieve-
0.07]. ment-relevant phenomena (Biddle, 1999; Roberts,
With respect to free-choice behavior and perfor- 1992, 2001). To our knowledge, no previous study
mance scores, the results of the second MANCOVA has paired goal involvement with interpersonal
revealed significant main effects for goal involvement communication style in examining indices of intrin-
[Wilks l /0.918, F(2, 135) /6.04, p B/0.01, h2 / sic motivation and performance. The present inves-
0.08] and communication (Wilks l/0.767, F (2, tigation sought to examine the independent and
135) /20.52, p B/0.01, h2 /0.23). Participants in interactive effects of goal involvement and commu-
M SD M SD F h2 M SD M SD F h2
Task enjoyment 4.11 1.06 3.72 1.29 3.33 0.02 4.21a 1.00 3.60b 1.30 3.79 0.03
a
Free-choice enjoyment 3.30 1.66 3.07 2.35 0.97 0.01 3.73 1.52 2.50b 2.26 9.82 0.07
Free-choice behavior (seconds) 84.20 97.63 93.08 97.53 0.87 0.01 106.42a 101.86 61.74b 84.63 4.79 0.03
Performance 5.27a 2.36 4.03b 1.96 11.56 0.08 5.63a 2.30 3.58b 1.65 35.37 0.21
Note . Means within the same row not sharing the same superscript are significantly different (p B/0.05).
Motivation in sport 49
nication style. In so doing, we adopted an experi- relatedness. Empirical research has shown that
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mental design rather than the more commonly autonomy-supportive teachers enhance students
utilized correlational approach to determine both intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and challenge-seeking
affective and behavioral outcomes. behavior compared to teachers with controlling
The experimental design involved random assign- styles (Deci et al., 1994; Goudas et al., 1995).
ment of participants to task/ego involvement and Contextual events thus play an important role in
autonomous/controlling conditions. Checks revealed supporting or inhibiting the internalization process.
that the autonomous, controlling and ego involve- Deci and colleagues have suggested that the social
ment manipulations were successful. However, the context supports self determination and internaliza-
task involvement manipulation failed to significantly tion when a rationale, acknowledgement of possible
separate low from high task involved groups, even disinterest and choice are provided (Deci et al.,
after controlling for participants task orientation 1994). Present results lend support to these asser-
scores i.e., participants in both goal involvement tions.
conditions reported similarly high levels of task Current findings also showed adaptive perfor-
orientation and task involvement. Although the mance consequences for those in both the autono-
mean scores for task involvement were in the mous and task involved conditions. Little previous
expected direction, this finding highlights the chal- research has examined performance as a conse-
lenges to researchers in creating conditions of low quence of feeling autonomous or task involved
task involvement, even when situational cues are when undertaking sport tasks (Harwood et al.,
designed to increase the salience of ego involvement. 2000; Vallerand, 2001). Self determination theory
Two contextual factors may account for the difficulty holds that social contexts promoting more self-
in distinguishing the groups in terms of task involve- determined forms of motivation, via the satisfaction
ment in the current study. First, experimental trials of innate needs, produce positive consequences,
occurred within the context of the school physical including performance (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Valler-
education lesson. Physical education teachers, and and, 1997). Individuals pursuing tasks with a sense
the school environment generally, may be seen to of autonomy are more likely to employ adaptive self-
promote working hard, doing ones best and perso- regulatory processes, such as concentration, which
nal improvement irrespective of the task at hand. result in enhanced performance. Similarly, task
Although teachers were not present during the involved individuals devote attentional resources to
experimental trials, the putting task took place the inherent aspects of the activity, rather than adopt
during a PE lesson using school facilities. Second, a self-evaluative external perspective, as when ego
the golf putting activity represented a novel task to involved. Focusing on the inherent components of a
the participants, who, consequently, may have been skill can facilitate performance particularly with
inclined to focus on the how of the activity in both respect to novel tasks. High ego involvement and
the task involved and ego involved conditions. more controlling forms of motivation can detract
Despite the difficulties encountered in manipulating from attention to process-based factors that lead to
levels of task involvement, most of the significant mastery of the activity. Clearly, present results
differences in indices of intrinsic motivation and require verification in new research studies that
performance were found between the autonomous seek to identify the mechanisms by which a sense
and controlling conditions i.e., main effects for the of autonomy and task involvement enhance perfor-
communication induction emerged irrespective of mance in sport. It has also been suggested that, in
goal involvement. the short term at least, less self determined forms of
Multivariate analyses showed that, under condi- motivation may be associated with enhanced perfor-
tions of positive feedback, communication style mance (Vallerand, 2001). This notion requires
affected enjoyment and free-choice behavior such testing in physical activity contexts.
that the autonomous style had a more positive In the present investigation, there were no inter-
motivational impact. According to SDT, the beha- action effects between the goal involvement and
vior of significant others can impact on the intrinsic communication conditions. This suggests that the
motivation of the individual. For example, teachers effects of one factor operate across levels of the
can interact with students in a controlling manner second factor. One explanation for the absence of
such that students feel pressured to think or act in interactions is that the groups did not differ sig-
particular ways, or an autonomy-supportive style nificantly in terms of task involvement, and there-
such that students are encouraged to make their own fore, it was not possible to examine the effects of
decisions and choices (Ryan & Deci, 2000a,b). the communication condition when task involve-
These interpersonal contexts are posited to have an ment was low versus when task involvement was
impact on students motivation through their influ- high. However, it appears that the beneficial con-
ence on perceptions of autonomy, competence and sequences of the autonomous condition were evident
50 C. M. Spray et al.
irrespective of low or high ego involvement. Simi- relationships within SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985,
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larly, high task involvement may have overridden 2000). In addition, the rationale as well as the
feelings of being controlled when undertaking the acknowledgement components of the autonomous
putting activity to positively affect performance. condition should be specific to the task at hand rather
The links between controlling / self determined than generalized. The choice component may be
motivation and goal involvement have been articu- operationalized more effectively if participants are
lated in the literature, from both SDT and achieve- provided with a range of tasks to select rather than
ment goal perspectives. According to achievement being asked for consent to undertake one activity.
goal theorists, when an individual is task involved, Finally, manipulation checks should include the
the attentional focus is on the task and individuals perceived controllingness of the locution used in
participate in an activity for its own sake, thereby the communication inductions as well as perceived
increasing intrinsic motivation. Ego involved indivi- choice and responsibility. However, based on the
duals engage in the task to demonstrate high results reported herein, we invite youth sport leaders
normative competence, rather than to engage in to consider the design and delivery of their sessions
the inherent aspects of the task itself, thereby leading such that they are more likely to be perceived as
to a decrease in intrinsic motivation (Nicholls, facilitators of autonomy and task involvement.
1989). Self determination theory also considers
task involvement to bear considerable relation to
intrinsic motivation when applied to the achieve-
Acknowledgements
ment domain (Deci & Ryan, 2000, p. 260). On the
other hand, SDT posits that, when ego involved, The authors wish to note their appreciation to the
individuals feel internally controlled and pressured staff and students of the participating schools for
to maintain their self-esteem or prove their compe- their time and effort in allowing the experimental
tence, which results in an external locus of causality trials to be conducted.
and less self determined motivation (Deci & Ryan,
1987). From the SDT perspective, therefore, ego
involvement is viewed as a form of introjected References
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