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Classification of Fuels
Gaseous
fuel
Highly
High cost of inflammable
production
1
GCV = 8080 C + 34,500 H-O/8 +2240 S K cal/kg
100
Petrol Diesel
Knocking
Rapid compression of fuel air mixture heats the engine & detonates
without spark being passed resulting in violent jerk to the piston
giving a metallic rattling sound
KNOCKING
Knocking tendency
Aromatics < Cycloalkanes < Olefins <Branched
Straight chain alkanes >chain alkanes
Leaded Petrol
Knocking can be prevented by adding Tetra ethyl lead (TEL),
Pb(C2H5)4 saving money & energy
1-1.5 ml 1 L Petrol
TEL
Leaded Petrol
TEL get transformed in to lead oxide particles & reacts with H2O2
molecules & prevent their oxidation hence improper
combustion
Antiknock fluid
TEL 60%
Ethylene bromide
26% Antiknock
Fluid
Ethylene chloride
9%
Red dye-2%
Leaded Petrol - Disadvantages
Harmful to environment
n-heptane Isooctane
Zero Hundred
Cetane number
Diesel consists of straight longer chain hydrocarbons with minimum
content of branched & aromatic HCs.
Diesel should have low spontaneous ignition temperature
Separate scale is required for grading
can not be rated on octane scale
Cetane number - used for rating diesel oil
It represents spontaneous ignition temperature of diesel fuel
Cetane n-Hexadecane ignites more rapidly than any other diesel
fuel assigned cetane no. 100
CH3(CH2)14CH3
n-Hexadecane
methyl naphthalene ignites slowly than any other fuel assigned
cetane no. - 0
Cetane number
Cetane number mixture of n-Hexadecane & methyl naphthalene
forms a standard scale for spontaneous iginition temperature of
diesel fuel
Alternative Fuels
Biofuels- solid, liquid & gaseous fuels derived from living
organisms and their waste products
+ CO2 Biomass
Solar
Energy
Harvesting
CO2 Pre-processing
Cellulose
Biofuel
Enzymes
Microbial Fermentation
Ethanol Sugars
Biofuels
Biomass - Accumulation of organic waste matter produced by living
things
Biomass Sources Wood , agricultural residue, saw mill waste, sugar
refinery waste, municipal refuse etc.
Anaerobic fermentation
Bio mass Ethanol
Advantages
Environment friendly
Low initial investment
Disadvantages-
Cost of energy is higher in urban areas
Collection & transportation of biomass is expensive
Biodiesel
Biodiesel - long chain of fatty acid alkyl esters
It is derived from renewable vegetable oils , animal fats , algae and
various low-value materials such as used cooking oils, greases and
soap stocks
Pacific biodiesel became one of the first biodiesel plant in U.S. in
1996.
Attractive features of biodiesel
Renewable resource of energy
Do not increase level of greenhouse gases, a blend of 20% biodiesel fuel
reduces net CO2 emission by 15.66% .
Can produced domestically, hence reduces petroleum imports.
Biodegradable
Waste products like used oils, soap stocks, greases can be utilized
Low toxicity
Negligible sulphur content and lower exhaust emission
Biofuels Transesterification reaction
catalyst
Oils or fats + Alcohol Ester + Glycerol
catalyst
Steps in whole cell catalyzed transesterification
Hydrolysis
Transesterification
Esterification
Hydrolysis
Fats or oil water free fatty acids + glycerol
catalyst
Esterification
free fatty acid + alcohol catalyst ester + water
Overall Transesterification
Fats or oil + alcohol catalyst fatty acid alkyl + glycerol
Enzymatic transesterification
Enzymatic transesterification is better than chemical
transesterification as the recovery of glycerol is easy.
It involves the use of enzyme as a catalyst to carry out
transesterification.
Lipase - an enzyme is effective for transesterification, is
obtained from fungus.
Fungus species Aspergillus, Rhizopus are used to carry out
transesterification and produce biodiesel.
Whole cell biocatalysis
Use of whole cell biocatalyst instead of purified lipase cuts the
cost of isolation, purification and immobilization of pure lipase.
Aspergillus sp., Rhizopus sp. have been used.
Different oils (Cottonseed, Jatropha, Karanj ) are used as
carbon source for growth as well as whole cell catalyzed
transesterification.
TLC of oil , ester and transesterified
sample
ester
Oil
Diluted solution of molasses containing 8-10% sugar taken in steel container, small
quantity of ammonium sulphate, ammonium phosphate, some other nutrients are
added. Sulphuric acid is added to attain pH 5.
Yeast is added and mixture is allowed to stand for 2-3 days
Temperature is maintained 25 30o.
Enzumes Invertase and Zymase present in yeast decompose sugar into alcohol with
evolution of CO2.
Ethanol manufacture
Hydrolysis
Starchy materials Sugar
Enzymatic
Fermentation
Ethanol
Power alcohol - advantages
Ethanol Good antiknocking agent
Crude oil
Batteries
Conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
Battery is combination of cells either in series or parralel or
both in order to get required amount of electrical energy.
Types of batteries:
Primary cells
Secondary cells
Primary cells
The chemical energy is converted into electrical energy
as long as chemical component is active.
Can not be recharged or regenerated
Secondary cells:
The redox reaction that convert chemical energy into
electrical energy can be reversed by passage of current.
Can be recharged and regenerated
Discharging and Charging of Battery
A cell is a battery packed with active material at anode and cathode.
As anode and cathode are connected to load - redox reaction occur.
Electrons liberated at anode flow to cathode through external wire and
part in reduction reaction.
This process is called Discharging
Active material is converted to inactive material.
Cell become inactive once active material is consumed.
Cell Reaction is reversed if external current is passed in reverse direction.
Process of conversion of inactive material to active material is called
Charging.
Modern Batteries
Metal Air Batteries: are the batteries which breathe air i.e. they
use oxygen directly from the air to bring electrochemical reaction.