Results

The results and findings from the Hele-Shaw cell 5-spot Waterflood experiment are
presented below. Detailed calculations and data tables for these results can be
found in the appendices.

3.3.1 Pore Volume

To determine the pore volume of the Hele Shaw cell, we injected oil to displace air
from the model. The injected oil volume was recorded when oil first appeared on the
cell and once the cell was completely filled with oil, to remove any effects of dead
volume. The pore volume was recorded as 14.015mL.

3.3.2 Mobility Ratio

Within a Hele-Shaw geometry, krw = kro and thus the mobility ratio for a waterflood is
equal to the mineral oil viscosity divided by the water viscosity. Our mobility ratio
was determined to be 23, which may not be favorable.

3.3.3 Viscous Fingering

Due to the mobility ratio, viscous fingering was expected and was seen during the
waterflood. Only 43.58% of the area was contacted at the time of breakthrough as
compared to 89.56% at the end of the flood.

Figure 1: Viscous Fingering during Breakthrough Figure 2: Final

Displacement

3.3.4 Areal Sweep Efficiency

When the water breakthrough happened, it was found that 6.397mL of water was
injected into the cell and had been swept on breakthrough. The areal sweep
efficiency was found to be 45.64% and compared to the data acquisition camera
sweep efficiency of 43.58%, it was really close.

3.3.5 Breakthrough Correlations

Two different correlations were used to determine the areal sweep efficiency at and
after breakthrough. The sweep efficiency at breakthrough using Garb was
determined to be 49.21% while Caudle and Whitte correlation gave us 42%. Both of
these results are quite close to the experimental areal sweep efficiency of 45.64%.
The post breakthrough sweep efficiency using different correlations is plotted
against PVI as shown in the figure below.
Figure 3: Areal Sweep Efficiency vs. PVI

Areal Sweep Efficiency vs. Pore Volume Injected

100
90
80
70
60

Experimental
Areal Sweep Efficiency (%) 50Garb Caudle and Witte Breakthrough
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

PVI

Discussion
3.4.1 Pore Volume
As stated earlier, the pore volume was found to be 14.015mL. The value was
determined by measuring the volume when the oil was first observed entering the
cell and once again when it contacted the out valve. Using this method, we were
able to avoid any dead volume, which means the measurements were reasonably
accurate.

3.4.2 Mobility Ratio

For this experiment, we had assumed Hele-Shaw geometry, meaning the oil and
water relative permeabilities were equal. The mobility ratio was found to be very
high. This validated the assumption that we are working with an unstable
displacement.

3.4.3 Viscous Fingering

As the breakthrough happened, there was a straight line from the injector to the
producer. This is the shortest streamline with the highest pressure gradient. Within a
Hele-Shaw cell, we can assume that there is uniform permeability throughout the
entire pattern area, so the streamline that is shortest from the inlet to outlet will
have the highest velocity. Viscous fingering was also observed which was the result
of having an unfavourable mobility ratio due to existing capillary forces not being
strong enough to provide a stabilizing interface. Any disturbance at the interface
will cause a water finger to develop into the oil face and consequently an oil finger
will develop in the opposite direction as observed in the photos.

3.4.4 Areal Sweep Efficiency

The areal breakthrough sweep efficiency could be calculated using the volume of
water injected in to the cell the instant breakthrough occurred, since it is
immiscible. Once breakthrough occurred we found that the water had contacted
43.58% of the pattern area. Since have an unfavorable mobility ratio, we can expect
the displacement front to be unstable, which could mean fingering, branching and
bypassing oil. As the mobility ratio becomes closer to 1, we can expect the areal
sweep efficiency to increase.

By using the pictures from the camera, and recording the results of the area
occupied by water, we were also able to determine and confirm the accuracy the
areal breakthrough efficiency. The value was very close to the observed
breakthrough sweep efficiency and this confirms our results. Discrepancy could be
from the delay when the pictures are taken, meaning a little of post breakthrough
water could have been injected between the photos.

3.4.5 Breakthrough Correlations

After calculating the areal sweep efficiency using the correlations and comparing it
to the experimental sweep efficiency, significant variations were observed. It is
important to note that Garbs analytical correlation is based on the tests with
mobility ratio 0.1<M<10, while ours is around 23. This means that Garbs
correlation is not accurate for very high mobility ratio which is why the correlation
had over predicted the sweep efficiency. When the mobility ratio decreases,
theoretically we expect the areal sweep efficiency to increase, which explains why
Garbs correlation has predicted a higher sweep efficiency. Caudle and Witte yielded
a more accurate areal sweep efficiency than Garbs correlation however it was still
quite off from the experimental results.

3.5 Sources of Error

During our experiment, we had noticed two major sources of error. The first the
leaking of the water from the valve fitting due to lack of tightening. A couple drops
of liquid had leaked out when we had started the waterflood. This could have
changed the amount of water that was injected compared to amount of water that
actually entered the cell. Another source of error is the viscosity of water didnt
seem to have been changed. Water seemed to be thicker after the addition of the
dye which could change the mobility ratio and the results. It is also important to
note that the human eye and reaction time is not always precise and errors could
have been made when readings were made.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Within this experiment, waterflood with unfavourable conditions were examined
using an oil saturated Hele-Shaw cell that was subject to a water flood in which we
observed viscous fingering. The areal sweep efficiency was reasonable accurate
when compared to the camera images. The sweep efficiency determined from the
correlations was not however as accurate because they werent suited for the
conditions of the experiment (very high M). Overall, we can conclude the
experiment successful.

As a recommendation for future experiments, it would be desirable to use different

correlations in order to achieve a better approximation for areal sweep efficiency.
The Garb correlation is ideally suited for mobility ratios between 0.1-10, which led to
large discrepancies when compared to experimental data. Also, a faster camera
speed would be preferred.

Appendix B Hele-Shaw Experiment Calculations and

Tables

Pore Volume:

P ore volume of model= pump volume of oil at 1 PVI Initial oil pump volume

Pore volume of model=18.23 mL4.215 mL = 14.015mL

Mobility Ratio:

For Hele-Shaw Cell kro = krw ;

o
M=
w

23 cp
=23
1 cp

Areal Sweep Efficiency:

Pump Volume at start of waterflood: 3.353mL

Pump Volume @ breakthrough: 9.75mL

Area swept @breakthrough

E Abt exp=
Total area

9.75 m L3.353 mL
E Abt exp=
14.015 mL

45.64
Garb Correlation:

E Abt GarbCorrelation=0.626+0.3836 log ( M 1+ 0.4)

E Abt GarbCorrelation=0.626+0.3836 log ( 231 +0.4 )=49.05

For a pump volume of 33.28mL, Area = 67.66%, 6.00min & 2.135PVI:

E A =0.2777 ln ( QQ )+ E
bt
Abt

E A =0.2777 ln ( 33.28 mL3.353 mL

9.75 mL3.353 mL )
+ 49.05 =91.89

Caudle and Witte Correlation:

Vpd = 14.015mL for Hele-Shaw cell

Volume injected @ breakthrough = 6.397mL

From Figure 4: EAbt Caudle and Witte correlation = %

For a pump volume of 33.28mL (29.93mL from beginning of WF), Area = 67.66%,
6.00min & 2.135PVI:

Post Breakthrough Volume Injected (Vi) = 29.923mL 6.397mL = 23.526mL

V i 23.526 mL
= =1.68
V pd 14.015 mL

From Figure 4 (Caudle-Witte Correlation Chart) EA = 69.0

 Figure 4: Caudle-Witte Correlations

Table 1: Data for Calculating Breakthrough Correlations

Pore Volume of Model (mL) 14.015

Mobility Ratio 23.00
Experimental EAbt (%) 45.64
Garb Correlation EAbt (%) 49.05
Caudle and Witte Vpd (mL) 14.015
Caudle and Witte - EAbt (%) 42.00

Table 2: Waterflood Experimental Data and Correlation Results

Post
BT
Volum Volum Caudle and
Pump Pump Elapse Volume e e
Rate Volum d Contacte Injecte Inject Garb Witte Comments
(mL/mi e Area Time d d ed Vi/Vp
n) (mL) (%) (min) PVI (mL) (mL) (mL) EA d EA*
1.50 0.04 0.00
1.50 0.29 0.00
1.50 0.54 0.00
1.50 0.79 8.45
1.50 1.04 0.00
1.50 1.29 0.00
1.50 1.54 0.00
1.50 1.79 0.00
1.50 2.04 0.00
1.50 2.29 0.00
1.50 2.54 0.00
1.50 2.79 0.00
1.50 3.04 0.00
1.50 3.29 0.00
1.50 3.54 0.00
1.50 3.79 0.00
1.50 4.04 0.00
0.06 Approx Start
1.5 4.29 0 0 7 0.937 0.937 of Waterflood
0.08
1.50 4.54 6.35 0.17 5 1.187 1.187
0.10
1.50 4.79 9.15 0.33 2 1.436 1.436
1.50 5.04 10.12 0.50 0.12 1.686 1.686
0.13
1.50 5.29 11.88 0.67 8 1.936 1.936
0.15
1.50 5.54 14.31 0.83 6 2.186 2.186
0.17
1.50 5.79 15.17 1.00 4 2.436 2.436
0.19
1.50 6.04 16.42 1.17 2 2.685 2.685
0.20
1.50 6.29 17.91 1.33 9 2.935 2.935
0.22
1.50 6.54 19.52 1.50 7 3.185 3.185
0.24
1.50 6.79 21.10 1.67 5 3.435 3.435
0.26
1.50 7.04 22.72 1.83 3 3.685 3.685
0.28
1.50 7.29 24.59 2.00 1 3.935 3.935
0.29
1.50 7.54 26.40 2.17 9 4.184 4.184
0.31
1.50 7.79 28.22 2.33 6 4.434 4.434
0.33
1.50 8.04 30.13 2.50 4 4.684 4.684
0.35
1.50 8.29 32.07 2.67 2 4.934 4.934
1.50 8.54 33.95 2.83 0.37 5.184 5.184
0.38
1.50 8.79 36.00 3.00 8 5.433 5.433
0.40
1.50 9.04 37.92 3.17 5 5.683 5.683
0.42
1.50 9.29 39.71 3.33 3 5.933 5.933
0.44
1.50 9.54 41.70 3.50 1 6.183 6.183
Approx Time
0.45 42. of
1.50 9.79 43.58 3.67 9 6.433 6.433 0.036 49.21 0.00 0 Breakthrough
 0.58
10.00 11.61 48.89 3.83 9 8.259 8.259 1.862 56.14 0.13
0.70
10.00 13.28 55.01 4.00 8 9.925 9.925 3.528 61.25 0.25
0.82 11.59
10.00 14.94 57.42 4.17 7 11.591 1 5.194 65.56 0.37
0.94 13.25 44. EA values
10.00 16.61 58.56 4.33 6 13.257 7 6.86 69.29 0.49 0 determined
1.06 14.92 50. from Figure
10.00 18.28 59.26 4.50 5 14.924 4 8.527 72.58 0.61 0 3.2 in
1.18 16.59 10.19 55. ENPE 551
10.00 19.95 60.18 4.67 4 16.595 5 8 75.52 0.73 0 Lab Manual
1.30 18.25 (Maini,2016)
10.00 21.61 61.26 4.83 3 18.257 7 11.86 78.17 0.85
1.42 19.92 13.52 60.
10.00 23.28 62.15 5.00 2 19.925 5 8 80.60 0.97 0
1.54 21.59 15.19
10.00 24.94 63.27 5.17 1 21.591 1 4 82.83 1.08
1.65 23.25
10.00 26.61 64.19 5.33 9 23.257 7 16.86 84.89 1.20
1.77 24.92 18.52 65.
10.00 28.28 65.07 5.50 8 24.924 4 7 86.82 1.32 0
1.89 20.19
10.00 29.94 65.96 5.67 7 26.59 26.59 3 88.61 1.44
2.01 28.25 21.85
10.00 31.61 66.86 5.83 6 28.256 6 9 90.30 1.56
2.13 29.92 23.52 69.
10.00 33.28 67.66 6.00 5 29.923 3 6 91.89 1.68 0
2.25 31.58 25.19
10.00 34.94 68.43 6.17 4 31.589 9 2 93.40 1.80
2.37 33.25
10.00 36.61 69.27 6.33 3 33.257 7 26.86 94.83 1.92
2.49 34.92 28.52 72.
10.00 38.28 69.97 6.50 2 34.923 3 6 96.18 2.04 0
2.61 36.59 30.19
10.00 39.94 70.74 6.67 1 36.591 1 4 97.48 2.15
38.25 31.85
10.00 41.61 71.42 6.83 2.73 38.256 6 9 98.72 2.27
2.84 39.92 33.52
10.00 43.28 72.12 7.00 9 39.922 2 5 99.90 2.39
2.96 41.59 35.19 100.0
10.00 44.95 72.57 7.17 8 41.595 5 8 0 2.51
3.08 43.25 100.0
10.00 46.61 73.18 7.33 6 43.257 7 36.86 0 2.63
3.20 44.92 38.52 100.0
10.00 48.28 73.79 7.50 5 44.923 3 6 0 2.75
3.32 46.58 40.19 100.0
10.00 49.94 74.40 7.67 4 46.589 9 2 0 2.87
3.44 48.25 41.85 100.0
10.00 51.61 74.89 7.83 3 48.256 6 9 0 2.99
3.56 49.92 43.52 100.0
10.00 53.28 75.52 8.00 2 49.922 2 5 0 3.11
3.68 51.58 45.19 100.0
10.00 54.94 76.24 8.17 1 51.588 8 1 0 3.22
53.25 46.85 100.0
10.00 56.61 76.39 8.33 3.8 53.256 6 9 0 3.34
3.91 54.92 48.52 100.0
10.00 58.28 76.97 8.50 9 54.923 3 6 0 3.46
4.03 56.58 50.19 100.0
10.00 59.94 77.51 8.67 8 56.589 9 2 0 3.58
4.15 58.25 51.85 100.0
10.00 61.61 77.91 8.83 7 58.256 6 9 0 3.70
4.27 59.92 53.52 100.0
10.00 63.28 78.37 9.00 6 59.922 2 5 0 3.82
4.39 61.58 55.19 100.0
10.00 64.94 78.81 9.17 4 61.588 8 1 0 3.94
10.00 66.61 79.28 9.33 4.51 63.256 63.25 56.85 100.0 4.06
 3 6 9 0
4.63 64.92 58.52 100.0
10.00 68.28 79.67 9.50 2 64.922 2 5 0 4.18
4.75 66.58 60.19 100.0
10.00 69.94 80.16 9.67 1 66.589 9 2 0 4.29
68.25 61.85 100.0
10.00 71.61 80.69 9.83 4.87 68.255 5 8 0 4.41
4.98 69.92 63.52 100.0
10.00 73.28 81.14 10.00 9 69.922 2 5 0 4.53
5.10 71.58 65.19 100.0
10.00 74.94 81.52 10.17 8 71.588 8 1 0 4.65
5.22 73.25 66.85 100.0
10.00 76.61 81.92 10.33 7 73.254 4 7 0 4.77
5.34 74.92 68.52 100.0
10.00 78.27 82.39 10.50 6 74.921 1 4 0 4.89
5.46 76.58 70.19 100.0
10.00 79.94 82.84 10.67 5 76.588 8 1 0 5.01
5.58 78.25 71.85 100.0
10.00 81.61 83.19 10.83 4 78.255 5 8 0 5.13
5.70 79.92 73.52 100.0
10.00 83.27 83.52 11.00 3 79.921 1 4 0 5.25
5.82 81.59 75.19 100.0
10.00 84.94 83.88 11.17 2 81.591 1 4 0 5.37
83.25 76.85 100.0
10.00 86.61 84.22 11.33 5.94 83.254 4 7 0 5.48
6.05 78.52 100.0
10.00 88.27 84.60 11.50 9 84.92 84.92 3 0 5.60
6.17 86.58 100.0
10.00 89.94 84.92 11.67 8 86.587 7 80.19 0 5.72
6.29 88.25 81.85 100.0
10.00 91.61 85.39 11.83 7 88.253 3 6 0 5.84
6.41 89.92 83.52 100.0
10.00 93.27 85.46 12.00 6 89.921 1 4 0 5.96
6.53 91.58 100.0
10.00 94.94 85.80 12.17 5 91.587 7 85.19 0 6.08
6.65 93.25 86.85 100.0
10.00 96.61 86.08 12.33 4 93.254 4 7 0 6.20
6.77 88.52 100.0
10.00 98.27 86.23 12.50 3 94.92 94.92 3 0 6.32
6.89 96.58 90.18 100.0
10.00 99.94 86.45 12.67 2 96.586 6 9 0 6.44
101.6 98.24 100.0
10.00 0 86.62 12.83 7.01 98.247 7 91.85 0 6.55
103.2 7.12 99.91 100.0
10.00 7 86.84 13.00 9 99.917 7 93.52 0 6.67
104.9 7.24 101.5 100.0
10.00 3 87.05 13.17 8 101.577 77 95.18 0 6.79
106.6 7.36 103.2 100.0
10.00 0 87.28 13.33 7 103.247 47 96.85 0 6.91
108.2 7.48 104.9 100.0
10.00 7 87.44 13.50 6 104.917 17 98.52 0 7.03
109.9 7.60 106.5 100.1 100.0
10.00 3 87.59 13.67 4 106.577 77 8 0 7.15
111.6 7.72 108.2 101.8 100.0
10.00 0 87.76 13.83 4 108.247 47 5 0 7.27
113.2 7.84 109.9 103.5 100.0
10.00 7 87.96 14.00 3 109.917 17 2 0 7.39
114.9 7.96 111.5 105.1 100.0
10.00 3 88.12 14.17 1 111.577 77 8 0 7.50
116.6 113.2 106.8 100.0
10.00 0 88.26 14.33 8.08 113.247 47 5 0 7.62
118.2 114.9 108.5 100.0
10.00 7 88.40 14.50 8.2 114.917 17 2 0 7.74
119.9 8.31 116.5 110.1 100.0
10.00 3 88.55 14.67 8 116.577 77 8 0 7.86
121.6 8.43 118.2 111.8 100.0
10.00 0 88.71 14.83 7 118.247 47 5 0 7.98
 123.2 8.55 119.9 113.5 100.0
10.00 7 88.84 15.00 6 119.917 17 2 0 8.10
124.9 8.67 121.5 115.1 100.0
10.00 3 89.09 15.17 5 121.577 77 8 0 8.22
126.6 8.79 123.2 116.8 100.0
10.00 0 89.10 15.33 4 123.247 47 5 0 8.34
128.2 8.91 124.9 118.5 100.0
10.00 7 89.31 15.50 3 124.917 17 2 0 8.46
129.9 9.03 126.5 120.1 100.0
10.00 3 89.50 15.67 2 126.577 77 8 0 8.58
131.4 9.14 128.1 121.7 100.0
10.00 9 89.56 15.83 3 128.137 37 4 0 8.69
131.4 9.14 128.1 121.7 100.0
10.00 9 89.56 16.00 3 128.137 37 4 0 8.69