Chapter 02

Chapter 2
Fundamentals of Signal and

System Analysis
2.1 Problem Solutions

Problem 2.1
a. The single-sided amplitude spectrum consists of a single line of height 5 at frequency

6 Hz, and the phase spectrum consists of a single line of height =6 radians at
frequency 6 Hz. The double-sided amplitude spectrum consists of lines of height 2.5
at frequencies of 6 and 6 Hz, and the double-sided phase spectrum consists of a line
of height =6 radians at frequency 6 Hz and a line of height =6 at frequency 6
Hz.
b. Write the signal as
xb (t) = 3 cos(12 t =2) + 4 cos(16 t)
From this it is seen that the single-sided amplitude spectrum consists of lines of height 3
and 4 at frequencies 6 and 8 Hz, respectively, and the single-sided phase spectrum consists
of a line of height =2 radians at frequency 6 Hz (the phase at 8 Hz is 0). The double-
sided amplitude spectrum consists of lines of height 1.5 and 2 at frequencies of 6 and 8 Hz,
respectively, and lines of height 1.5 and 2 at frequencies 6 and 8 Hz, respectively. The
double-sided phase spectrum consists of a line of height =2 radians at frequency 6 Hz
and a line of height =2 radians at frequency 6 Hz.
c. Use the trig identity cos x cos y = 0:5 cos (x + y) + 0:5 cos (x y) to write
xc (t) = 2 cos 20 t + 2 cos 4 t
1
2 CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNAL AND SYSTEM ANALYSIS
From this we see that the single-sided amplitude spectrum consists of lines of height 2 at 2
and 10 Hz, and the single-sided phase spectrum is 0 at these frequencies. The double-sided
amplitude spectrum consists of lines of height 1 at frequencies of 10, 2, 2, and 10 Hz.
The double-sided phase spectrum is 0.
1
d. Use cos2 (5 t) = 2 + 12 cos (10 t) and sin u cos v = 1
2 sin (u v) + 21 sin (u + v) to write
this as
xd (t) = 4 sin (2 t) + 2 sin ( 8 t) + 2 sin (12 t)

3
= 4 cos 2 t + 2 cos 8 t + 2 cos 12 t
2 2 2
From this we see that the single-sided amplitude spectrum consists of lines of height 4 at
1 Hz, and 2 at 4 and 6 Hz, with the single-sided phase spectrum being 2 , 32 , and 2
radians at these frequencies. The double-sided amplitude spectrum consists of lines of
height 2 at frequencies of 1 and 1 Hz and lines of height 1 at 6, 4, 4, and 6 Hz. The
double-sided phase spectrum is 2 , 32 , 2 ; 2 , 32 , and 2 at frequencies of 6, 4, 1,
1, 4, and 6 Hz, respectively.
Problem 2.2
By noting the amplitudes and phases of the various frequency components from the plots,
the result is
x(t) = 4ej(8 t+ =2)

+ 4e j(8 t+ =2)
+ 2ej(4 t =4)
+ 2e j(4 t =4)
= 8 cos (8 t + =2) + 4 cos (4 t =4)

= 8 sin (8 t) + 4 cos (4 t =4)
Problem 2.3
a. Not periodic because f1 = 1= Hz and f2 = 3 Hz are not commensurable.

b. Periodic. To nd the period, note that
6 30
= 3 = n1 f0 and = 15 = n2 f0
2 2
Therefore
15 n2
=
3 n1
Hence, take n1 = 1, n2 = 5; and f0 = 3 Hz (we want the largest possible value for f0 with
n1 and n2 integer-valued).
2.1. PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 3
c. Periodic. Using a similar procedure as used in (b), we nd that n1 = 4, n2 = 21; and

f0 = 0:5 Hz.
d. Periodic. Using a similar procedure as used in (b), we nd that n1 = 4, n2 = 6;

n3 = 17; and f0 = 0:5 Hz.
Problem 2.4
a. For the single-sided spectra, write the signal as
x(t) = 10 cos(4 t + =8) + 6 sin(8 t + 3 =4)

= 10 cos(4 t + =8) + 6 cos(8 t + 3 =4 =2)
= 10 cos(4 t + =8) + 6 cos(8 t + =4)
h i
= Re 10ej(4 t+ =8) + 6ej(8 t+ =4)
For the double-sided spectra, write the signal in terms of complex exponentials using Eulers
theorem:
x(t) = 5 exp[j(4 t + =8)] + 5 exp[ j(4 t + =8)]

+3 exp[j(8 t + 3 =4)] + 3 exp[ j(8 t + 3 =4)]
The spectra are plotted in Fig. 2.1.
b. Write the given signal as

h i
xb (t) = Re 8ej(2 t+ =3)
+ 4ej(6 t+ =4)
to plot the single-sided spectra. For the double-side spectra, write it as
xb (t) = 4ej(2 t+ =3)

+ 4e j(2 t+ =3)
+ 2ej(6 t+ =4)
+ 2e j(6 t+ =4)
The spectra are plotted in Fig. 2.2.
c. Change the sines to cosines by subtracting =2 from their arguments to get
xc (t) = 2 cos (4 t + =8 =2) + 12 cos (10 t =2)

= 2 cos (4 t 3 =8) + 12 cos (10 t =2)
h i
= Re 2ej(4 t 3 =8) + 12ej(10 t =2)
= ej(4 t 3 =8)
+e j(4 t 3 =8)
+ 6ej(10 t =2)
+ 6e j(10 t =2)
Single sided Double sided

6
10
8
4
Amplitude
Amplitude
6
4 2
2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 -5 0 5
f, Hz f, Hz
0.8
0.5
0.6
Phase, rad
Phase, rad
0.4 0
0.2
-0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 -5 0 5
f, Hz f, Hz

5
8
4
6
Amplitude
Amplitude
3
4 2
2 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
f, Hz f, Hz
1
1
0.5
Phase, rad
Phase, rad
0.5 0
-0.5
0 -1
0 1 2 3 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
f, Hz f, Hz
6
10
Amplitude
Amplitude
4
5
2
0 0
0 2 4 6 -5 0 5
f, Hz f, Hz
0
1
Phase, rad
Phase, rad
-0.5
0
-1
-1
-1.5
0 2 4 6 -5 0 5
f, Hz f, Hz
Spectral plots are given in Fig. 2.3.
Problem 2.5
a. This function has area

Z1 2
1 sin( t= )
Area = dt
( t= )
1
Z1 2
sin( u)
= du = 1
( u)
1
where a tabulated integral has been used for sinc2 u. A sketch shows that no matter how
small is, the area is still 1. With ! 0; the central lobe of the function becomes narrower
and higher. Thus, in the limit, it approximates a delta function.
b. The area for the function is

Z1 Z1
1
Area = exp( t= )u (t) dt = exp( u)du = 1
1 0
A sketch shows that no matter how small is, the area is still 1. With ! 0; the function
becomes narrower and higher. Thus, in the limit, it approximates a delta function.
R 1 R1
c. Area = (1 jtj = ) dt = 1 (t) dt = 1. As ! 0, the function becomes
narrower and higher, so it approximates a delta function in the limit.
Problem 2.6
(a), (c), and (e) are periodic. Their periods are 2 s (fundamental frequency of 0.5 Hz),
2 s, and 3 s, respectively. The waveform of part (c) is a periodic train of triangles,
each 2 units wide, extending from -1 to 1 spaced by 2 s ((b) is similar except that it
is zero for t < 1 thus making it aperiodic). Waveform (d) is aperiodic because the
frequencies of its two components are incommensurable. The waveform of part (e) is a
doubly-innite train of square pulses, each of which is one unit high and one unit wide,
centered at ; 6; 3; 0; 3; 6; . Waveform (f) is identical to (e) for t 1=2 but 0
for t < 1=2 thereby making it aperiodic.
Problem 2.7
1
a. Make use of the formula (at) = jaj (t) to write (2t 5) = [2 (t 5=2)] =
1 5
2 t 2 and use the sifting property of the -function to get
2
1 5 1 5 25
Ia = + sin 2 = = 3:125
2 2 2 2 8
b. Impulses at 10, 5, 0, 5, 10 are included in the integral. Use the sifting property
after writing the expression as the sum of ve integrals to get
Ib = ( 10)2 + 1 + ( 5)2 + 1 + 02 + 1 + 52 + 1 + 102 + 1 = 255
c. Matching coe cients of like derivatives of -functions on either side of the equation
gives A = 5 and B = 10.
d. The answer is 0 because none of the impulses is within the limits of integration of the
1
integral. Use (at) = jaj (t) to write (3t + 6) = 13 (t + 2).
e. Use property 5 of the unit impulse function to get
d2 d
Ie = ( 1)2 2 cos 8 t + e 2t t=2
= 8 sin 8 t 2e 2t
t=2
h dt i dt
= (8 )2 cos 8 t + 4e 2t = (8 )2 cos 16 + 4e 4
= 631:5814
t=2
Problem 2.8
a. The result is
h i
x(t) = cos (6 t =2)+2 cos (10 t) = Re ej(6 t =2)
+Re 2ej10 t
= Re ej(6 t =2)
+ 2ej10 t
b. The result is
j10 t 1 j(6 t =2) 1

x(t) = e + e + ej(6 t =2)
+ ej10 t
2 2
c. The single-sided amplitude spectrum consists of lines of height 1 and 2 at frequencies

of 3 and 5 Hz, respectively. The single-sided phase spectrum consists of a line of height
=2 at frequency 3 Hz. The double-sided amplitude spectrum consists of lines of
height 1, 1/2, 1/2, and 1 at frequencies of 5; 3; 3; and 5 Hz, respectively. The
double-sided phase spectrum consists of lines of height =2 and =2 at frequencies
of 3 and 3 Hz, respectively.
Problem 2.9
a. Power. Since the signal is periodic with period =!, we have
Z =! Z =!
! 2 2 ! A2 A2
P = A jsin (!t + )j dt = f1 cos [2 (!t + )]g dt = W
0 0 2 2
b. Neither. The energy calculation gives

Z Z
T
(A )2 dt T
(A )2 dt
E = lim p p dt = lim p dt ! 1
T !1 T + jt jt T !1 T
2 + t2
The power calculation gives

Z p !
1 T
(A )2 dt (A )2 1+ 1 + T 2= 2
P = lim p dt = lim ln p =0W
T !1 2T T
2 + t2 T !1 2T 1 + 1 + T 2= 2
c. Energy:
Z 1
r
1
E= A t exp ( 2t= ) dt = A2
2 2
W (use a table of integrals)
0 8 2
d. Energy: This is a "top hat" pulse which is height 2 for jtj =2, height 1 for
=2 < jtj , and 0 everywhere else. Making use of the even symmetry about t = 0,
the energy is
Z =2 Z !
2 2
E=2 2 dt + 1 dt = 5 J
0 =2
Problem 2.10
a. Power. Since it is a periodic signal, we obtain
Z T0 Z T0
1 2 1
P1 = 4 cos (4 t + 2 =3) dt = 2 [1 + cos (8 t + 4 =3)] dt = 2 W
T0 0 T0 0
where T0 = 1=2 s is the period. The cosine in the above integral integrates to zero because
the interval of integratation is two periods.
b. Energy. The energy is
Z 1 Z 1
2 t 2 2 t 1
E2 = e u (t)dt = e dt = J
1 0 2
c. Energy. The energy is
Z 1 Z 0
1
E3 = e2 t u2 ( t)dt = e2 t dt = J
1 1 2
d. Energy. The energy is
Z T Z T
dt 1 dt
E4 = lim = lim
T !1 T ( 2 + t2 ) T !1 2 T 1 + (t= )2
T
1 1 t 1 1 1
= lim tan = lim tan (T = ) tan ( T= )
T !1 T T !1
1h i
= = J
2 2
e. Energy. Since it is the sum of x2 (t) and x3 (t), its energy is the sum of the energies
of these two signals, or E5 = 1= .
f. Energy. The energy is

Z T h i2
E6 = lim e t u (t) e (t 1)
u (t 1) dt
T !1 T
Z T h i
2 t 2 t (t 1) 2 (t 1) 2
= lim e u (t) e e u (t) u (t 1) + e u (t 1) dt
T !1 T
Z T Z T Z T
2 t 2 (t 1) 2 (t 1)
= lim e dt e e dt + e dt
T !1 0 1 1
Z T Z T 1 Z T 1
2 t 2 t0 t0
= lim e dt e e dt0 + e 2 dt0
T !1
8 0 0 0
9
< e 2 T 1 T 1=
t T e 2 t0 e 2 t0
= lim +e
T !1 : 2 0 2 2 ;
0 0
1 e 1 1 1
= + = 1 e J
2 2 2 2
Problem 2.11
a. This is a periodic train of boxcars, each 1 unit high and 3 units in width, centered
at multiples of T0 = 6. Using the period centered on t = 0, the power calculation is
Z Z
1 3 2 t 1 1:5 1
P1 = dt = dt = W
6 3 3 6 1:5 2
b. This is a periodic train of unit-high isoceles triangles, each 1 unit high and 4 units
wide, centered at multiples of T0 = 5. Using the period centered on t = 0, the power
calculation is
Z 2:5 Z 2 2 3 2
1 2 t 2 t 22 t 4
P2 = dt = 1 dt = 1 = W
5 2:5 2 5 0 2 53 2 15
0
c. This is a backward train of sawtooths (right triangles with the right angle on the left),
each of height 1 and 2 units wide, spaced by 3 units. Using the waveform period
between 0 and 3, the power calculation is
Z 2 2 3 2
1 t 12 t 2
Pc = 1 dt = 1 = W
3 0 2 33 2 9
0
d. Use a trig identity to write this as 2 sin 5 t cos 5 t = sin 10 t which has a period of
1/5 second. The power calculation is
Z 1=5 Z 1=5
2 1 1 1
Pd = 5 sin 10 t dt = 5 cos (20 t) dt = W
0 0 2 2 2
Problem 2.12
R6 2 (6
a. This is a cosine burst from t = 6 to t = 6 seconds. The energy is E1 = 6 cos t) dt =
R6
2 0 21 + 12 cos (12 t) dt = 6 J
b. The energy is
Z 1 h i2 Z 1
jtj=3 2t=3
E2 = e dt = 2 e dt (by even symmetry)
1 0
1
e 2t=3
= 2 =3J
2=3
0
Since the result is nite, this is an energy signal.
c. The energy is
Z 1 Z 8
2
E3 = f2 [u (t) u (t 8)]g dt = 4dt = 32 J
1 0
d. Note that Z t
0; t < 0
r (t) , u( )d =
1 t; t 0
which is called the unit ramp. Thus the given signal is a triangle between 0 and 20. The
energy is
Z 1 Z 10 2 3 10
2 t 20 t 20
E4 = [r (t) 2r (t 10) + r (t 20)] dt = 2 dt = = J
1 0 10 3 10 3
0
where the last integral follows because the integrand is a symmetrical triangle about t = 10.
Problem 2.13
a. The energy is
Z 1 Z 1
2
E1 = 6e( 3+j4 )t
dt = 36 e( 3+j4 )t ( 3 j4 )t
e dt
0 0
Z 1 6t 1
6t e
= 36 e dt = 36 =6J
0 6 0
The power is 0 W.
b. This signal is a "top hat" pulse which is 2 for 2 t 4, 1 for 0 t < 2 and 4 < t 6,
and 0 everywhere else. It is clearly an energy signal with energy
E2 = 2 12 + 2 22 + 2 12 = 12 J
Its power is 0 W.
c. This is a power signal with power

Z T Z
1 j6 t j6 t 49 T 49
P3 = lim 49e e u (t) dt = lim dt = = 24:5 W
T !1 2T T T !1 2T 0 2
Its energy is innite.

22
d. This is a periodic signal with power P = 2 = 2 W. Its energy is innite.
Problem 2.14
a. Expand the integrand, integrate term by term, and simplify making use of the orthog-
onality property of the orthonormal functions.
b. Add and subtract the quantity suggested right above (2.34) and simplify using the
orthogonality of the functions.
c. These are unit-high rectangular pulses of width T =4. They are centered at t =
T =8; 3T =8; 5T =8; and 7T =8. Since they are spaced by T =4, they are adjacent to
each other and ll the interval [0; T ].
d. Using the expression for the generalized Fourier series coe cients, we nd that X1 =
1=8; X2 = 3=8; X3 = 5=8; and X4 = 7=8. Also, cn = T =4. Thus, the ramp signal is
approximated by
t 1 3 5 7
= 1 (t) + 2 (t) + 3 (t) + 4 (t) ; 0 t T
T 8 8 8 8
where the n (t)s are given in part (c).
e. These are unit-high rectangular pulses of width T =2 and centered at t = T =4 and

3T =4. We nd that X1 = 1=4 and X2 = 3=4.
f. To compute the ISE, we use

Z N
X
N = jx (t)j2 dt cn Xn2
T n=1
R RT
Note that T jx (t)j2 dt = 0 (t=T )2 dt = T =3. Hence, for (d),
ISEd = T3 T 1 9 25 49
4 64 + 64 + 64 + 64 = 5:208 10 3 T .
For (e), ISEe = T3 T 1 9
2 16 + 16 = 2:083 10 2 T .
Problem 2.15
a. Use the exponential representation of the sine to get the Fourier coe cients as (note
that the period = 12 f10 ).
2
ej2 f0 t e j2 f0 t 1 j4 f0 t
x1 (t) = = e 2 + ej4 f0 t
2j 4
from which we nd that

1 1
X 1 = X1 = ; X0 =
4 2
All other coe cients are zero.
b. Use the exponential representations of the sine and cosine to get

1 1 1 j4 1
x2 (t) = ej2 f0 t
+ e j2 f0 t
+ e f0 t
e j4 f0 t
2 2 2j 2j
Therefore, the Fourier coe cients for this case are

1 1
X 1 = X1 = and X2 = X 2 =
2 2j
c. Use a trig identity to write this signal as

1 1 1
x3 (t) = sin 8 f0 t = ej8 f0 t
e j8 f0 t
2 4j 4j
The fundamental frequency is 4f0 Hz. From this it follows that the Fourier coe cients are
1
X1 = X 1 =
4j
e. Use trig identities and the exponential forms of cosine to write this signal as
3 1
x4 (t) = cos 2 f0 t + cos 6 f0 t
4 4
3 j2 f0 t 3 j2 f0 t 1 j6 f0 t 1 j6 f0 t
= e + e + e + e
8 8 8 8
The fundamental frequency is f0 Hz. It follows that the Fourier coe cients for this case
are
3 1
X 1 = X1 = ; X 3 = X3 =
8 8
All other Fourier coe cients are zero.
Problem 2.16
This is a matter of integration. Only the solution for part (b) will be given here. The
integral for the Fourier coe cients is
Z T0 =2 Z T0 =2
A jn! 0 t A
Xn = sin (! 0 t) e dt = ej!0 t e j! 0 t
e jn! 0 t
dt
T0 0 2jT0 0
"Z Z #
T0 =2 T0 =2
A j(1 n)! 0 t j(1+n)! 0 t
= e dt e dt
2jT0 0 0
2 3
T0 =2 T0 =2
A 4 ej(1 n)!0 t e j(1+n)! 0 t
5
=
2jT0 j (1 n) ! 0 j (1 + n) ! 0
0 0
" #
A ej(1 n) 1 e j(1+n) 1
= + ; n 6= 1 (! 0 T0 =2 = )
4 1 n 1+n
A ( 1)n + 1 ( 1)n + 1
= + ; n 6= 1
4 1 n 1+n
(
0; n odd and n 6= 1
= A
(1 n2 )
; n even
For n = 1, the integral is

Z T0 =2
A
X1 = ej!0 t e j! 0 t
e j! 0 t
dt
2jT0 0
Z T0 =2
A j2! 0 t jA
= 1 e dt = =X 1
2jT0 0 4
This is the same result as given in Table 2.1.
Problem 2.17
Parts (a) through (c) were discussed in the text. For (d), break the integral for Xn up into
a part for t < 0 and a part for t > 0. Then use the odd half-wave symmetry condition.
The development follows:

"Z Z 0 #
T0 =2
1 j2 nf0 t j2 nf0 t
Xn = x (t) e dt + x (t) e dt
T0 0 T0 =2
"Z Z T0 =2 #
T0 =2
1 j2 nf0 t 0 j2 nf0 (t0 +T0 =2)
= x (t) e dt + x t + T0 =2 e dt ; t0 = t + T0 =2
T0 0 0
"Z Z #
T0 =2 T0 =2
1 0
= x (t) e j2 nf0 t dt x t0 e j2 nf0 t jn dt ; f0 = 1=T0
T0 0 0
"Z Z T0 =2 #
T0 =2
1 0
= x (t) e j2 nf0 t dt ( 1)n x t0 e j2 nf0 t dt
T0 0 0
(
0; n even
= 2
R T0 =2
T0 0 x (t) e j2 nf0 t dt; n odd
Problem 2.18
The expansion interval is T0 = 4 so that f0 = 1=4 Hz. The Fourier coe cients are
Z Z
1 2 2 jn( =2)t 2 2 2
Xn = 2t e dt = t (cos n t=2 j sin n t=2) dt =
4 2 4 2
Z
2 2 2 n t
= 2t cos dt
4 0 2
which follows by the oddness of the second integrand and the eveness of the rst integrand.
Let u = n t=2 to obtain the form
Z
2 3 n 2 16
Xn = 2 u cos u du = 2 ( 1)n n 6= 0 (use a table of integrals)
n 0 (n )
If n is odd, the Fourier coe cients are zero as is evident from the eveness of the function
being represented. If n = 0, the integral for the coe cients is
Z
1 2 2 8
X0 = 2t dt =
4 2 3
The Fourier series is therefore
1
X
8 16 jn(
x (t) = + ( 1)n e =2)t
3
n= 1; n6=0
(n )2
Problem 2.19
a. Use Parsevals theorem to get

N
X N
X 2
A
Pjnf0 j 1= = jXn j2 = sinc2 (nf0 )
T0
n= N n= N
where N is an appropriately chosen limit on the sum. We are given that only frequences for
which jnf0 j 1= are to be included. This is the same as requiring that jnj 1= ( f0 ) =
T0 = = 2: Also, for a pulse train, Ptotal = A2 =T0 and, in this case, Ptotal = A2 =2: Thus
2
Pjnf0 j 1= 2 X A 2
= sinc2 (nf0 )
Ptotal A2 2
n= 2
2
1 X
= sinc2 (nf0 )
2
n= 2
1
= 1 + 2 sinc2 (1=2) + sinc2 (1)
2" #
1 2 2
= 1+2 = 0:9053
2
b. In this case, jnj 5, Ptotal = A2 =5, and

5
Pjnf0 j 1= 1 X
= sinc2 (n=5)
Ptotal 5
n= 5
1n h io
= 1 + 2 (0:9355)2 + (0:7568)2 + (0:5046)2 + (0:2339)2
5
= 0:9029
c. In this case, jnj 10, Ptotal = A2 =10, and
10
Pjnf0 j 1= 1 X
= sinc2 (n=10)
Ptotal 10
n= 10
1 (0:9836)2 + (0:9355)2 + (0:8584)2 + (0:7568)2 + (0:6366)2
= 1+2
10 + (0:5046)2 + (0:3679)2 + (0:2339)2 + (0:1093)2
= 0:9028
d. In this case, jnj 20, Ptotal = A2 =20, and
20
Pjnf0 j 1= 1 X
= sinc2 (n=20)
Ptotal 20
n= 20
( 20
)
1 X
= 1+2 sinc2 (n=20)
20
n=1
= 0:9028
Problem 2.20
a. The integral for Yn is

Z Z T0
1 jn! 0 t 1 jn! 0 t
Yn = y (t) e dt = x (t t0 ) e dt; ! 0 = 2 f0
T0 T0 T0 0
Let t0 = t t0 , which results in

Z T0 t0
1 jn! 0 t0
Yn = x t0 e dt0 e jn! 0 t0
= Xn e j2 nf0 t0
T0 t0
b. Note that
y (t) = A cos ! 0 t = A sin (! 0 t + =2) = A sin [! 0 (t + =2! 0 )]

Thus, t0 in the theorem proved in part (a) here is =2! 0 . By Eulers theorem, a sine wave
can be expressed as
1 1
sin (! 0 t) = ej!0 t e j! 0 t
2j 2j
1 1
Its Fourier coe cients are therefore X1 = 2j and X 1 = 2j . According to the theorem
proved in part (a), we multiply these by the factor
jn! 0 t0 jn! 0 ( =2! 0 )
e =e = ejn =2
For n = 1, we obtain
1 j =2 1
Y1 = e =
2j 2
For n = 1, we obtain
1 j =2 1
Y 1 = e =
2j 2
which gives the Fourier series representation of a cosine wave as
1 1
y (t) = ej!0 t + e j! 0 t
= cos ! 0 t
2 2
We could have written down this Fourier representation directly by using Eulers theorem.
Problem 2.21
a. In the expression for the Fourier series of a pulse train (Table 2.1), let t0 = T0 =8
and = T0 =4 to get
A n nf0
Xn = sinc exp j
4 4 4
The spectra are shown in Fig. 2.4.
b. The amplitude spectrum is the same as for part (a) except that X0 = 3A4 . Note that
this can be viewed as having a sinc-function envelope with zeros at multiples of 3T4 0 .
The phase spectrum can be obtained from that of part (a) by subtracting a phase shift
of for negative frequencies and adding for postitive frequencies (or vice versa).
The Fourier coe cients are given by
3A 3n 3 nf0
Xn = sinc exp j
4 4 4
See Fig. 2.4 for amplitude and phase plots.

Part (a) Part (b)
0.6 0.6
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
-5 0 5 -5 0 5
f, Hz f, Hz
2 2
Phase, rad
0 Phase, rad 0
-2 -2
-5 0 5 -5 0 5
f, Hz f, Hz
Problem 2.22
a. Use the Fourier series of a square wave (specialize the Fourier series of a pulse train)
with A = 1 and t = 0 to obtain the series
4 1 1 1
1= 1 + +
3 5 7
Multiply both sides by 4 to get the series in the problem statement. Hence, the sum is 4.
b. Use the Fourier series of a triangular wave as given in Table 2.1 with A = 1 and t = 0
to obtain the series
4 4 4 4 4 4
1= + 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
+
25 9 9 25
2 2
Multiply both sides by 8 to get the series in given in the problem. Hence, its sum is 8 .
Problem 2.23
a. Use the rectangular pulse waveform of Table 2.1 specialized to

t T0 =4
xa (t) = 2A A; jtj < T0 =2
T0 =2
and periodically extended. Hence, from Table 2.1, we have

2AT0 =2 nT0 =2 2 nT0 =4
XnA = sinc exp j
T0 T0 T0
= Asinc (n=2) exp ( j n=2) ; n 6= 0
sin (n =2)
= A exp ( j n=2) ; n 6= 0
n =2
where the superscript A refers to xA (t). The dc component is 0 so X0A = 0. The Fourier
coe cients are therefore
X0A = 0
X1A = j2A= ; X A1 = j2A=
X2A = 0 = X A2
X3A = j2A=3 ; X A3 = j2A=3
b. Note that
dxB (t)
xA (t) =
dt
2B 4B
where A = T0 =2 = T0 obtained from matching the amplitude of xA (t) with the slope of
xB (t) or B = T40 A. The relationship between spectral components is therefore
XnA = (jn! 0 ) XnB = j2 nf0 XnB
or
XnA T0 XnA
XnB = =
j2 nf0 j2 n
where the superscript A refers to xA (t) and B refers to xB (t). For example,
j2A= 2B
X1B = = 2
= X B1
j2 f0
Problem 2.24
a. This is a decaying exponential starting at t = 0 and its Fourier transform is

Z 1 Z 1
t= j2 f t
X1 (f ) = A e e dt = A e (1= +j2 f )t dt
0 0
1
Ae (1= +j2 f )t A
= =
1= + j2 f 1= + j2 f
0
A
=
1 + j2 f
b. Since x2 (t) = x1 ( t) we have, by the time reversal theorem, that
X2 (f ) = X1 (f ) = X1 ( f )
A
=
1 j2 f
c. Since x3 (t) = x1 (t) x2 (t) we have, after some simplication, that
X3 (f ) = X1 (f ) X2 (f )
A A
=
1 + j2 f 1 j2 f
j4A f
=
1 + (2 f )2
d. Since x4 (t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) we have, after some simplication, that
X4 (f ) = X1 (f ) + X2 (f )
A A
= +
1 + j2 f 1 j2 f
2A
=
1 + (2 f )2
This is the expected result since x4 (t) is really a double-sided decaying exponential.
Problem 2.25
a. Using a table of Fourier transforms and the time reversal theorem, the Fourier trans-
form of the given signal is
1 1
X (f ) =
+ j2 f j2 f
Note that x (t) ! sgn(t) in the limit as ! 0. Taking the limit of the above Fourier
transform as ! 0, we deduce that
1 1 1
F [sgn (t)] = =
j2 f j2 f j f
b. Using the given relationship between the unit step and the signum function and the
linearity property of the Fourier transform, we obtain
1 1
F [u (t)] = F [sgn (t)] + F [1]
2 2
1 1
= + (f )
j2 f 2
c. The same result as obtained in part (b) is obtained.
Problem 2.26
a. One dierentiation gives
dxa (t)
= (t 0:5) (t 2:5)
dt
Two dierentiations give
d2 xa (t)
= (t) (t 1) (t 2) + (t + 3)
dt2
Application of the dierentiation theorem of Fourier transforms gives
(j2 f )2 Xa (f ) = 1 1 e j2 f
1 e j4 f
+1 e j6 f
= ej3 f
ej f
e j f
+e j3 f
e j3 f
j3 f
= 2 (cos 3 f cos f ) e
where the time delay theorem and the Fourier transform of a unit impulse have been used.
Dividing both sides by (j2 f )2 , we obtain
2 (cos 3 f cos f ) e j3 f cos f cos 3 f j3 f

Xa (f ) = = e
(j2 f )2 2 2f 2
1 1
Use the trig identity sin2 x = 2 2 cos 2x or cos 2x = 1 2 sin2 x to rewrite this result as
1 2 sin2 (0:5 f ) 1 + 2 sin2 (1:5 f ) j3 f

Xa (f ) = e
2 2f 2
sin2 (0:5 f ) + sin2 (1:5 f ) j3 f
= 2f 2
e
sin2 (1:5 f ) j3 f sin2 (0:5 f ) j3 f

= 2f 2
e 2f 2
e
" #
2 2
sin 1:5 f sin 0:5 f
= 1:52 0:52 e j3 f
1:5 f 0:5 f
= 1:52 sinc2 (1:5f ) 0:52 sinc2 (0:5f ) e j3 f
This is the same result as would have been obtained by writing

t 1:5 t 1:5
xa (t) = 1:5 0:5
1:5 0:5
and using the Fourier transform of the triangular pulse along with the superposition and
time delay theorems.
b. Two dierentiations give (sketch dxb (t) =dt to see this)

d2 xb (t)
= (t) 2 (t 1) + 2 (t 3) (t 4)
dt2
Application of the dierentiation theorem gives
(j2 f )2 Xb (f ) = 1 2e j2 f
+ 2e j6 f
e j8 f

1 2e j2 f + 2e j6 f e j8 f
Xb (f ) =
4 2f 2
Further manipulation may be applied to this result to convert it to
h i
Xb (f ) = sinc2 (f ) e j2 f e j6 f
h i
= sinc2 (f ) ej2 f e j2 f e j4 f
= 2j sin (2 f ) sinc2 (f ) e j4 f
which would have resulted from Fourier transforming the waveform written as
xb (t) = (t 1) (t 3)
c. Two dierentiations give (sketch dxc (t) =dt to see this)

d2 xc (t)
= (t) 2 (t 1) + 2 (t 2) 2 (t 3) + (t 4)
dt2
(j2 f )2 Xc (f ) = 1 2e j2 f
+ 2e j4 f
2e j6 f
+e j8 f
1 2e j2 f + 2e j4 f 2e j6 f +e j8 f
Xc (f ) =
(j2 f )2
This result may be further arranged to give
h i
Xc (f ) = sinc2 (f ) e j2 f
+e j6 f
= 2 cos (2 f ) sinc2 (f ) e j4 f
xc (t) = (t 1) + (t 3)
d. Two dierentiations give (sketch dxd (t) =dt to see this)

d2 xd (t)
= (t) 2 (t 1) + (t 1:5) + (t 2:5) 2 (t 3) + (t 4)
dt2
(j2 f )2 Xd (f ) = 1 2e j2 f
+e j3 f
+e j5 f
2e j6 f
+e j8 f
1 2e j2 f +e j3 f + e j5 f 2e j6 f +e j8 f
Xd (f ) =
(j2 f )2
This result may be further arranged to give
h i
Xd (f ) = sinc2 (f ) e j2 f
+ 0:5e j4 f
+e j6 f
xd (t) = (t 1) + 0:5 (t 2) + (t 3)
Problem 2.27
a. The result is
Xa (f ) = 2sinc (2f ) exp ( j2 f )
b. The result is
1 f
Xb (f ) = 2 exp ( j2 f )
2 2
c. The result is
Xc (f ) = 8sinc2 (8f ) exp ( j4 f )
d. The result is
Xd (f ) = 4 (4f ) exp ( j6 f )
Problem 2.28
a. The steps in nding the Fourier transform for (i) are as follows:
(t) ! sinc (f )
(t) exp [j4 t] ! sinc (f 2)
(t 1) exp [j4 (t 1)] ! sinc (f 2) exp ( j2 f )
The steps in nding the Fourier transform for (ii) are as follows:
(t) ! sinc (f )
(t) exp [j4 t] ! sinc (f 2)
(t + 1) exp [j4 (t + 1)] ! sinc (f 2) exp (j2 f )
b. The steps in nding the Fourier transform for (i) are as follows:
(t) ! sinc (f )
(t 1) ! sinc (f ) exp ( j2 f )
(t 1) exp [j4 (t 1)] = (t 1) exp (j4 t)
! sinc (f 2) exp [ j2 (f 2)] = sinc (f 2) exp ( j2 f )
which follows because exp( jn2 ) = 1 where n is an integer. The steps in nding the
Fourier transform for (ii) are as follows:
(t) ! sinc (f )
(t + 1) ! sinc (f ) exp (j2 f )
(t + 1) exp [j4 (t + 1)] = (t + 1) exp (j4 t)
! sinc (f 2) exp [j2 (f 2)] = sinc (f 2) exp (j2 f )
Problem 2.29
a. The time reversal theorem states that x ( t) ! X ( f ) 6= X (f ) if x (t) is complex,

so
1 1 1 1
xa (t) ! X1 (f ) + X1 ( f ) = sinc (f 2) exp ( j2 f ) + sinc ( f 2) exp (j2 f )
2 2 2 2
1 1
= sinc (f 2) exp ( j2 f ) + sinc (f + 2) exp (j2 f )
2 2
Note that
1 1
xa (t) = (t 1) exp [j4 (t 1)] + ( t 1) exp [j4 ( t 1)]
2 2
1 1
= (t 1) exp (j4 t) + (t + 1) exp ( j4 t) (by the eveness of (u) )
2 2
b. Similarly to (a), we obtain
1 1 1 1
xb (t) ! X2 (f )+ X2 ( f ) = sinc (f 2) exp (j2 f )+ sinc (f + 2) exp ( j2 f )
2 2 2 2
Problem 2.30
See the solutions to Problem 2.26.
Problem 2.31
a. This is an odd signal, so its Fourier transform is odd and purely imaginary.
b. This is an even signal, so its Fourier transform is even and purely real.
c. This is an odd signal, so its Fourier transform is odd and purely imaginary.
d. This signal is neither even nor odd, so its Fourier transform is complex.
e. This is an even signal, so its Fourier transform is even and purely real.
f. This signal is even, so its Fourier transform is real and even.
Problem 2.32
a. Using superposition, time delay, and the Fourier transform of an impulse, we obtain
X1 (f ) = ej8 t
+3+e j8 t
= 3 + 2 cos (8 t)
The Fourier transform is even and real because the signal is even.
b. Using superposition, time delay, and the Fourierr transform of an impulse, we obtain
X2 (f ) = 2ej16 t
2e j16 t
= 4j sin (16 f )
The Fourier transform is odd and imaginary because the signal is odd.
c. The Fourier transform is

4
X
X3 (f ) = n2 + 1 e j4 nf
= 1 + 2e j4 f
+ 5e j8 f
+ 10e j12 f
+ 17e j16 f
n=0
It is complex because the signal is neither even nor odd.
d. The Fourier transform is

2
X
X4 (f ) = n2 + 1 e j4 nf
= 5ej8 f
+ 2ej4 f
+ 1 + 2e j4 f
+ 5e j8 f
n= 2
= 1 + 4 cos (4 f ) + 10 cos (8 f )
The Fourier transform is even and real because the signal is even.
Problem 2.33
a. Use the transform pair
t 1
x1 (t) = e u (t) !
+ j2 f
Using Rayleighs energy theorem, we obtain the integral relationship

Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
2 df 2 2 t 1
jX1 (f )j df = df = jx1 (t)j dt = e dt =
2 + (2 f )2 2
1 1 1 0
b. Use the transform pair

1 t
x2 (t) = ! sinc ( f ) = X2 (f )
Rayleighs energy theorem gives

Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
jX2 (f )j2 df = 2
sinc ( f ) df = jx2 (t)j2 dt
1 1 1
Z 1 Z =2
1 2 t dt 1
= 2
dt = 2
=
1 =2
c. Use the transform pair
2 e jtj 1
jtj
e ! 2 or !
2 + (2 f ) 2 2 + (2 f )2
The desired integral, by Rayleighs energy theorem, is

Z 1 2 Z 1 2 jtj
1 e
I3 = df = dt
2 + (2 f )2 4 2
1 1
Z 1 t 1
2 2 t 1 e 2 1
= e dt = =
4 2 0 2 2 2 0 4 3
d. Use the transform pair

1 t
! sinc2 ( f )
The desired integral, by Rayleighs energy theorem, is

Z 1 Z 1
2
I4 = jX4 (f )j df = sinc4 ( f ) df
1 1
Z 1 Z
1 2
= 2
2
(t= ) dt = 2
[1 (t= )]2 dt
1 0
Z 1 1
2 2 2 1 2 2
= (1 u) du = 1 u =
0 3 0 3
Problem 2.34
a. The Fourier transform of this signal is
2 (1=3) 2=3
X1 (f ) = 2 =
1 + (2 f =3) 1 + [f = (3=2 )]2
Thus, the energy spectral density is

2
2=3
G1 (f ) =
1 + [f = (3=2 )]2
b. The Fourier transform of this signal is
2 f
X2 (f ) =
3 30
Thus, the energy spectral density is
4 2 f 4 f
X2 (f ) = =
9 30 9 30
c. The Fourier transform of this signal is
4 f
X3 (f ) = sinc
5 5
16 2 f
so the energy spectral density is G3 (f ) = 25 sinc 5
d. The Fourier transform of this signal is
2 f 20 f + 20
X4 (f ) = sinc + sinc
5 5 5
so the energy spectral density is

2
4 f 20 f + 20
G4 (f ) = sinc + sinc
25 5 5
Problem 2.35
a. The convolution operation gives

8
< 0; t1=2
1 (t +1=2)
y1 (t) = 1 e ; 1=2 < t + 1=2
: 1
e (t 1=2) e (t +1=2) ; t > + 1=2
b. The convolution of these two signals gives
y2 (t) = (t) + trap (t)
where tr(t) is a trapezoidal function given by

8
>
> 0; t < 3=2 or t > 3=2
<
1; 1=2 t 1=2
trap (t) =
>
> 3=2 + t; 3=2 t < 1=2
:
3=2 t; 1=2 t < 3=2
c. The convolution results in

Z 1 Z t+1=2
j j j j
y3 (t) = e ( t) d = e d
1 t 1=2
Sketches of the integrand for various values of t give the following cases:
8 R
t+1=2
>
< tR 1=2 e d ; R
> t 1=2
0 t+1=2
y3 (t) = t 1=2 e d + 0 e d ; 1=2 < t 1=2
>
> R
: t+1=2
e d ; t > 1=2
t 1=2
Integration of these three cases gives

8 1
< e (t+1=2) e (t 1=2) ; t 1=2
1
y3 (t) = e (t 1=2) e (t+1=2) ; 1=2 < t 1=2
: 1
e (t 1=2) e (t+1=2) ; t > 1=2
d. The convolution gives Z t

y4 (t) = x( )d
1
Problem 2.36
a. Using the convolution and time delay theorems, we obtain
Y1 (f ) = F [exp ( t) u (t) (t )]
1
= sinc (f ) exp ( j2 f )
+ j2 f
b. The superposition and convolution theorems give
Y2 (f ) = F f[ (t=2) + (t)] (t)g

= [2sinc (2f ) + sinc (f )] sinc (f )
c. By the convolution theorem

h i
jtj
Y3 (f ) = F e (t)
2
= sinc (f )
2 + (2 f )2
d. By the convolution theorem (note, also, that the integration theorem can be applied
directly)
Y4 (f ) = F [x (t) u (t)]
1 1
= X (f ) + (f )
j2 f 2
X (f ) 1
= + X (0) (f )
j2 f 2
Problem 2.37
a. By the modulation theorem
AT0 T0 T0
X (f ) = sinc (f f0 ) + sinc (f + f0 )
4 2 2
AT0 1 f 1 f
= sinc 1 + sinc +1
4 2 f0 2 f0
b. Use the superposition and modulation theorems to get

AT0 f 1 1 f 1 f
X (f ) = sinc + sinc 2 + sinc +2
4 2f0 2 2 f0 2 f0
c. In this case, p(t) = x(t) and P (f ) = X(f ) of part (a) and Ts = T0 : From part (a),
we have
AT0 n 1 n+1
P (nf0 ) = sinc + sinc
4 2 2
Using this in (2.149), we have the Fourier transform of the half-wave rectied cosine wave-
form as
X1
A n 1 n+1
X(f ) = sinc + sinc (f nf0 )
n= 1
4 2 2
Note that sinc(x) = 0 for integer values of its argument and it is 1 for its argument 0. Also,
use sinc(1=2) = 2= ; sinc(3=2) = 2=3 , etc. to get
A A A
X (f ) = (f ) + [ (f f0 ) + (f + f0 )] + [ (f 2f0 ) + (f + 2f0 )]
4 3
A
[ (f 4f0 ) + (f + 4f0 )] +
15
Problem 2.38
1
a. From before, the total energy is E1; total = 2 . The Fourier transform of the given
signal is
1
X1 (f ) =
+ j2 f
so that the energy spectral density is
1
G1 (f ) = jX1 (f )j2 =
2 + (2 f )2
By Rayleighs energy theorem, the normalized inband energy is
Z W
E1 (jf j W ) df 2 2 W
=2 2 = tan 1
E1; total W
2 + (2 f )
b. The total energy is E2; total = . The Fourier transform of the given signal and its
energy spectral density are, respectively,
X2 (f ) = sinc (f ) and G2 (f ) = jX2 (f )j2 = 2

sinc2 (f )
By Rayleighs energy theorem, the normalized inband energy is

Z Z W
E2 (jf j W ) 1 W 2 2
= sinc (f ) df = 2 sinc2 (u) du
E2; total W 0
The integration must be carried out numerically.
c. The total energy is

Z 1h i2 Z 1h i2
t t 2 t ( + )t 2 t
E3; total = e e dt = e 2e +e dt
0 0
1 2 1 ( + ) 4 + ( + ) ( )2
= + = =
2 + 2 2 ( + ) 2 ( + )
The Fourier transform of the given signal and its energy spectral density are, respectively,
1 1
X3 (f ) =
+ j2 f + j2 f
and
2
1 1
G3 (f ) = jX3 (f )j2 =
+ j2 f + j2 f
1 1 1
1
= 2 Re +
2 + (2 f )2 + j2 f + (2 f )2
j2 f 2
1 j2 f + j2 f 1
= 2 Re + 2
2 + (2 f )2 2 + (2 f )2 2 + (2 f )2 + (2 f )2
2 3
2
1 ( ) j2 f + (2 f ) 1
= 2 Re 4 5+
2 + (2 f )2 2 + (2 f )2 2
+ (2 f )2
2
+ (2 f )2
1 + (2 f )2 1
= 2 +
2 + (2 f )2 2
+ (2 f )2
2 + (2 f )2 2
+ (2 f )2
The normalized inband energy is

Z W
E3 (jf j W ) 1
= G3 (f ) df
E3; total E3; total W
The rst and third terms may be integrated easily as inverse tangents. The second term
may be integrated after partial fraction expansion:
+ (2 f )2 A B
2 = +
2 + (2 f )2 2
+ (2 f )2
2 + (2 f )2 2
+ (2 f )2
Pulse Fraction of total energy

1 1
E1/E1,tot
x 1(t) 0.5 0.5
0 0
-2 0 2 4 0 2 4 6
t W/
1 1
E2/E2,tot
x 2(t)
0.5 0.5
0 0
-2 0 2 4 0 2 4 6
t/ W
1 1
= 2
E3/E3,tot
x 3(t)
0.5 0.5
0 0
-2 0 2 4 0 2 4 6
t W/
where
2 2
A=2 2 2 and B = 2 2 2
Therefore
Z W
E3 (jf j W ) 1 1 A B 1
= + df
E3; total E3; total W
2 + (2 f )2 2 + (2 f )2 2
+ (2 f )2 2
+ (2 f )2
" 1 1 2 W A 1 2 W
#
1 tan tan
= B 1 2 W 1 1 2 W
E3; total tan + tan
1 1 2 W 1 2 W
= (1 A) tan 1 + (1 B) tan 1
E3; total
1 1 1 2 W 1 1 2 W
= tan tan
E3; total +
2 2 W 2 W
= tan 1 tan 1
( )
Plots of the signals and inband energy for all three cases are shown in Fig. 2.5
Problem 2.39
Signals x1 (t) and x2 (t) are even. Therefore their Fourier transforms are real and even.
Signals x3 (t) and x4 (t) are odd. Therefore their Fourier transforms are imaginary and odd.
Using the Fourier transforms for a square pulse and a triangle along with superposition,
time delay, and scaling, the Fourier transforms of these signals are the following.
a. X1 (f ) = 2sinc2 (2f ) + 2sinc(2f )
b. X2 (f ) = 2sinc(2f ) sinc2 (f )
c. X3 (f ) = sinc(f ) ej f sinc(f ) e j f = 2j sin ( f )sinc(f )
d. X4 (f ) = sinc(f ) e j2 f sinc(f ) ej2 f = 2j sin (2 f )sinc(f )
Problem 2.40
a. Write
6 cos (20 t) + 3 sin (20 t) = R cos (20 t )

= R cos cos (20 t) + R sin sin (20 t)
Thus
R cos = 6 cos (20 t)

R sin = 3 sin (20 t)
Square both equations, add, and take the square root to obtain
p p
R = 62 + 32 = 45 = 6:7082
Divide the second equation by the rst to obtain
tan = 0:5
= 0:4636 rad
So p
x (t) = 3 + 45 cos (20 t 0:4636)
Following Example 2.19, we obtain
45
Rx ( ) = 32 + cos (20 )
2
b. Taking the Fourier transform of Rx ( ) we obtain
45
Sx (f ) = 9 (f ) + [ (f 10) + (f + 10)]
4
Problem 2.41
Since the autocorrelation function and power spectral density of a signal are Fourier trans-
form pairs, we may write down the answers by inspection using the Fourier transform pair
A cos (2 f0 t) ! A2 (f f0 ) + A2 (f + f0 ). The answers are the following.
a. R1 ( ) = 8 cos (30 ); Average power = R1 (0) = 8 W.
b. R2 ( ) = 18 cos (40 ); Average power = R2 (0) = 18 W.
c. R3 ( ) = 32 cos (10 ); Average power = R3 (0) = 32 W.
d. R4 ( ) = 18 cos (40 ) + 32 cos (10 ); Average power = R4 (0) = 50 W.
Problem 2.42
Use the facts that the power spectral density integrates to give total power, it must be even,
and contains no phase information.
a. The total power of this signal is 22 =2 = 2 watts which is distributed equally at the
frequencies 10 hertz. Therefore, by inspection we write
S1 (f ) = (f 10) + (f + 10) W/Hz
b. The total power of this signal is 32 =2 = 4:5 watts which is distributed equally at the
S2 (f ) = 2:25 (f 15) + 2:25 (f + 15) W/Hz
c. The total power of this signal is 52 =2 = 12:5 watts which is distributed equally at the
S3 (f ) = 6:25 (f 5) + 6:25 (f + 5) W/Hz

d. The power of the rst component of this signal is 32 =2 = 4:5 watts which is distributed
equally at the frequencies 15 hertz. The power of the second component of this
signal is 52 =2 = 12:5 watts which is distributed equally at the frequencies 5 hertz.
Therefore, by inspection we write
S4 (f ) = 2:25 (f 15) + 2:25 (f + 15) + 6:25 (f 5) + 6:25 (f + 5) W/Hz
Problem 2.43
The autocorrelation function must be (1) even, (2) have an absolute maximum at = 0,
and (3) have a Fourier transform that is real and nonnegative.
a. Acceptable - all properties satised;
b. Acceptable - all properties satised;
c. Not acceptable - none of the properties satised;
d. Acceptable - all properties satised;
e. Not acceptable - property (3) not satised;
f. Not acceptable - none of the properties satised.
Problem 2.44
This is a matter of applying (2.151) by making the appropriate identications with the
parameters given in Example 2.20.
Problem 2.45
A2
Given that the autocorrelation function of x (t) = A cos (2 f0 t + ) is Rx ( ) = 2 cos (2 f0 )
(special case of Ex. 2.19), the results are as follows.
a. R1 ( ) = 2 cos (10 );
b. R2 ( ) = 2 cos (10 );
c. R3 ( ) = 5 cos (10 ) (write the signal as x3 (t) = Re 5 exp j tan 1 (4=3) exp (j10 t) );
22 +22
d. R4 ( ) = 2 cos (10 ) = 4 cos (10 ).
Problem 2.46
Fourier transform both sides of the dierential equation using the dierentiation theorem
of Fourier transforms to get
[j2 f + a] Y (f ) = [j2 bf + c] X (f )
Therefore, the frequency response function is
Y (f ) c + j2 bf
H (f ) = =
X (f ) a + j2 f
The amplitude response function is

q
c2 + (2 bf )2
jH (f )j = q
a2 + (2 f )2
and the phase response is
1 2 bf 1 2 f
arg [H (f )] = tan tan
c a
Amplitude and phase responses for various values of the constants are plotted in Figure 2.6.
Problem 2.47
Use the transform pair for a sinc function to nd that
f f
Y (f ) =
2B 2W
a. If W < B, it follows that

f
Y (f ) =
2W
f f
because 2B = 1 throughout the region where 2W is nonzero.
b. If W > B, it follows that

f
Y (f ) =
2B
f f
because 2W = 1 throughout the region where 2B is nonzero.
a = 1; b = 2; c = 0 a = 1; b = 0; c = 3
2 3
1.5
2
mag(H)
mag(H)
1
1
0.5
0 0
-5 0 5 -5 0 5
2 2
1 1
angle(H), rad
angle(H), rad
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-5 0 5 -5 0 5
f, Hz f, Hz
c. Part (b) gives distortion because the output spectrum diers from the input spectrum.
In fact, the output is
y (t) = 2Bsinc (2Bt)
which clearly diers from the input for W > B.
Problem 2.48
a. Use the transform pair

t A
Ae u (t) !
+ j2 f
to nd the unit impulse response as
5t
h1 (t) = e u (t)
b. Long division gives

5
H2 (f ) = 1
5 + j2 f
Use the transform pair (t) ! 1 along with superposition and the transform pair in part
(a) to get
5t
h2 (t) = (t) 5e u (t)
c. Use the time delay theorem along with the result of part (a) to get
5(t 3)
h3 (t) = e u (t 3)
d. Use superposition and the results of parts (a) and (c) to get
5t 5(t 3)
h4 (t) = e u (t) e u (t 3)
Problem 2.49
a. Replace the capacitors with 1=j!C which is their ac-equivalent impedance. Call
the junction of the input resistor, feedback resistor, and capacitors 1. Call the
junction at the positive input of the operational amplier 2. Call the junction at the
negative input of the operational amplier 3. Write down the KCL equations at these
three junctions. Use the constraint equation for the operational amplier, which is
V2 = V3 , and the denitions for ! 0 , Q, and K to get the given transfer function as
H (j!) = Vo (j!) =Vi (j!). The node equations are
V1 Vi V1 Vo
+ j!CV1 + + j!C(V1 V2 ) = 0
R R
V2
j!C(V2 V1 ) + = 0
R
V3 V3 Vo
+ = 0
Rb Ra
(constraint on op amp input) V2 = V3
b. See plot given in Figure 2.7.

c. In terms of f , the transfer function magnitude is
K (f =f0 )
jH(f )j = p s
2 2 2 2
f 1 f
1 f0 + Q2 f0
It can be shown that

p the maximim of jH(f )j is at f = f0 . By substitution, this maximum
is jH(f0 )j = KQ= p2. To nd the 3-dB bandwidth, we must nd the frequencies for which
jH(f )j = jH(f0 )j= 2. This results in
Q (f3 =f0 )
p =s
2 2 2 2
f3 1 f3
1 f0 + Q2 f0
which reduces to the quadratic equation

4 2
f3 1 f3
2+ 2 +1=0
f0 Q f0
Using the quadratic formula, the solutions to this equation are
s
2
f 3 1 1 1
= 2+ 2 2+ 2 4
f0 2 Q Q
r
1 1 1 1 1
= 2+ 2 1+ 1
2 Q Q 4Q2 Q
r
f 3 1 1
1 1 ; Q >> 1
f0 Q 2Q
Therefore, the 3-dB bandwidth is, for large Q, approximately
1 1 f0
B = f3 f 3 1+ f0 1 f0 =
2Q 2Q Q
d. Combinations of components giving
4
RC = 2:2508 10 seconds
and
Ra
= 2:5757
Rb
will work.
Problem 2.50
Application of the Payley-Wiener criterion gives the integral
Z 1
f2
I= 2
df
1 1+f
which does not converge. Hence, the given function is not suitable as the frequency response
function of a causal LTI system.
Problem 2.51
a. By voltage division, with the inductor replaced by j2 f L, the frequency response

function is
R2 + j2 f L R2 =L + j2 f
H1 (f ) = =
R1 + R2 + j2 f L (R1 + R2 ) =L + j2 f
20
|H(f)|, dB 10
-10
f0 = 999.9959 Hz; B 3 dB = 300.0242 Hz
-20
2 3 4
10 10 10
2
angle(H(f)), radians
-1
-2
2 3 4
10 10 10
f, Hz
By long division
R1 =L
H1 (f ) = 1 R1 +R2
L + j2 f
Using the transforms of a delta function and a one-sided exponential, we obtain
R1 R1 + R2
h1 (t) = (t) exp t u (t)
L L
b. Substituting the ac-equivalent impedance for the inductor and using voltage division,
the frequency response function is
R2 jj (j2 f L) j2 f LR2
H2 (f ) = where R2 jj (j2 f L) =
R1 + R2 jj (j2 f L) R2 + j2 f L
R2 j2 f L R2 (R1 k R2 ) =L
= R R
= 1
R1 + R2 R +R + j2 f L
1 2 R1 + R2 (R1 k R2 ) =L + j2 f
1 2
R 1 R2
where R1 k R2 = R1 +R2 . Therefore, the impulse response is
R2 R 1 R2 R1 R2
h2 (t) = (t) exp t u (t)
R1 + R2 (R1 + R2 ) L (R1 + R2 ) L
Both have a high pass amplitude response, with the dc gain of the rst circuit being R1R+R
2
2
and the second being 0; the high frequency gain of the rst is 1 and that of the second is
R2
R1 +R2 .
Problem 2.52
a. The condition for stability is

Z 1 Z 1
jh1 (t)j dt = jexp ( t) cos (2 f0 t) u (t)j dt
1 1
Z 1 Z 1
1
= exp ( t) jcos (2 f0 t)j dt < exp ( t) dt = <1
0 0
which follows because jcos (2 f0 t)j 1. Hence this system is BIBO stable.
b. The condition for stability is

Z 1 Z 1
jh2 (t)j dt = jcos (2 f0 t) u (t)j dt
1 1
Z 1
= jcos (2 f0 t)j dt ! 1
0
which follows by integrating one period of jcos (2 f0 t)j and noting that the total integral is
the limit of one period of area times N as N ! 1: This system is not BIBO stable.
c. The condition for stability is

Z 1 Z 1
1
jh3 (t)j dt = u (t 1) dt
1 1 t
Z 1
dt
= = ln (t)j1
1 !1
1 t
This system is not BIBO stable.
Problem 2.53
Using the Fourier coe cients of a half-rectied sine wave from Table 2.1 and noting that
those of a half-rectied cosine wave are related by
jn =2
X cn = X s n e
The fundamental frequency is 10 Hz. The ideal rectangular lter passes all frequencies less
than 13 Hz and rejects all frequencies greater than 13 Hz. Therefore
3A 3A
y (t) = cos (20 t)
2
Problem 2.54
The energy spectral density of the output is
Gy (f ) = jH (f )j2 jX (f )j2
where
25
jH (f )j2 =
16 + (2 f )2
1 1
X (f ) = ; Gx (f ) = jX (f ) j2 =
3 + j2 f 9 + (2 f )2
Hence
25
Gy (f ) = h ih i
2
9 + (2 f ) 16 + (2 f )2
Plots of the input and output energy spectral densities are left to the student.
Problem 2.55
a. The energy spectral density is given by

2
1 1
G1 (f ) = jX1 (f ) j2 = =
+ j2 f 2 + (2 f )2
1
Since Etotal = 2 , the 90% energy containment bandwidth is given by
Z B90 Z B90
0:9 1 2 1 2 f
= 2 2 df = 2 2 df; u =
2 2 + (2 f )
0 0 1+ 2 f
Z 2 B90 =
1 du 1
= 2
= tan 1 (2 B90 = )
0 1+u
or B90 = tan (0:45 ) = 1:0049
2
b. For this case, using X2 (f ) = (f =2W ) and Etotal = 2W; we obtain
Z B90
0:9 (2W ) = 2 df = 2B90
0
or B90 = 0:9W
c. For this case, using X3 (f ) = sinc(f ) and E3 = , we obtain

Z B90
2
0:9 = 2 sinc2 (f ) df
0
Z B90
or 0:45 = sinc2 (u) du
0
Numerical integration gives

B90 = 0:9=
Problem 2.56
a. Amplitude distortion; no phase distortion.
The output for (a) is
ya (t) = 4 cos 48 t 24 + 10 cos 126 t 63

150 150
1 1
= 4 cos 48 t + 10 cos 126 t
300 300
b. No amplitude distortion; phase distortion.
The output for (b) is
yb (t) = 2 cos 126 t 63 + cos (170 t)

150
1
= 2 cos 126 t + cos (170 t)
300
c. No amplitude distortion; no phase distortion.
The output for (c) is
1 1
yc (t) = 2 cos 126 t + 6 cos 144 t
300 300
d. No amplitude distortion; no phase distortion.
The output for (d) is
1 1
yd (t) = 4 cos 10 t + 16 cos 50 t
300 300
Problem 2.57
The outputs are the inputs phase shifted by =2 radians for frequencies greater than 0
and =2 for frequencies less than 0 Hz.
a. y1 (t) = exp [j100 t j =2] = j exp (j100 t);
1
b. y2 (t) = 2 exp [j100 t j =2] + 12 exp [ j100 t + j =2] = sin (100 t);
1 1
c. y3 (t) = 2j exp [j100 t j =2] 2j exp [ j100 t + j =2] = cos (100 t);
d. The spectrum of the input is X4 (f ) = 2sinc(2f ). The spectrum of the output is
2sinc (2f ) exp ( j =2) ; f > 0

Y4 (f ) =
2sinc (2f ) exp (j =2) ; f < 0
The time domain output signal is the inverse Fourier transform of this, which is
Z 1 Z 0
y4 (t) = 2sinc (2f ) exp ( j =2) exp (j2 f t) df + 2sinc (2f ) exp (j =2) exp (j2 f t) df
0 1
Z 1 Z 0
= 2j sinc (2f ) exp (j2 f t) df + 2j sinc ( 2u) exp ( j2 ut) ( du) ; u = f
0
Z 1 Z11
= 2j sinc (2f ) exp (j2 f t) df + 2j sinc (2u) exp ( j2 ut) du; sinc2u is even
0 0
Z 1
= 2 sinc (2f ) [ j exp (j2 f t) + j exp ( j2 f t)] df ; rewrite 2nd int in terms of f
Z0 1
= 4 sinc (2f ) sin (2 f t) df
0
This requires numerical integration. A plot is given in Fig. 2.8.

1.5
0.5
x 4(t), y 4(t)
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
t, s
Problem 2.58
a. The frequency response function corresponding to this impulse response is

3 3 1 2 f
H1 (f ) = =q exp j tan
5 + j2 f 5
25 + (2 f )2
The group delay is

1 d 2 f
Tg1 (f ) = tan 1
2 df 5
1 1 2
= 2
2 5
1 + 2 5f
5
=
25 + (2 f )2
The phase delay is
1 2 f
tan
1 (f ) 5
Tp1 (f ) = =
2 f 2 f
b. The frequency response function corresponding to this impulse response is
5 2
H2 (f ) =
3 + j2 f 5 + j2 f
5 (5 + j2 f ) 2 (3 + j2 f )
=
(3 + j2 f ) (5 + j2 f )
19 + j6 f
=
15 (2 f )2 + j16 f
q h i
361 + (6 f )2 exp j tan 1 6 f
19
= rh i2 h i
15 (2 f )2 + (16 f )2 exp j tan 1 16 f
15 (2 f )2
Therefore
1 6 f 1 16 f
2 (f ) = tan tan
19 15 (2 f )2
The group delay is
1 d 1 6 f 1 16 f
Tg2 (f ) = tan tan
2 df 19 15 (2 f )2
8 1 6 9
> >
1 < =
6 f 2 19
1+( )
19
= 1 16 (15 (2 f )2 ) 16 f [ 2(2 f )(2 )]
2 >: 2 2 >
;
1+ 16 f [15 (2 f )2 ]
15 (2 f )2
8 h i 9
> 15 + (2 f )2 >
1 < 19 (6 ) 16 =
= 2 h i2
2 >
: 361 + (6 f ) >
15 (2 f )2 + (16 f )2 ;
h i
57 8 15 + (2 f )2
= +
361 + (6 f )2 225 + 34 (2 f )2 + (2 f )4
The phase delay is
1 16 f 1 6 f
tan tan
2 (f ) 15 (2 f )2 19
Tp2 (f ) = =
2 f 2 f
The group and phase delays for (a) and (b) are shown in Fig. 2.9.
0.2
Group delay
0.15
Tg1(f), Tp1(f), s
Phase delay
0.1
0.05
0
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
f, Hz
0.5
Tg2(f), Tp2(f), s
-0.5
-1
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
f, Hz
Problem 2.59
The frequency response function may be written as
q
(4 )2 + (2 f )2 1 1
H (f ) = q exp j tan (f =2) j tan (f =4)
2 2
(8 ) + (2 f )
The group and phase delays are, respectively,
1 d
Tg (f ) = tan 1 (0:25f ) tan 1 (0:5f )
2 df
1 0:25 0:5
= 2
2 1 + (0:25f ) 1 + (0:5f )2
1
Tp (f ) = tan 1 (0:25f ) tan 1 (0:5f )
2 f
Problem 2.60
Frequency components are present in the output at radian frequencies of 0, ! 1 ; ! 2 ; 2! 1 ;
2! 2 ; ! 1 ! 2 , ! 1 + ! 2 ;3! 1 ; 3! 2 ; 2! 2 ! 1 , ! 1 + 2! 2 ; 2! 1 ! 2 , 2! 1 + ! 2 . To use this as a
frequency multiplier, pass the components at 2! 1 or 2! 2 to use as a doubler, or at 3! 1 or
3! 2 to use as a tripler.
Problem 2.61
a. The output of the nonlinear device is
y (t) = cos (2000 t) + 0:1 [cos (2000 t)]2

3 1
= cos (2000 t) + 0:1 cos (2000 t) + cos (6000 t)
4 4
= 1:075 cos (2000 t) + 0:025 cos (6000 t)
The steadystate lter output in response to this input is
z (t) = 1:075 jH (1000)j cos (2000 t) + 0:025 jH (3000)j cos (6000 t)
so that the THD is (neglecting the negative frequency term of H (f ))
(1:075)2 jH (1000)j2 2 2 1
THD = 2 2 ; jH(3000)j = 1; jH(1000)j =
(0:025) jH (3000)j 2
1 + 4Q (1000 3000)2
43 2
= (note that 1:075=0:025 = 43)
1 + 4Q (1000 3000)2
2
1849
=
1 + 16 106 Q2
where H (f ) is the transfer function of the lter.
b. For THD = 0:001% = 0:00001, the equation for Q becomes

1849
= 0:00001
1 + 16 106 Q2
or
16 106 Q2 = 1849 105 1

2
Q = 11:56
Q = 3:4
Problem 2.62
In terms of the input spectrum, the output spectrum is
Y (f ) = X (f ) + 0:1X (f ) X (f )
f 20 f + 20
= 4 +
6 6
f 20 f + 20 f 20 f + 20
+1:6 + +
6 6 6 6
f 20 f + 20
= 4 +
6 6
f 40 f f + 40
+1:6 6 + 12 +6
6 6 6
where (f ) is an isoceles triangle of unit height going from -1 to 1. The student should
sketch the output spectrum given the above analytical result.
Problem 2.63
Write the transfer function as
j2 f t0 f j2 f t0
H (f ) = H0 e H0 e
2B
Use the inverse Fourier transform of a constant, the delay theorem, and the inverse Fourier
transform of a rectangular pulse function to get
h (t) = H0 (t t0 ) 2BH0 sinc [2B (t t0 )]
Problem 2.64
a. The Fourier transform of this signal is

p
2 2 2
X (f ) = A 2 b2 exp 2 f
By denition, using a table of integrals,

Z 1 p
1
T = jx (t)j dt = 2
x (0) 1
Similarly, Z 1
1 1
W = jX (f )j df = p
2X (0) 1 2 2
Therefore,
2 p
2W T = p 2 =1
2 2
b. The Fourier transform of this signal is
2A=
X (f ) =
1 + (2 f = )2
The pulse duration is Z 1

1 2
T = jx (t)j dt =
x (0) 1
The bandwidth is Z 1
1
W = jX (f )j df =
2X (0) 1 4
Thus,
2
2W T = 2 =1
4
Problem 2.65
a. The poles for a second order Butterworth lter are given by

!
s1 = s2 = p3 (1 j)
2
where ! 3 is the 3-dB cuto frequency of the Butterworth lter. Its s-domain transfer
function is
!2 !2
H (s) = h i h3 i= p 3
s+ !3
p (1 j) s + !3
p (1 + j) s2 + 2! 3 s + ! 23
2 2
Letting ! 3 = 2 f3 and s = j! = j2 f , we obtain
4 2 f32 f2
H (j2 f ) = p = p3
4 2f 2 + 2 (2 f3 ) (j2 f ) + 4 2f 2 f 2 + j 2f3 f + f32
3
b. If the phase response function of the lter is (f ), the group delay is

1 d
Tg (f ) = [ (f )]
2 df
For the second-order Butterworth lter considered here,

p !
2f3 f
(f ) = tan 1
f32 f 2
Therefore, the group delay is

" p !#
1 d 1 2f3 f
Tg (f ) = tan 2
2 df f3 f 2
f f2 + f2 1 1 + (f =f3 )2
= p 3 34 = p
2 f3 + f 4 2 f3 1 + (f =f3 )4
This is plotted in Fig. 2.10.
c. Use partial fraction expansion of H (s) =s and then inverse Laplace transform it to get
the given step response. The expansion is
H (s) !2 A Bs + C
= p 3 2
= + p
s 2
s s + 2! 3 s + ! 3 s s + 2! 3 s + ! 23
2
p
where A = 1; B = 1; C = 2! 3
This allows H (s) =s to be written as

p
H (s) 1 s + 2! 3
= p
s s s2 + 2! 3 s + ! 23
p
1 s + 2! 3
= p
s s2 + 2! 3 s + ! 23 =2 ! 23 =2 + ! 23
p
1 s + 2! 3
= p 2
s s + ! 3 = 2 + ! 23 =2
p p p
1 s + ! 3 = 2 ! 3 = 2 + 2! 3
= p 2
s s + ! 3 = 2 + ! 23 =2
p p
1 s + !3= 2 !3= 2
= p 2 p 2
s s + ! 3 = 2 + ! 23 =2 s + ! 3 = 2 + ! 23 =2
Group delay for a 2nd-order BW filter Step response for a 2nd-order BW filter
0.35 1.4
0.3 1.2
0.25 1
0.2 0.8
f3Tg(f)
y s (t)
0.15 0.6
0.1 0.4
0.05 0.2
0 0
-1 0 1 0 0.5 1
10 10 10
f/f3 f3t
Using the s-shift theorem of Laplace transforms, this inverse transforms to the given ex-
pression for the step response (with ! 3 = 2 f3 ). Plot it and estimate the 10% and 90%
times from the plot. From the MATLAB plot of Fig. 2.10, f3 t10% 0:08 and f3 t90% 0:42
so that the 10-90 % rise time is about 0:34=f3 seconds.
Problem 2.66
a. The leading edges of the at-top samples follow the waveform at the sampling instants.
b. The spectrum is
Y (f ) = X (f ) H (f )
where
1
X
X (f ) = fs X (f nfs )
n= 1
and
H (f ) = sinc (f ) exp ( j f )
The latter represents the frequency response of a lter whose impulse response is a square
pulse of width and implements at top sampling. If W is the bandwidth of X (f ), very
little distortion will result if 1 >> W .
Problem 2.67
a. Slightly less than 0.5 seconds;
b & c. Use sketches to show.
Problem 2.68
a. The sampling frequency should be large compared with the bandwidth of the signal.
b. The output spectrum of the zero-order hold circuit is
1
X
Y (f ) = sinc (Ts f ) X (f nfs ) exp ( j f Ts )
n= 1
where fs = Ts 1 . For small distortion, we want Ts << W 1.
Problem 2.69
For bandpass sampling and recovery, all but (b) and (e) will work theoretically, although an
ideal lter with bandwidth exactly equal to the unsampled signal bandwidth is necessary.
For lowpass sampling and recovery, only (f) will work.
Problem 2.70
Use trig identities to rewrite the signal as a sum of sinusoids:
1
x (t) = 10 cos (600 t) (1 + cos (4800 t))
2
= 5 cos (600 t) + 2:5 cos (4200 t) + 2:5 cos (5400 t)
The lowpass recovery lter can cut o in the range 2.7+ kHz to 3.3 kHz where the super-
script + means just above and the superscript means just below. The lower of these is
the highest frequency of x (t) and the larger is equal to the sampling frequency minus the
highest frequency of x (t).
Problem 2.71
The Fourier transform is
1 1
Y (f ) = X (f
f0 ) + X (f + f0 )
2 2
1 1
+ [ jsgn (f ) X (f )] (f f0 ) e j =2 + (f + f0 ) ej =2
2 2
1 1
= X (f f0 ) [1 sgn (f f0 )] + X (f + f0 ) [1 + sgn (f + f0 )]
2 2
Noting that
1
[1 sgn (f f0 )] = u (f0 f )
2
1
and [1 + sgn (f + f0 )] = u (f + f0 )
2
this may be rewritten as
Y (f ) = X (f f0 ) u (f0 f ) + X (f + f0 ) u (f + f0 )
f
Thus, if X (f ) = 2 (a unit-height rectangle 2 units wide centered at f = 0) and f0 = 10
Hz, Y (f ) would consist of unit-height rectangles going from 10 to 9 Hz and from 9 to
10 Hz.
Problem 2.72
a. The spectrum is
Xp (f ) = X (f ) + j [ jsgn (f )] X (f ) = [1 + sgn (f )] X (f )
The Fourier transform of x (t) is
1 f f0 1 f + f0
X (f ) = +
2 2W 2 2W
Thus,
f f0
Xp (f ) = if f0 > 2W
2W
b. The complex envelope is dened by
~ (t) ej2
xp (t) = x f0 t
Therefore
j2 f0 t
x
~ (t) = xp (t) e
Hence
f f0 f
x (t)] = F [xp (t)]jf !f +f0 =
F [~ =
2W f !f +f0 2W
c. The complex envelope is
1 f
x
~ (t) = F = 2W sinc (2W t)
2W
Problem 2.73
a. Note that F [jb

x(t)] = j [ jsgn (f )] X (f ). Hence
2 1 2 1
x1 (t) = x (t) + jb x (t) ! X1 (f ) = X (f ) + j [ jsgn (f )] X (f )
3 3 3 3
2 1
= + sgn (f ) X (f )
3 3
1
= 3 X (f ) ; f < 0
X (f ) ; f > 0
b. It follows that
3 3
x2 (t) = x (t) + jb x (t) exp (j2 f0 t)
4 4
3
) X2 (f ) = [1 + sgn (f f0 )] X (f f0 )
4
0; f < f0
= 3
2 X (f f0 ) ; f > f0
c. This case has the same spectrum as part (a), except that it is shifted right by W Hz.
That is,
2 1
x3 (t) = x (t) + jb
x (t) exp (j2 W t)
3 3
2 1
! X3 (f ) = + sgn (f W ) X (f W)
3 3
d. For this signal

2 1
x4 (t) = x (t) jb
x (t) exp (j W t)
3 3
2 1
! X4 (f ) = sgn (f W=2) X (f W=2)
3 3
Problem 2.74
ba (t) = cos (! 0 t
a. x =2) = sin (! 0 t), so
Z T Z T
1 1
lim b (t) dt =
x (t) x lim sin (! 0 t) cos (! 0 t) dt
T !1 2T T T !1 2T T
Z T
1 1
= lim sin (2! 0 t) dt
T !1 2T T 2
T
1 cos (2! 0 t)
= lim =0
T !1 2T 4! 0 T
b. Use trigonometric identities to express x (t) in terms of sines and cosines. Then
nd the Hilbert transform of x (t) by phase shifting by =2. Multiply x (t) and
b (t) together term by term, use trigonometric identities for the product of sines and
x
cosines, then integrate. The integrand will be a sum of terms similar to that of part
(a). The limit as T ! 1 will be zero term-by-term.
b (t) = A exp (j! 0 t j =2) = jA exp (j! 0 t), take the product, inte-
c. For this case x
grate over time to get
Z T Z T
1 1
lim b (t) dt = lim
x (t) x [A exp (j! 0 t)] [jA exp (j! 0 t)] dt
T !1 2T T T !1 2T T
Z
jA2 T
= lim exp (j2! 0 t) dt = 0
T !1 2T T
by periodicity of the integrand
Problem 2.75
For t < =2, the output is zero. For jtj =2, the result is
=2
y (t) = q
2 + (2 f )2
n o
(t+ =2)
cos [2 (f0 + f) t ] e cos [2 (f0 + f) t + ]
2.2. COMPUTER EXERCISES 61
For t > =2, the result is
( =2) e t
y (t) = q
2 + (2 f )2
n o
=2 =2
e cos [2 (f0 + f) t ] e cos [2 (f0 + f) t + ]
In the above equations, is given by
1 2 f
= tan
2.2 Computer Exercises

Computer Exercise 2.1
% ce2_1: Computes generalized Fourier series coe cients for exponentially
% decaying signal, exp(-t)u(t), or sinewave, sin(2*pi*t)
%
type_wave = input(Enter waveform type: 1 = exp(-t)u(t); 2 = sin(2 pi t): );
tau = input(Enter approximating pulse width: );
if type_wave == 1
t_max = input(Enter duration of exponential: );
elseif type_wave == 2
t_max = 1;
end
clf
a = [];
t = 0:.001:t_max;
cn = tau;
n_max = oor(t_max/tau)
for n = 1:n_max
LL = (n-1)*tau;
UL = n*tau;
if type_wave == 1
a(n) = (1/cn)*quad(@integrand_exp, LL, UL);
a(n) = (1/cn)*quad(@integrand_sine, LL, UL);
end
end
disp()
disp(c_n)
disp(cn)
disp()
disp(Expansion coe cients (approximating pulses not normalized):)
disp(a)
disp()
x_approx = zeros(size(t));
for n = 1:n_max
x_approx = x_approx + a(n)*phi(t/tau,n-1);
end
if type_wave == 1
MSE = quad(@integrand_exp2, 0, t_max) - cn*a*a;
MSE = quad(@integrand_sine2, 0, t_max) - cn*a*a;
end
disp(Mean-squared error:)
disp(MSE)
disp()
if type_wave == 1
plot(t, x_approx), axis([0 t_max -inf inf]), xlabel(t),
ylabel(x(t); x_a_p_p_r_o_x(t))
hold
plot(t, exp(-t))
title([Approximation of exp(-t) over [0, ,num2str(t_max),] with
contiguous rectangular pulses of width ,num2str(tau)])
plot(t, x_approx), axis([0 t_max -inf inf]), xlabel(t),
ylabel(x(t); x_a_p_p_r_o_x(t))
hold
plot(t, sin(2*pi*t))
title([Approximation of sin(2*pi*t) over [0, ,num2str(t_max),] with
contiguous rectangular pulses of width ,num2str(tau)])
end
% Decaying exponential function for ce_1
%
function z = integrand_exp(t)
z = exp(-t);
% Sine function for ce_1
%
function z = integrand_sine(t)
z = sin(2*pi*t);
% Decaying exponential squared function for ce_1
%
function z = integrand_exp2(t)
z = exp(-2*t);
% Sin^2 function for ce_1
%
function z = integrand_sine2(t)
z = (sin(2*pi*t)).^2;
A typical run follows with a plot given in Fig. 2.11.
>> ce2_1
Enter waveform type: 1 = exp(-t)u(t); 2 = sin(2 pi t): 2
Enter approximating pulse width: 0.125
n_max =
8
c_n
0.1250
Expansion coe cients (approximating pulses not normalized):
Columns 1 through 7
0.3729 0.9003 0.9003 0.3729 -0.3729 -0.9003 -0.9003
Column 8
-0.3729
Mean-squared error:
0.0252

% ce2_2.m: Plot of line spectra for half-rectied, full-rectied sinewave, square wave,
% and triangle wave
%
clf
waveform = input(Enter type of waveform: 1 = HR sine; 2 = FR sine; 3 = square; 4
= triangle: );
A = 1;
n_max = 13; % maximum harmonic plotted; odd
n = -n_max:1:n_max;
if waveform == 1
X = A./(pi*(1+eps - n.^2)); % Oset 1 slightly to avoid divide by zero
Approximation of sin(2*pi*t) over [0, 1] with contiguous rectangular pulses of width 0.125
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
x(t); x approx (t)
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
t
for m = 1:2:2*n_max+1
X(m) = 0; % Set odd harmonic lines to zero
X(n_max+2) = -j*A/4; % Compute lines for n = 1 and n = -1
X(n_max) = j*A/4;
end
elseif waveform == 2
X = 2*A./(pi*(1+eps - 4*n.^2));
X = abs(4*A./(pi*n+eps));
for m = 2:2:2*n_max+1
X(m) = 0;
end
X = 4*A./(pi*n+eps).^2;
for m = 2:2:2*n_max+1
X(m) = 0;
end
end
[arg_X, mag_X] = cart2pol(real(X),imag(X)); % Convert to magnitude and phase
if waveform == 1
for m = n_max+3:2:2*n_max+1
arg_X(m) = arg_X(m) - 2*pi; % Force phase to be odd
end
m = nd(n > 0);
arg_X(m) = arg_X(m) - 2*pi; % Force phase to be odd
arg_X = mod(arg_X, 2*pi);
end
subplot(2,1,1),stem(n, mag_X),ylabel(jX_nj)
if waveform == 1
title(Half-rectied sine wave spectra)
title(Full-rectied sine wave spectra)
title(Spectra for square wave with even symmetry )
title(Spectra for triangle wave with even symmetry)
end
subplot(2,1,2),stem(n, arg_X),xlabel(nf_0),ylabel(angle(X_n))
Half-rectified sine wave spectra

0.4
0.3
|Xn|
0.2
0.1
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
2
angle(Xn)
-2
-4
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
nf0

>> ce2_2
Enter type of waveform: 1 = HR sine; 2 = FR sine; 3 = square; 4 = triangle: 1

% ce2_4.m: FFT plotting of line spectra for half-rectied, full-rectied sinewave,
% square wave, and triangular waveforms
%
clf
I_wave = input(Enter type of waveform: 1 = positive squarewave; 2 = 0-dc level
triangular; 3 = half-rect. sine; 4 = full-wave sine: );
T = 2;
del_t = 0.001;
t = 0:del_t:T;
L = length(t);
fs = (L-1)/T;
del_f = 1/T;
n = 0:9;
if I_wave == 1
x = pls_fn(2*(t-T/4)/T);
X_th = abs(0.5*sinc(n/2));
disp()
disp(0 - 1 level squarewave)
elseif I_wave == 2
x = 2*trgl_fn(2*(t-T/2)/T)-1;
X_th = 4./(pi^2*n.^2);
X_th(1) = 0; % Set n = even coe cients to zero (odd indexed because of MATLAB)
X_th(3) = 0;
X_th(5) = 0;
X_th(7) = 0;
X_th(9) = 0;
disp()
disp(0-dc level triangular wave)
elseif I_wave == 3
x = sin(2*pi*t/T).*pls_fn(2*(t-T/4)/T);
X_th = abs(1./(pi*(1-n.^2)));
X_th(2) = 0.25;
X_th(4) = 0; % Set n = odd coe cients to zero (even indexed because of MATLAB)
X_th(6) = 0;
X_th(8) = 0;
X_th(10) = 0;
disp()
disp(Half-rectied sinewave)
elseif I_wave == 4
x = abs(sin(pi*t/T)); % Period of full-rectied sinewave is T/2
X_th = abs(2./(pi*(1-4*n.^2)));
disp()
disp(Full-rectied sinewave)
end
X = 0.5*t(x)*del_t; % Multiply by 0.5 because of 1/T_0 with T_0 = 2
f = 0:del_f:fs;
Y = abs(X(1:10));
Z = [nYX_th];
disp(Magnitude of the Fourier coe cients);
disp()
disp(n FFT Theory);
disp(__________________________)
disp()
disp(Z);
subplot(2,1,1),plot(t, x), xlabel(t), ylabel(x(t))
subplot(2,1,2),plot(f, abs(X),o),axis([0 10 0 1]),...
xlabel(n), ylabel(jX_nj)
>> ce2_3
Enter type of waveform: 1 = positive squarewave; 2 = 0-dc level triangular; 3 = half-rect.
sine; 4 = full-wave sine: 3
Half-rectied sinewave
Magnitude of the Fourier coe cients
n FFT Theory
__________________________
0 0.3183 0.3183
1.0000 0.2501 0.2500
2.0000 0.1062 0.1061
3.0000 0.0001 0
4.0000 0.0212 0.0212
5.0000 0.0001 0
6.0000 0.0091 0.0091
7.0000 0.0000 0
8.0000 0.0051 0.0051
9.0000 0.0000 0

Make the time window long compared with the pulse width.
% ce2_5.m: Finding the energy ratio in a preset bandwidth
%
I_wave = input(Enter type of waveform: 1 = rectangular; 2 = triangular; 3 = half-rect.
sine; 4 = raised cosine: );
tau = input(Enter pulse width: );
per_cent = input(Enter percent total desired energy: );
clf
T = 20;
f = [];
G = [];
1
x(t)
0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
t
1
|Xn|
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
n
del_t = 0.001;
t = 0:del_t:T;
L = length(t);
fs = (L-1)/T;
del_f = 1/T;
% n = [0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9];
if I_wave == 1
x = pls_fn((t-tau/2)/tau);
disp()
disp(Rectangular pulse)
elseif I_wave == 2
x = trgl_fn(2*(t-tau/2)/tau);
disp()
disp(Triangular pulse)
elseif I_wave == 3
x = sin(pi*t/tau).*pls_fn((t-tau/2)/tau);
disp()
disp(Half sinewave)
elseif I_wave == 4
x = abs(sin(pi*t/tau).^2.*pls_fn((t-tau/2)/tau));
disp()
disp(Raised sinewave)
end
X = t(x)*del_t;
f1 = 0:del_f*tau:fs*tau;
G1 = X.*conj(X);
NN = oor(length(G1)/2);
G = G1(1:NN);
= f1(1:NN);
f = f1(1:NN+1);
E_tot = sum(G);
E_f = cumsum(G);
E_W = [0 E_f]/E_tot;
test = E_W - per_cent/100;
L_test = length(test);
k = 1;
while test(k) <= 0
k = k+1;
end
B = k*del_f;
if I_wave == 2
tau1 = tau/2;
else
tau1 = tau;
end
subplot(3,1,1),plot(t/tau, x), xlabel(t/ntau), ylabel(x(t)), axis([0 2 0 1.2])
if I_wave == 1
title([Energy containment bandwidth for rectangular pulse of width , num2str(tau),
seconds])
elseif I_wave == 2
title([Energy containment bandwidth for triangular pulse of width , num2str(tau),
seconds])
elseif I_wave == 3
title([Energy containment bandwidth for half-sine pulse of width , num2str(tau),
seconds])
elseif I_wave == 4
title([Energy containment bandwidth for raised cosine pulse of width , num2str(tau),
seconds])
end
subplot(3,1,2),semilogy(*tau1, abs(G./max(G))), xlabel(fntau), ylabel(G(f)), axis([0
10 1e-5 1])
subplot(3,1,3),plot(f*tau1, E_W,), xlabel(fntau), ylabel(E_W), axis([0 4 0 1.2])
legend([num2str(per_cent), % bandwidth X (pulse width) = , num2str(B*tau)],4)
% This function generates a unit-high triangle centered

% at zero and extending from -1 to 1
%
function y = trgl_fn(t)
y = (1 - abs(t)).*pls_fn(t/2);
% Unit-width pulse function

%
function y = pls_fn(t)
y = stp_fn(t+0.5)-stp_fn(t-0.5);
>> ce2_5
Enter type of waveform: 1 = positive squarewave; 2 = triangular; 3 = half-rect. sine; 4
= raised cosine: 3
Enter pulse width: 2
Energy containment bandwidth for half-sine pulse of width 2 seconds

x(t) 1
0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
t/
0
10
G(f)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
f
1
EW
0.5
95% bandwidth X (pulse width) = 1.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
f
Enter percent total desired energy: 95

The program for this exercise is similar to that for Computer Exercise 2.5, except that the
waveform is used in the energy calculation.
Use Computer Example 2.2 as a pattern for the solution .

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Chapter 2

Fundamentals of Signal and

2.1 Problem Solutions

a. The single-sided amplitude spectrum consists of a single line of height 5 at frequency

b. Write the signal as

xb (t) = 3 cos(12 t =2) + 4 cos(16 t)

xc (t) = 2 cos 20 t + 2 cos 4 t

xd (t) = 4 sin (2 t) + 2 sin ( 8 t) + 2 sin (12 t)

x(t) = 4ej(8 t+ =2)

= 8 cos (8 t + =2) + 4 cos (4 t =4)

a. Not periodic because f1 = 1= Hz and f2 = 3 Hz are not commensurable.

c. Periodic. Using a similar procedure as used in (b), we nd that n1 = 4, n2 = 21; and

d. Periodic. Using a similar procedure as used in (b), we nd that n1 = 4, n2 = 6;

a. For the single-sided spectra, write the signal as

x(t) = 10 cos(4 t + =8) + 6 sin(8 t + 3 =4)

x(t) = 5 exp[j(4 t + =8)] + 5 exp[ j(4 t + =8)]

The spectra are plotted in Fig. 2.1.

b. Write the given signal as

to plot the single-sided spectra. For the double-side spectra, write it as

xb (t) = 4ej(2 t+ =3)

The spectra are plotted in Fig. 2.2.

c. Change the sines to cosines by subtracting =2 from their arguments to get

xc (t) = 2 cos (4 t + =8 =2) + 12 cos (10 t =2)

Single sided Double sided

Single sided Double sided

Single sided Double sided

Spectral plots are given in Fig. 2.3.

a. This function has area

b. The area for the function is

Ib = ( 10)2 + 1 + ( 5)2 + 1 + 02 + 1 + 52 + 1 + 102 + 1 = 255

e. Use property 5 of the unit impulse function to get

j10 t 1 j(6 t =2) 1

c. The single-sided amplitude spectrum consists of lines of height 1 and 2 at frequencies

a. Power. Since the signal is periodic with period =!, we have

b. Neither. The energy calculation gives

The power calculation gives

a. Power. Since it is a periodic signal, we obtain

b. Energy. The energy is

c. Energy. The energy is

d. Energy. The energy is

f. Energy. The energy is

Since the result is nite, this is an energy signal.

Since the result is nite, this is an energy signal.

c. This is a power signal with power

Its energy is innite.

where the n (t)s are given in part (c).

e. These are unit-high rectangular pulses of width T =2 and centered at t = T =4 and

f. To compute the ISE, we use

from which we nd that

b. Use the exponential representations of the sine and cosine to get

Therefore, the Fourier coe cients for this case are

c. Use a trig identity to write this signal as

All other coe cients are zero.

For n = 1, the integral is

The development follows:

a. Use Parsevals theorem to get

b. In this case, jnj 5, Ptotal = A2 =5, and

c. In this case, jnj 10, Ptotal = A2 =10, and

d. In this case, jnj 20, Ptotal = A2 =20, and

a. The integral for Yn is

Let t0 = t t0 , which results in

y (t) = A cos ! 0 t = A sin (! 0 t + =2) = A sin [! 0 (t + =2! 0 )]

The spectra are shown in Fig. 2.4.

See Fig. 2.4 for amplitude and phase plots.