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USERS
Figure 9-3 shows how users access the database in two ways. The first is via
user application programs that systems professionals prepare. These programs
send data access requests (calls) to the DBMS, which validates the requests and
retrieves the data for processing. Under this mode of access, the presence of
the DBMS is transparent to the users. Data processing procedures (both batch
and real-time) for transactions such as sales, cash receipts, and purchases are
essentially the same as they would be in the flat-file environment.
The second method of database access is via direct query, which requires no
formal user programs. The DBMS has a built-in query facility that allows
authorized users to process data independent of professional programmers. The
query facility provides a friendly environment for integrating and retrieving data
to produce ad hoc management reports. This feature has been an attractive
incentive for users to adopt the database approach.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The second element of the database approach depicted in Figure 9-3 is the
database management system. The DBMS provides a controlled environment to
assist (or prevent) user access to the database and to efficiently manage the
data resource. Each DBMS model accomplishes these objectives differently, but
some typical features include:
2. Backup and recovery. During processing, the DBMS periodically makes backup
copies of the physical database. In the event of a disaster (for example, disk
failure, program error, or malicious act) that renders the database unusable, the
DBMS can recover an earlier version that is known to be correct. Although some
data loss may occur, without the backup and recovery feature, the database
would be vulnerable to total destruction.
3.Database usage reporting. This feature captures statistics on what data are
being used, when they are used, and who uses them. The database
administrator (DBA) uses this information to help in assigning user authorization
and in maintaining the database. We discuss the role of the DBA later in this
section.
2. The DBMS analyzes the request by matching the called data elements against
the user view and the conceptual view. If the data request matches, it is
authorized and processing proceeds to Step 3. If it does not match the views,
access is denied.
3. The DBMS determines the data structure parameters from the internal view
and passes them to the operating system, which performs the actual data
retrieval. Data structure parameters describe the organization and access
method (an operating system utility program) for retrieving the requested data.
4. Using the appropriate access method, the operating system interacts with the
disk storage device to retrieve the data from the physical database.
5. The operating system then stores the data in a main memory buffer area
managed by the DBMS.
6. The DBMS transfers the data to the users work location in main memory. At
this point, the users program is free to access and manipulate the data.
Query Language
The query capability of the DBMS permits end users and professional
programmers to access data in the database directly without the need for
conventional programs. IBMs structured query language (SQL, pronounced
sequel) has emerged as the standard query language for both mainframe and
microcomputer DBMSs. SQL is a fourth-generation, nonprocedural language with
many commands that allow users to input, retrieve, and modify data easily. The
SELECT command is a powerful tool for retrieving data. The example in Figure 9-
5 illustrates the use of the SELECT command to produce a user report from a
data- base called Inventory.
SQL is an efficient data processing tool. Although not a natural English language,
SQL requires far less training in computer concepts and fewer programming
skills than many languages. In fact, many database query systems require no
SQL knowledge at all. Users select data visually by pointing and clicking at the
desired attributes. The visual user interface then generates the necessary SQL
commands automatically. This feature places ad hoc reporting and data
processing capability in the hands of the user/manager. By reducing reliance on
professional programmers, managers are better able to deal with problems that
arise.
DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR
Refer to Figure 9-3 and note the administrative position of database
administrator (DBA). This position does not exist in the flat-file environment. The
DBA is responsible for managing the database resource. Multiple users sharing a
common database requires organization, coordination, rules, and guidelines to
protect the integrity of the database.
may assume DBA responsibility. The duties of the DBA fall into the following
areas1: database planning, database design, database implementation,
database operation and maintenance, and database change and growth. Table
9-1 presents a breakdown of specific tasks within these broad areas.
Figure 9-6 shows some of the organizational interfaces of the DBA. Of particular
importance is the relationship among the DBA, the end users, and the systems
professionals of the organization. Refer again to Figure 9-3 during the
examination of this relationship.
Another important function of the DBA is the creation and maintenance of the
data dictionary. The data dictionary describes every data element in the
database. This enables all users (and programmers) to share a common view of
the data resource and greatly facilitates the analysis of user needs.
At the physical level, the database is a collection of records and files. Relational
databases are based on the indexed sequential file structure. This structure,
illustrated in Figure 9-7, uses an index in conjunction with a sequential file
organization. It facilitates both direct access to individual records and batch
processing of the entire file. Multiple indexes can be used to create a cross-
reference, called an inverted list, which allows even more flexible access to
data. Two indexes are shown in Figure 9-7. One contains the employee number
(primary key) for uniquely locating records in the file. The second index contains
record addresses arranged by year-to-date earnings. Using this nonunique field
as a secondary key per- mits all employee records to be viewed in ascending or
descending order according to earnings. Alternatively, individual records with
selected earnings balances can be displayed. Indexes may be created for each
attribute in the file, allowing data to be viewed from a multitude of perspectives.
The next section examines the principles that underlie the relational model and
the techniques, rules, and procedures for creating relational tables from indexed
sequential files. You will also see how tables are linked to other tables to permit
complex data representations.
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