CHAPTER 6: STABILITY ANALYSIS IN PRESENCE OF WATER

Introduction 6.1
Water is the most important factor in most of the slope stability analysis. Pore water in soil can
strongly influence the physical interaction among soil grains. Changes in pore pressures can
directly impact the effective stresses, which in turn, affect both the shear strength and
consolidation behaviour of soil. Therefore, analysis of pore fluid seepage plays an important role
in the solution of many geotechnical problems, especially those concerning the stability analysis
of slopes and retaining structures.

Failure of soil slopes, both natural and man-made, during or shortly after rainfall is a commonly
occuring phenomena. Such rainfall related failures are often associated with tropical areas, where
intense rainfall may occur seasonally, and the soils are residual soils derived from the underlying
rock. Under these conditions, infiltration may result in large volume of water entering into
unsaturated soil slope. Such infiltration may lead to the soil becoming fully saturated, or an
increased degree of saturation, without full saturation being achieved.

Whenever loads are applied to the surface of a soil, they set up stresses within it. As the pore-
fluid has a low compressibility, it will not easily change its volume. As a result, pore-fluid
pressures are set up. In soils of low permeability, these excess pore-fluid pressures cannot escape
except after the passage of much time, and are therefore likely to have a major influence on the
behavior of the soil. Conversely, in soils of high permeability, the excess pore-fluid pressures
escape so readily that to all intents and purposes they may be ignored. The term 'drained' is used
here to denote absence of excess or stress change induced by pore water pressures, whereas, the
term 'undrained' is used to denote their presence. It is also possible to have partly drained
conditions after the escape of some of the excess pore fluid pressures.

There are two types of water flow in surface or subsurface: steady state flow and transient flow.
In the steady state flow, the pore water pressure is constant whereas, it is always chaining in
transient flow. Transient pore pressure is developed in response to short but intense rainfall and
plays an important role in slope failure occurrences.

6.2 Common terms used in simulation of water

Aquifers
Soils and rocks that transmit water with ease through their pores and fractures, respectively, are
call aquifers. Typical aquifers are composed of gravel, sand, sandstone, limestone and fractured
volcanic, igneous, or metamorphic rocks (figure 1 & 2). It is a wet underground layer of water-
bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which
groundwater can be usefully extracted using water wells.

Aquiclude
Aquicludes consist of strata or discontinuities that are sufficiently less pervious than the
adjoining strata constituting barriers to groundwater. Silt or clay washing into a crack in the
ground can produce an aquiclude that will block the flow in a sandy seam. Typical aquicludes
are clay, shale and unfractured igneous and metamorphic rocks. Aquiclude is a formation which
is although porous and capable of absorbing water, but does not permit its movement at rates
sufficient to furnish an appreciable supply for a well or spring (figure 1 & 2). . Aquiclude is an
impermeable body of rock or stratum of sediment that acts as a barrier to the flow of
groundwater.

Perched Water Table

A perched water table (or perched aquifer) is an aquifer that occurs above the regional water
table. A perched water table is sustained above an aquiclude or an impermeable stratum such as a
clayey layer (figure 1 & 2). It may be transient and rapidly developing in response to heavy
rainfall and dissipating quickly, or permanent in response to seasonal variations in rainfall levels.
Figure 1: Various in situ water conditions

Figure 2: Various in situ water conditions

Artesian aquifer
An artesian aquifer is a confined aquifer containing groundwater under positive pressure. It is
confined between impermeable rocks or clay which causes this positive pressure (figure 3).
Artesian water is derived from an artesian aquifer, in which the piezometric head of the water
pressure is higher than the upper surface of the aquifer, but the water is confined by an overlying
aquiclude. In other words, if piezometers are installed in the artesian aquifer, the water in the
piezometer tubes would rise to greater elevations from the deeper artesian strata than from the
strata nearer to the ground surface. The presence of artesian water should not be overlooked and
must be accounted for any slope stability analysis

Figure 3: Example of an aquifer system with artesian wells

.
6.3 Important Geotechnical properties related to water

6.3.1 Permeability

Soil permeability is the property of the soil to transmit water and air. The coefficient of
permeability (or permeability) in soil mechanics is a measure of how easily water can flow
through a porous soil medium. The more permeable the soil is, the greater is the seepage of water
through it. Some soils are so permeable and corresponding seepage is so high that it is not
possible to build a pond without special construction techniques. Permeability is closely related
to porosity. It reflects the capacity of soil sediments to transmit water and is controlled by the
size of the pores and the degree to which they are interconnected.

Generally, materials of larger particle size which are consistently sorted will be more permeable.
A soil can have a high porosity, but low permeability if the open spaces are not well connected.
The sandy soils are often quite porous, since there are a relatively high percentage of void spaces
between the sand grains. These soils are also very permeable, because the pore spaces are usually
large and interconnected, allowing water to flow through them more readily. While clay may
have a higher porosity than sand, clay particles are much finer and the spacing between them is
very small. Clays and silts may not pack together well due to irregular grain shapes and the fact
that certain clay minerals have electrostatic charges which repell each other. In addition,
molecular attraction on the water trapped in the tiny pore spaces between clay particles is much
stronger than that found in the larger sand grain openings. In soil, permeability depends on the
average size of the pores and is related to the distribution of particle sizes, its shape, and
structure.

Permeability of rock masses is controlled by discontinuity geometry, which includes spacing,

direction, discontinuity width and form, as well as the degree of infilling and the roughness of
the discontinuity surfaces. These factors are all variable over small distances and make both
observation and analysis difficult.

Permeability of soil can be measured either in the laboratory or the field. The followings are
some of the methods used in the laboratory to determine permeability.
1. Constant head permeameter
2. Falling or variable head permeameter
3. Direct or indirect measurement during an Oedometer test
4. Horizontal capillarity test.
6.3.2 Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity of soil is a measure of the its ability to transmit water when submitted to
a hydraulic gradient. The coefficient of permeability (k) represents the soils ability to transmit
and drain water. This, in turn, indicates the ability of the soil to change matric suction as a result
of environmental changes (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993).Water coefficient of permeability of
saturated soil is a function of void ratio (e) only. For unsaturated soil, the water coefficient of
permeability is a function of void ratio (e) and volumetric water content (). This relationship is
commonly expressed by a suction-dependent hydraulic conductivity function, illustrated in
figure 4.

Figure 4: Typical suction dependent hydraulic conductivity function

The hydraulic conductivity function of unsaturated soil can be obtained through direct or indirect
measurement. It depends on the intrinsic permeability and the degree of saturation of the
material. Saturated hydraulic conductivity K sat , describes water movement through saturated
media. There are two broad categories of determining hydraulic conductivity:
 Empirical approach by which hydraulic conductivity is correlated to soil properties like
pore size, particle size distributions, and soil texture.
Experimental approach in which hydraulic conductivity is determined from hydraulic
experiments using Darcy's law
The experimental approach is broadly classified into:
Laboratory tests using soil samples subjected to hydraulic experiments
Field tests that are differentiated into:
small scale field tests using observations of water level in soil cavities
large scale field tests, like pump tests in wells or by observing the functioning of
existing horizontal drainage systems.

Hydraulic conductivity is defined by Darcy's law, which can be written as follows for one-
dimensional vertical flow:

dh
U = K
dz

where U is Darcy's velocity (the average velocity of the fluid through a geometric cross-sectional
area within the soil), h is hydraulic head, and z is vertical distance in the soil. The coefficient of
permeability K, is also sometimes used as a synonym for hydraulic conductivity. Hydraulic
conductivity is defined as ratio of Darcy's velocity to applied hydraulic gradient.

Hydraulic gradient is measured as the ratio of vertical distance between the point of intake to the
point of discharge (a distance called head) to the length of flow from the two points. Hydraulic
conductivity depends on grain size, structure of the soil matrix, type of soil fluid, and saturation
of the soil matrix. Important properties relevant to the solid matrix of the soil include pore size
distribution, pore shape, tortuosity, specific surface, and porosity.

Flow through an unsaturated soil is more complicated than flow through continuously saturated
pore spaces. in this case, macropores are filled with air, leaving only finer pores to accommodate
water movement. Movement of water in unsaturated soil is dictated by differences in matric
potential but not the gravity. The matric potential gradient is the difference in the matric potential
of the moist soil areas (high matric potential) and nearby drier areas (low matric potential) into
which the water is moving (Brady and Weil, 1999).

The value of hydraulic conductivity in saturated soils varies within a wide range of several
orders of magnitude depending on the soil material. Table lists the range of expected values of K
for various unconsolidated and consolidated soil materials.
6.3.3 Factor affecting soil permeability and hydraulic conductivity
1. Grain-size
2. Void ratio
3. Composition
4. Fabric or structural arrangement of particles
5. Degree of saturation
6. Presence of entrapped air and other foreign matter.

Permeability varies with the square of particle diameter. It is logical that the smaller the grain-
size, the smaller the voids and the lower the permeability. A relationship between permeability
and grain-size is more appropriate in case of sands and silts than that in case of other soils since
the grains are more equidimensional and its fabric changes are not significant.

This suggests a simple method for assessment of permeability of a soil at any void ratio when
values of permeability are known at two or more void ratios. Once the line is drawn,
permeability at any void ratio may be read directly.

Influence of soil composition on permeability is generally of little significance in case of gravels,

sands, and silts, unless mica and organic matters are present. However, this is of major
importance in the case of clays. Montmorillonite has the least permeability with sodium as the
exchangeable ion (less than 107 cm/s, even at a very high void ratio of 15). Therefore, sodium
montmorillonite is used by the engineer as an additive to other soils to make them impermeable.
Kaolinite is hundred times more permeable than montmorillonite.

Fabric or structural arrangement of particles is an important soil characteristic influencing

permeability, especially of fine-grained soils. At the same void ratio, it is logical to expect that a
soil in the most flocculated state will have the highest permeability and the one in the most
dispersed state will have the lowest permeability. Remoulding of a natural soil invariably reduces
its permeability. Stratification or macrostructure also has great influence on the permeability. it is
more parallel to stratification than that perpendicular to stratification.
Higher the degree of saturation, higher the permeability. In case of certain sands permeability
may increase three-fold when degree of saturation increases from 80% to 100%.

Entrapped air has pronounced effect on permeability. It reduces the permeability of soil. Organic
foreign matter also has the tendency to move towards flow channels and choke them, thus
decreasing the permeability. Natural soil deposits in the field may have some entrapped air or gas
for several reasons. In the laboratory, air-free distilled water may be used as vacuum applied to
achieve a high degree of saturation. However, this may not lead to a realistic estimate of the
permeability of a natural soil deposit.
6.3.4 Matrix suction
Matrix suction is defined as the difference between the pore-air and the pore-water pressures
(Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993b).

It is associated with capillary action, the process where interface tension between water and air
creates a curve interface boundary within a narrow opening, leading to a pressure difference
between the two. The magnitude of the pressure difference between water and air is a function of
the width of the gap between the solid surfaces.
The capillary rise that will occur within a soil is affected by its particle size and grading, since
they affect the size of the pores within the soil mass. Fine grained soil with corresponding fine
grained pore spaces are able to sustain large pressure differenc between pore water and air,
allowing large capillary rises. in the other hand, coarse grained soil with larger voids tend to
maintain lower pressure differences between air and water, resulting in a lower capillary rise.
The relationship between matric suction and degree of saturation may be presented graphically in
the form of a soil water retention curve (also known as a soil moisture retention curve or Soil
Water Characteristic Curve, SWCC). The form of these curves tends to be similar, regardless of
soil type and are generally S shaped, although this shape is poorly defined in clayey soill.
Figure 5 shows typical form of the SWCC with principal characteristics, while figure 6 shows
some soil specific data showing effects of soil grading. This curve also depicts the relationship
between soil water content and soil water pressure potential.
Figure 5: Typical absorption and desorption SWCC (Zhan and Ng. 2004)

Figure 6: SWCCs for some Dutch soils (after Koorevaar et. al.1983)
6.3.5 Consistency of soil

Soil consistency is the resistance of a soil at various moisture contents to mechanical stresses or
manipulations. It is commonly measured by feeling and manipulating the soil by hand or by
pulling a tillage instrument through it. The consistency of soils is generally described at three soil
moisture levels: wet, moist and dry. Consistency of a soil sample changes with the amount of
water present. Such change in soil consistency may be accurately measured in the laboratory
following standard procedures which determine the Atterberg Limits. This limit corresponds to
the moisture content at which a soil sample changes from one consistency to another. Two of the
Atterberg Limits are important: liquid limit and plastic limit.

Atterberg Limits are basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending on the water
content in the soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In each state,
consistency and behavior of the soil is different and so are its engineering properties. Thus, the
boundary between each state can be defined based on a change in the soil's behavior.

Shrinkage Limit: Shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will
not result in any more volume reduction. The testing standard to determine shrinkage limit is
explained by ASTM International D4943. Shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the
liquid and plastic limits.

Liquid limit (LL): It is defined as the percentage moisture content at which a soil changes with
decreasing wetness from liquid to plastic consistency or with increasing wetness from plastic to
liquid consistency. It is the water content at which a soil changes from plastic to liquid behavior.
The importance of this liquid limit test is to classify soils.

Plastic limit (PL): it is the percentage moisture content at which a soil changes with decreasing
wetness from the plastic to the semi- solid consistency or with increasing wetness from the semi-
solid to the plastic consistency. Plastic limit is the lower limit of the plastic state. A small
increase in moisture above the plastic limit destroys cohesion of the soil. Plastic Limit test is
defined by ASTM standard test method D 431.
6.4 Pore Pressures

Subsurface water is divided into zones of positive and negative pore pressures. The dividing line
is the groundwater table (also known as phreatic surface) where the pressure is equal to
atmospheric pressure. Below the groundwater table, the soil is fully saturated, and the pore
pressure is above atmospheric pressure and positive in value. Above the groundwater table where
the soil is unsaturated, the pore pressure is below atmospheric pressure and hence is negative in
value. In this zone, the pore water is continuous or semi continuous and the pore water pressure
is below atmospheric pressure. The magnitude of the negative pore pressure (sometimes called
soil suction) is controlled by surface tension at the air-water boundaries within the pores and is
governed by grain size. In general, the finer the soil particles, the larger the saturation capillary
head, and hence the higher the negative pore pressure. Rainfall infiltration from the ground
surface may rapidly reduce the magnitude of negative pore pressure. Any change in these pore
pressures alters alter the shear strength of soil and therefore has a tremendous effect on the slope
stability.

The water level measured in a piezometer within the saturation zone coincides with the water
table. However, the pore pressures are no longer hydrostatic if there is a flow. In this instance,
the pore pressure from any point within the soil mass is computed by means of a flow net, from
the difference in head between the point and the free water surface.

By lowering effective stress, positive pore pressure reduces the available shear strength within
the soil mass thereby decreasing the slope stability. Increase in positive pore pressure can be
rapid after a period of heavy rainfall. That is a major reason why many slope failures occur after
heavy rainfall. The rate of increase, however, depends on many factors such as the rate of
rainfall, the nature of the ground surface, the catchment area, and the soil permeability.

Pore pressure below the groundwater table can be assessed using analytical, numerical, and
graphical methods. Various analytical methods are available for determining flow nets and pore
pressure distributions in slopes. Numerical techniques using finite difference or finite element
method provide powerful tool for obtaining pore water distributions in slopes. They are the only
means by which transient flow situations can be fully modeled.

Negative pore pressures increase the effective stresses within a soil mass and improve the
stability of a slope. Ho and Fredlund (1982a) suggested increase in shear strength due to negative
pore pressure as
c = c + (ua uw )tanb

Where c= total cohesion of the soil

c=effective cohesion
(ua uw )=matrix suction
b = the slope of the plot of matrix suction when - is held constant

Here, a matrix suction (ua uw ) increases the shear strength by (ua uw ) tanb . The increase
in soil strength can be represented by a three-dimensional failure surface using stress variable
( ua )and (ua uw ) , as shown in Figure 7. These negative pore pressures reduce in
magnitude when the degree of saturation increases and become zero when the soils are fully
saturated, The major problem in evaluation of stability in unsaturated soils is associated with the
assessment of reduction in negative pore pressure and possible increase in positive pore pressure
as a function of rainfall history.

The total stress is either due to self-weight of the soil or the externally applied forces or both. the
neutral stress at any point inside a soil mass is defined as the stress carried by the pore water and
is same in all directions when there is static equilibrium, since water cannot take static shear
stress. This is also called pore water pressure and is designated as u. This is equal to w.z at a
depth z below the water table i.e.
u = w z
Effective stress is defined as the difference between the total stress and the neutral stress. This is
also referred to as the inter granular pressure and is denoted by:
' = u
let us consider full saturation of the rock, including the joint, where no drainage of water is
allowed. If we assume that water is incompressible and that no flow of water into or out of the
joint is allowed, the volume of the test specimen including the joint must remain constant. under
this condition, the water must sustain stresses sufficient to prevent volume change of the
specimen. The total applied stress across the joint will be transmitted by the rock asperities and
by the water. If the water carries some of the normal stress, then the rock asperities carry less
normal load and therefore has less shear strength than it would be if drained. The normal stress
transmitted by the water is equal to the joint water pressure. The stress transmitted through the
rock asperities is, therefore, equal to the applied stress minus the joint water pressure. The joint
shear strength will now be reduced proportionally. The reduced normal stress acting through the
rock contacts is termed as the effective normal stress and is given by
n = n u

Where
n =effective normal stress
n =normal stress
u =water pressure

The total stress imposed on such a soil will be sustained by the soil (the effective stress,) and the
pore water (the pore pressure, u). A reservoir can be used to create an upward seepage through
the soil sample. For this purpose, we assume that the valve leading to the upper reservoir is
closed. Thus, there is no water flowing through the soil sample (figure
8). This is the case of no seepage the Effective stress is = H2 (sat w )
Figure 8: Effective stress when there is no water flow

Upward seepage conditions can be induced in the laboratory using constant-head permeability
test apparatus, in figure 9. The upper reservoir causes the water to flow upward through the soil
sample. If the hydraulic gradient is large, the upward-seepage force will cause the effective stress
within the soil to become zero, thus causing a sudden loss of soil strength in accordance with the
effective-stress principle. However, if downward seepage is allowed, effective stress sigma' is
= H2 (sat w ).
Figure 9: Effective stress when there is no water flow

In the analysis of stability of slopes in terms of effective stresses, the pore water pressure
distribution is of fundamental importance and its evaluation is one of the prime objectives in the
early stages of any stability study.
6.5 Infiltration
Infiltration through an unsaturated zone is vertical and causes no positive pore pressures. If the
infiltrating rainfall it, during its descent encounters a material of lower permeability, flow will be
impeded if the permeability of this lower zone is less than the rate of infiltration. Under this
situation, a perched water table is formed on the surface of the impermeable zone, and a lateral
flow takes place along the upper surface of the impermeable zone. Below the impermeable zone,
the infiltration rate reduces to the value of permeability of the zone.

When the infiltrating rainfall meets the groundwater table (phreatic surface), most of the vertical
component of flow is destroyed and the lateral flow in the general direction of groundwater flow
takes place. Under these circumstances, the groundwater table rises by an amount equal to the
depth of saturation caused by the descending.

Above the water table, the infiltrating rainfall raises the degree of saturation of the soil, which
reduces the negative pore pressure and the shear strength of soil. As lateral flow develops, pore
pressure increases and as a result, effective stress and shear strength are reduced. Increase of
positive pore pressure occurs when the infiltrating rainfall forms a perched water table or has
caused a rise in the groundwater table. Deposits of gravel and sand are able to infiltrate water
without difficulty, whereas clay-rich mantles retard the ingress of water and characteristically
remain wet after periods of rainfall.

6.5.1 Rainfall Infiltration Model.

Rainfall or rainstorm is one of the most significant triggering factors for slope failure. Study of
rainfall-induced landslide mechanics is one of the most important and difficult issues for slope
stability. In general, the effect of rainfall infiltration on slope could result in changing soil
suction and positive pore pressure on main water table as well as raising soil unit weight thus
reducing shear strength of rock and soil.
 Infiltration is defined as the movement of water from the ground surface into the soil or
rock via the pores or interstices of the ground mass. It can be further divided into two parts, first
contributeing to the water content of the unsaturated zone, and the second part recharges the
saturated groundwater system. in this process, some recharge to the unsaturated zone may be lost
by transpiration or evaporation.

Subsurface water may be divided into zones of positive and negative pore pressure. The
dividing line is the groundwater table where the pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. The
groundwater table is generally determined from the level of water in an open standpipe.
Rainfall may be separated into four components: runoff, infiltration, interception, and
evapotranspiration (ET). Interception and ET are often disregarded when identifying rainfall
components because they represent a small portion of the total rainfall (Joel et al. 2002). These
simplifications leave the approximation of rainfall as nearly equal to addition of the infiltration
and the runoff.

One of the earliest physical infiltration models was developed by Green and Ampt (1911).
Based on the model, the time (t) required to saturate the soil to a depth (L f ) is given by:

S + Lf
t= [ L S ln ]
kw f S

Where u = difference between the volumetric water content before and after wetting
K w =hydraulic conductivity of wetter zone
S = Wetting front capillary suction
The infiltration rate (I f ) is the rate at which water entres the soil surface. The green-Ampt model
predicts:
+
=

In infiltration model, water from precipitation is assumed to enter the soil as a sharp wetting
front. The soil above the front is assumed to be saturated. The soil below of the front is assumed
at some uniform initial moisture. This model gives a very reasonable prediction even when
compared with other more rigorous approaches based on unsaturated flow (Bouwer, 1966).

In actual condition, the infiltration-runoff system sustains much more complexity than those
expressions in a simple physical or empirical model. The infiltration rate could be affected by the
distribution of rainfall, soil initial condition, rearrangement of soil particles due to the impact of
raindrops, swelling of clayey soils, activities of worms and other soil fauna etc. (Bouwer 1966).
The simulation of infiltration process as result of a rainfall event is still possible. However, the
threshold rainfall for a slope failure could be a combination of a number of rainfall events or a
prolonged antecedent rainfall. Under such circumstances, simulation of rainfall infiltration could
be extremely time consuming if not impossible.
6.6 Simulation of water

Water may be simulated for rock slope and soil slope differently. It affects these slopes in
different ways. In soil formations, water decreases the frictional shear strength of soil due to the
buoyant effect. Modeling rainwater infiltration in slopes is vital to the analysis of slope failure
induced by heavy rainfall. To analyze rainwater infiltration into soil, it is important to have an
understanding of the hydraulic properties of the soil, in particular the relationship between
volumetric water content and soil capillary pressure , and the relationship between
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity K and .

The primary effect of groundwater pressure in reducing the stability of rock slopes is the
resulting decrease in effective shear strength of discontinuities. This phenomenon is described by
the effective stress principle, which is fundamental to understanding the influence of
groundwater on rock slope stability. Discontinuities and water play important role in rock slope
failure. Water filled in discontinuities creates water column which generates water pressure equal
to the length of discontinuities. In low rainy season these cracks get filled with rain water which
subsequently gets drained out if drainage is allowed. However, during heavy rainy season, the
rate of input of water to these cracks is higher than the rate of discharge of water through cracks.
It results in filling up of crack with water. Water filled up in the crack creates a water column of
variable length, depending on amount of water flowing at the surface. The water column exerts
hydraulic pressure depending upon the length of the water column. Tension cracks on top of the
rock slope could trap water, which eventually develops hydraulic pressure in the tension cracks
along rock discontinuities. Water pressure reduces the normal pressure on the discontinuity and
therefore reduces the shear strength. The presence of water may also lower the shear strength of
the infill material of the discontinuity.

Ground water
Ground water is that water which fills up the voids in the soil up to the ground water table and
translocates through them. It fills coherently and completely all the voids. In such a case, the soil
is said to be saturated. The water zone in the soil mass may be divided into two components:
saturated (below water table) or unsaturated zone (above water table). Above the water table, air
voids increase as the distance from the water table increases. The water in these zones is held in
some place by capillary attraction and exerts relatively large stabilizing forces on the structure of
soil creating negative pore water pressure or soil suction. The flow of groundwater is usually
very slow and is generally laminar.

Soil water may be in the forms of free' or gravitational water and held water. Free or
gravitational water is free to move through the pore space of the soil mass under the influence of
gravity. however, the held waeter is locked in the proximity of the surface of the soil grains by
certain forces of attraction. Steady-state seepage analysis can be carried out to compute pore
pressures as well as flow rates and other hydraulic quantities. There are three methods to
simulate the ground water:
Piezometric lines
Water pressure grid
Finite element seepage analysis

Water affects the stability of soil slope by generating pore pressure, modifying density of
material and changing its mineral constituents. Groundwater is derived from many sources but
primarily originates from rainfall. Some water infiltrates into the ground and percolates
downwards to the saturated zone at depth, while some water moves over the surface as surface
runoff. Groundwater in the saturated zone moves towards rivers, lakes and seas, where it
evaporates and returns to the land as clouds of water vapour, which precipitates as rain and snow.
This circulation of water is often known as the hydrological cycle, which also includes
precipitation, evaporation, runoff, transpiration, and channel flow.

Groundwater levels are rarely static and vary with the rate of recharge or discharge of
groundwater. Fluctuations of ground water may also vary with geology, topography, and
proximity to local centers of discharge, such as springs, rivers, and dams that store water or
pump water from the ground. Such fluctuations should be studied with observation wells or
piezometers and the data presented as maps of groundwater level change.

The unsaturated zone is often located above the main groundwater table (phreatic surface) with
voids partially filled with water. This zone is sometimes called the zone of aeration, and extends
from the ground surface down through the major root zone. Its thickness varies with the soil type
and vegetation. The spaces between particles within this zone, are filled partly with water and
partly with air. Molecular attraction is exerted on the water by the soil or rock, and the attraction
is also exerted by the water particles on one another.The saturated zone is within the main
groundwater regime with voids completely filled with water. Perched groundwater can create
saturated zones within unsaturated zones. Different modes of groundwater flow develop in the
unsaturated and the saturated zones, and affect the stability of slopes.

Figure 10: Feature of the hydrological cycle

The excavation of an open pit causes groundwater to flow into the pit, setting up hydraulic
gradients. The pattern of vertical and lateral variations in hydraulic head is called the
groundwater pressure distribution. The flow patterns and the groundwater pressure distribution
that are generated within a slope, depend on the following factors;
 Geometry of the slope
Permeability of the slope material
Recharge from the surrounding rock mass
Water storage within the slope
Local precipitation, runoff, and infiltration characteristics
The most important groundwater parameter for stability purposes is the groundwater pressure
distribution within slopes. This distribution can be obtained in two ways: direct measurement of
pressure via piezometers or determining pressures from an analysis of the hydraulic properties of
the rock mass, e.g., geology and permeability characteristics.