Potassium sodium tartrate tetrahydrate is a double salt of tartaric acid first prepared (in tartrate, potassium sodium tartrate,
m tartrate, potassium
about 1675) by an apothecary, Pierre Seignette, of La Rochelle, France. Potassium
sodium tartrate and monopotassium phosphate were the first materials discovered to
exhibit piezoelectricity.[3] This property led to its extensive use in "crystal" gramophone
(phono) pick-ups, microphones and earpieces during the post-War consumer electronics
boom of the mid-20th Century. Such transducers had an exceptionally high output with
typical pick-up cartridge outputs as much as 2 volts or more. Rochelle salt is deliquescent so
any transducers based on the material deteriorated if stored in damp conditions.
It has been used medicinally as a laxative. It has also been used in the process
of silvering mirrors. It is an ingredient of Fehling's solution (reagent for reducing sugars). It is
used in electroplating, in electronics andpiezoelectricity, and as a combustion
accelerator in cigarette paper (similar to an oxidizer in pyrotechnics).[2]
In organic synthesis, it is used in aqueous workups to break up emulsions, particularly for
reactions in which an aluminium-based hydride reagent was used. [4] Sodium Potassium
tartrate is also important in Food Industry. [5]
It is a common precipitant in protein crystallography and is also an ingredient in the Biuret
reagent which is used to measure protein concentration. This ingredient maintains cupric ions
in solution at an alkaline pH.
Silica
Silica, SiO2, fumed, silicic anhydride, silicon dioxide amorphous, silicon (IV) oxide, silicon
oxide, silicon dioxide, E551, quartz sand.
Silica gel drying agent, (desiccant), is hygroscopic amorphous hydrated silica.
It may have added CoCl2, as a self-indicating moisture test, e.g. "Tell-Tale".
Bags of silica gel drying agent are usually included in the packaging of food and goods that
must be kept dry.
The bags usually have the warning: "DO NOT EAT"!
Silica powder is used a non-reactive bulking material in medical tablets.
Potassium sodium tartrate-4-water
Potassium sodium tartrate tetrahydrate, (KNaC 4H4O6.4H2O),
KOCOCH(OH)CH(OH)COONa, L(+)-Tartaric acid potassium
sodium salt, Rochelle salt, Seignette salt, Seidlitz powder, double salt sodium potassium
sodium 2, 3-dihydroxybutanedioate, saline cooling taste, piezoelectric.
What is silica gel ?
Silica gel is an amorphous form of silicon dioxide, which is synthetically produced in the
form of hard
irregular granules (having the appearance of crystals) or hard irregular beads. A microporous
structure
of interlocking cavities gives a very high surface area (800 square meters per gram). It is this
structure that
makes silica gel a high capacity desiccant. Water molecules adhere to the gels surface
because it exhibits
a lower vapour pressure than the surrounding air. When an equilibrium of equal pressure is
reached,
no more adsorption occurs. Thus the higher the humidity of the surrounding air, the greater
the amount of
water that is adsorbed before equilibrium is reached. It is in these higher humidity conditions
(above 50%
Relative Humidity) that stored or in-transit items are susceptible to damage.
The beauty of silica gel is the physical adsorption of water vapour into its internal pores.
There is no
chemical reaction, no by products or side effects. Even when saturated with water vapour,
silica gel
still has the appearance of a dry product, its shape unchanged.
Standard white silica gel is referred to as being non-indicating. As it adsorbs moisture it
remains
physically unchanged. Non-indicating silica gel is both cheap and effective, available loose
in bulk packs or packed in sachets.
Self-indicating silica gels have a moisture sensitive additive added to the basic silica gel.
This indicator
changes colour as moisture is adsorbed thus giving a visual indication as to the activity level
of the silica gel.

There are a number of different self-indicating silica gels:
Orange To Dark Green.
Using an organic indicator this silica gel offers a very strong orange (dry) to dark green (near
exhausted)
colour change. Mostly used in a low dust beaded form with granular versions also available.
Orange to Colourless.
Using iron salts as the additive, this high capacity desiccant changes from a deep orange (dry)
to
a very pale yellow colour in an exhausted state.
The indicator is very robust, making this silica gel well suited to repeated regeneration and
reuse.
Available in granular and beaded physical forms.
- It has an almost indefinite shelf life if stored in airtight conditions.
- It can be regenerated and reused if required. Gently heating silica gel will drive off the
adsorbed
moisture and leave it ready for reuse.
- It is a very inert material, it will not normally attack or corrode other materials and with the
exception of strong alkalis and hydrofluoric acid is itself resistant to attack.
- It is non-flammable.
- It is most frequently and conveniently used packed in a breathable sachet or bag. These are
available in a wide range of sizes suitable for use with a wide range of applications.
Silica gel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Silica gel

Both orange self-indicating silica gels are non-toxic materials developed following
the reclassification of blue to pink self-indicating silica gel as a toxic material in the year
2000.

Blue to Pink.
It is the cobalt in the cobalt chloride indicator that is responsible for the toxic labelling
and disposal restrictions on this product.
Identifiers
It is still though considered as non-hazardous for transportation purposes.
Changing from blue (dry) to pink in a near-exhausetd state, it is supplied in 2 - 5 mm beaded CAS Number 112926-00-8 [1][2]
or 3 - 6 mm granular forms. Please ask for the current Safety Data Sheet.
Properties
All self-indicating silica gels are sold in bulk packs or can be packed into sachets.
Chemical formula SiO2
Advantages of silica gel as a desiccant.
Molar mass 60.08 g/mol
Silica gel has many other properties that recommend it as a desiccant.
Appearance Transparent beads
- It will adsorb up to 40% of its own weight in water vapour. This adsorption efficiency is
Odor Odorless
approximately 35% greater that typical desiccant clays, making silica gel the preferred choice
where Except where otherwise noted, data are given for
weight or efficiency are important factors.
 materials in their standard state (at 25 C [77 F], o 6.2Chemistry
100 kPa).
o 6.3Cat litter
verify (what is ?)
o 6.4Food additive
Infobox references
o 6.5Water Filtration

o 6.6Humidity indicator
Silica gel is a granular, vitreous, porous form of silicon dioxide made synthetically
from sodium silicate. Silica gel is tough and hard; it is more solid than common
household gels like gelatin or agar. It is a naturally occurring mineral that is purified and
processed into either granular or beaded form. As a desiccant, it has an average pore size of
2.4 nanometers and has a strong affinity for water molecules.
Silica gel is most commonly encountered in everyday life as beads in a small (typically 2 x 3
cm) paper packet. In this form, it is used as a desiccant to control local humidity to
avoid spoilage or degradation of some goods. Because silica gel can have added chemical
indicators (see below) and absorbs moisture very well, silica gel packets usually bear
warnings for the user not to eat the contents.
Contents
[hide]
1History
2Types
7Hazards
8References
9External links
History[edit]
Silica gel was in existence as early as the 1640s as a scientific curiosity.[3] It was used
in World War I for the adsorption of vapors and gases in gas mask canisters.[citation needed] The
synthetic route for producing silica gel was patented by chemistry professor Walter A.
Patrick at Johns Hopkins University in 1918.
In World War II, silica gel was indispensable in the war effort for keeping penicillin dry,
protecting military equipment from moisture damage [citation needed], as a
fluid cracking catalyst for the production of high octane gasoline, and as a catalyst support for
the manufacture of butadiene from ethanol, feedstock for the synthetic rubber program.

Types[edit]
3Properties
Type A - clear pellets, approximate pore diameter: 2.5 nm, drying and moistureproof
4Regeneration properties, can be used as catalyst carriers, adsorbents, separators and variable-pressure
adsorbent.
5Preparation Type B - translucent white pellets, pore diameter: 4.5-7.0 nm, liquid adsorbents, drier and
perfume carriers, also may be used as catalyst carriers, cat litter.
6Applications
Type C - translucent, micro-pored structure, raw material for preparation of silica gel cat
o 6.1Desiccant litter. Additionally dried and screened, it forms macro-pored silica gel which is used as drier,
adsorbent and catalyst carrier.
Silica alumina gel - light yellow, chemically stable, flame-resistant, insoluble except in alkali
or hydrofluoric acid. Superficial polarity, thermal stability, performance greater than fine-
pored silica gel.
Stabilizing silica gel - non-crystalline micro-porous solid powder, nontoxic, flame-resisting,
used in brewery of grains for beer to improve taste, clearness, color and foam, removal of
non-micro-organism impurities.
Properties[edit]
Silica gel's high specific surface area (around 800 m2/g) allows it to adsorb water readily,
making it useful as a desiccant (drying agent). Silica gel is often described as "absorbing"
moisture, which may be appropriate when the gel's microscopic structure is ignored, as in
silica gel packs or other products. However, material silica gel removes moisture
by adsorption onto the surface of its numerous pores rather than by absorption into the bulk
of the gel.
Regeneration[edit]
Once saturated with water, the gel can be regenerated by heating it to 120 C (250 F) for 12
hours. Some types of silica gel will "pop" when exposed to enough water. This is caused by
breakage of the silica spheres when contacting the water.[4]
Preparation[edit]
An aqueous solution of sodium silicate is acidified to produce a gelatinous precipitate that is
washed, then dehydrated to produce colorless silica gel. [5] When a visible indication of the
moisture content of the silica gel is required, ammonium tetrachlorocobaltate(II)
(NH4)2CoCl4 or cobalt chloride CoCl2 is added.[5] This will cause the gel to be blue when dry
and pink when hydrated.[5] An alternative indicator is methyl violet which is orange when dry
and green when hydrated. (Due to the connection between cancer and Cobalt Chloride, it has
been forbidden in Europe on silica gel [6]).
Applications[edit]
Desiccant[edit]
Silica gel is a commonly used desiccant as beads packed in a permeable bag
See also: Desiccant
In many items, moisture encourages the growth of mold and spoilage. Condensation may also
damage other items like electronics and may speed the decomposition of chemicals, such as
those in vitamin pills. Through the inclusion of silica gel packets, these items can be
preserved longer.
Silica gel may also be used to keep the relative humidity (RH) inside a high frequency radio
or satellite transmission system waveguide as low as possible (see also Humidity buffering).
Excessive moisture buildup within a waveguide can cause arcing inside the waveguide itself,
damaging the power amplifier feeding it. Also, the beads of water that form and condense
inside the waveguide change the characteristic impedance and frequency, degrading the
signal. It is common for a small compressed air system (similar to a small home aquarium
pump) to be employed to circulate the air inside the waveguide over a jar of silica gel.
Silica gel is also used to dry the air in industrial compressed air systems. Air from the
compressor discharge flows through a bed of silica gel beads. The silica gel adsorbs moisture
from the air, preventing damage at the point of use of the compressed air due to condensation
or moisture. The same system is used to dry the compressed air on railway locomotives,
where condensation and ice in the brake air pipes can lead to brake failure.
Silica gel is sometimes used as a preservation tool to control relative humidity in museum
and library exhibitions and storage.
Other applications include diagnostic test strips, inhalation devices, syringes, drug test
kits and hospital sanitation kits.
Chemistry[edit]

Chromatography column
In chemistry, silica gel is used in chromatography as a stationary phase. In column
chromatography, the stationary phase is most often composed of silica gel particles of 4063
m. Different particle sizes are used for different kinds of column chromatography as the
particle size is related to surface area. The differences in particle size dictate if the silica gel
should be used for flash or gravity chromatography. In this application, due to silica gel's
polarity, non-polar components tend toelute before more polar ones, hence the name normal
phase chromatography. However, when hydrophobic groups (such as C18 groups) are attached
to the silica gel then polar components elute first and the method is referred to as reverse
phase chromatography. Silica gel is also applied to aluminium, glass, or plastic sheets for thin
layer chromatography.
The hydroxy (OH) groups on the surface of silica can be functionalized to afford specialty
silica gels that exhibit unique stationary phase parameters. These so-called functionalized
silica gels are also used in organic synthesis and purification as insoluble reagents
and scavengers.
Chelating groups have also been covalently bound to silica gel. These materials have the
ability to remove metal ions selectively from aqueous media. Chelating groups can be
covalently bound to polyamines that have been grafted onto a silica gel surface producing a
material of greater mechanical integrity. Silica gel is also combined with alkali metals to form
a M-SG reducing agent.
Silica gel is not expected to biodegrade in either water or soil. [7]
Cat litter[edit]
Silica gel is also used as cat litter,[8] by itself or in combination with more traditional
materials, such as clays including bentonite. It is trackless and virtually odorless.
Purchasing silica in the form of cat litter can be an easy and cost-effective way for retail
consumers to purchase silica gel for use in other applications, such as maintaining the desired
relative humidity in humidors, keeping tools or other materials rust-free in damp
environments or long-term storage, and preserving dried food.
Food additive[edit]
Silica gel, also referred to as silica aerogel or hydrated silica, has FDA GRAS (generally
recognized as safe) status, meaning it can be added to food products without needing
approval. Silica is allowed to be added to food in the US at up to 2% as permitted under 21
CFR 172.480. In the EU it can be in up to 5% concentrations. [9]
Listed uses include: anticaking agent, defoaming agent, stabilizer, adsorbent, carrier,
conditioning agent, chillproofing agent, filter aid, emulsifying agent, viscosity control agent,
and anti-settling agent.[10]
Water Filtration[edit]
Given the water adsorption properties of silica gel, it is used in domestic water filters such as
the commercialized brand ZeroWater. The surface structure of silica gel allows the adsorption
of some minerals which are dissolved in the water,[11] or "Ion-exchange" as it is marketed.
Due to the lack of regulations for domestic water filtration products, there are no studies
which validate the manufacturer claims regarding the effectiveness of the filtration system.
Humidity indicator[edit]
Main article: Humidity indicator

Indicating Silica Gel
Silica gel may be doped with a moisture indicator that gradually changes its color when it
transitions from the anhydrous (dry) state, to the hydrated (wet) state. Common indicators
are cobalt(II) chloride and methyl violet. Cobalt (II) chloride is deep blue when dry and pink
when wet. It is toxic and carcinogenic, and was reclassified by the European Union in July
2000 as a toxic material.[12] Methyl violet can be formulated to change from orange to green,
or orange to colorless. It is also toxic and potentially carcinogenic [citation needed], but is safe
enough to have medicinal uses.
Hazards[edit]
Silica gel is non-toxic, non-flammable, and non-reactive and stable with ordinary usage. It
will react with hydrogen fluoride, fluorine, oxygen difluoride, chlorine trifluoride, strong
acids, strong bases, and oxidizers.[7] Silica gel is irritating to the respiratory tract and may
cause irritation of the digestive tract, and dust from the beads may cause irritation to the skin
and eyes, so precautions should be taken.[13] Crystalline silica dust can cause silicosis but
synthetic amorphous silica gel is indurated, and so does not cause silicosis
Potassium
2008/9 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Chemical elements
Potassium (pronounced /ptsim/) is a chemical element. It has the symbol K (Arabic: al
qalja Latin: kalium) and atomic number 19. The name "potassium" comes from the word
"potash", as potassium was first isolated from potash. Potassium is a soft silvery-white
metallic alkali metal that occurs naturally bound to other elements in seawater and
many minerals. It oxidizes rapidly in Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's
atmosphere">air and is very reactive, especially towards water. In many respects, potassium
and sodium are chemically similar, although organisms in general, and animal cells in
particular, treat them very differently.
Occurrence
Potassium in feldspar
Potassium metal is never found free, as it reacts violently with the abundant water in nature.
As various compounds, potassium makes up about 1.5% of the weight of the Earth's crust and
is the seventh most abundant element. As it is very electropositive, potassium metal is
difficult to obtain from its minerals.
Potassium salts such as carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and sylvite form extensive deposits
in ancient lake and seabeds, making extraction of potassium salts in these environments
commercially viable. The principal source of potassium, potash, is mined
in Saskatchewan, California, Germany, New Mexico, Utah, and in other places around the
world. Three thousand feet below the surface of Saskatchewan are large deposits of potash
which are important sources of this element and its salts, with several large mines in
operation since the 1960s. Saskatchewan pioneered the use of freezing of wet sands (the
Blairmore formation) in order to drive mine shafts through them. The main mining company
is the Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan. The oceans are another source of potassium, but
the quantity present in a given volume of seawater is relatively low compared with sodium.
Production
Pure potassium metal can be isolated by electrolysis of its hydroxide in a process that has
changed little since Davy. Thermal methods also are employed in potassium production,
using potassium chloride.
Isotopes

There are 24 known isotopes of potassium. Three isotopes occur naturally: 39K (93.3%), 40K
(0.0117%) and 41K (6.7%). Naturally occurring 40K decays to stable 40Ar (11.2%) by electron
capture and by positron emission, and decays to stable 40Ca(88.8%) by beta decay; 40K has
a half-life of 1.250109 years. The decay of 40K to 40Ar enables a commonly used method for
dating rocks. The conventional K-Ar dating method depends on the assumption that the rocks
contained no argon at the time of formation and that all the subsequent radiogenic argon
(i.e., 40Ar) was quantitatively retained. Minerals are dated by measurement of the
concentration of potassium and the amount of radiogenic 40Ar that has accumulated. The
minerals that are best suited for dating include biotite, muscovite, plutonic/high grade
metamorphic hornblende, and volcanic feldspar; whole rock samples from volcanic flows and
shallow instrusives can also be dated if they are unaltered.
Outside of dating, potassium isotopes have been used extensively as tracers in studies
of weathering. They have also been used for nutrient cycling studies because potassium is
a macronutrient required for life.
40
K occurs in natural potassium (and thus in some commercial salt substitutes) in sufficient The flame test
quantity that large bags of those substitutes can be used as a radioactive source for classroom
Potassium is the second least dense metal; only lithium is less dense. It is a soft, low-melting
demonstrations. In healthy animals and people, 40K represents the largest source of
solid that can easily be cut with a knife. Freshly cut potassium is silvery in appearance, but in
radioactivity, greater even than 14C. In a human body of 70 kg mass, about 4,400 nuclei of 40K
air it begins to tarnish toward grey immediately.
decay per second.
In the flame test, potassium and its compounds emit a pale violet colour, which may be
The activity of natural potassium is 31 Bq/g.
masked by the strong yellow emission of sodium if it is also present. Cobalt glass can be used
Properties to filter out the yellow sodium colour. Potassium concentration in solution is commonly
determined by flame photometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, inductively coupled
Physical properties
plasma, or ion selective electrodes.
Chemical properties
Potassium must be protected from air for storage to prevent disintegration of the metal from
oxide and hydroxide corrosion. Often samples are maintained under a reducing medium such
as kerosene.
Like the other alkali metals, potassium reacts violently with water, producing hydrogen. The
reaction is notably more violent than that of lithium or sodium with water, and is sufficiently
exothermic that the evolved hydrogen gas ignites.
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) H2(g) + 2KOH(aq)
Because potassium reacts quickly with even traces of water, and its reaction products are
nonvolatile, it is sometimes used alone, or as NaK (an alloy with sodium which is liquid at
room temperature) to dry solvents prior to distillation. In this role, it serves as a
potent desiccant.
Potassium hydroxide reacts strongly with carbon dioxide to produce potassium carbonate,
and is used to remove traces of CO2 from air.
Potassium compounds generally have excellent water solubility, due to the high hydration
energy of the K+ ion. The potassium ion is colorless in water.
Methods of separating potassium by precipitation, sometimes used for gravimetric analysis,
include the use of sodium tetraphenyl boron, hexachloroplatinic acid, and sodium
cobaltinitrite.
Potassium in the body
Biochemical function
Potassium is important in neuron (brain and nerve) function, and in influencing osmotic
balance between cells and the interstitiual fluid.. Potassium is the major cation inside cells, in
animals.
Potassium may be detected by taste because it triggers three of the five types of tastebuds,
according to concentration. Dilute solutions of potassium ion taste sweet (allowing moderate
concentrations in milk and juices), while higher concentrations become increasingly
bitter/alkaline, and finally also salty to the taste. The combined bitterness and saltiness of
high potassium content solutions makes high-dose potassium supplementation by liquid
drinks a palatability challenge.
Membrane polarization
Potassium is also important in allowing muscle contraction and the sending of all nerve
impulses in animals through action potentials. By nature of their electrostatic and chemical
properties, K+ ions are larger than Na+ ions, and ion channels and pumps in cell membranes
can distinguish between the two types of ions, actively pumping or passively allowing one of
the two ions to pass, while blocking the other.
A shortage of potassium in body fluids may cause a potentially fatal condition known
as hypokalemia, typically resulting from diarrhea, increased diuresis and vomiting.
Deficiency symptoms include muscle weakness, paralytic ileus, ECG abnormalities,
decreased reflex response and in severe cases respiratory paralysis, alkalosis and cardiac
arrhythmia.
Filtration and excretion
Potassium is an essential mineral macronutrient in human nutrition; it is the major cation
(positive ion) inside animal cells, and it is thus important in maintaining fluid and electrolyte
balance in the body. Sodium makes up most of the cations of blood plasma at about
145 milliequivalents per liter (3345 milligrams) and potassium makes up most of the cell
fluid cations at about 150 milliequivalents per liter (4800 milligrams). Plasma is filtered
through the glomerulus of the kidneys in enormous amounts, about 180 liters per day. Thus
602,000 milligrams of sodium and 33,000 milligrams of potassium are filtered each day. All
but the 1000-10,000 milligrams of sodium and the 1000-4000 milligrams of potassium likely
to be in the diet must be reabsorbed. Sodium must be reabsorbed in such a way as to keep the
blood volume exactly right and the osmotic pressure correct; potassium must be reabsorbed
in such a way as to keep serum concentration as close as possible to 4.8 milliequivalents
(about 190 milligrams) per liter. Sodium pumps must always operate to conserve sodium.
Potassium must sometimes be conserved also, but since the amount of potassium in the blood
plasma is very small and the pool of potassium in the cells is about thirty times as large, the
situation is not so critical for potassium. Since potassium is moved passively in counter flow
to sodium in response to an apparent (but not actual) Donnan equilibrium, the urine can never
sink below the concentration of potassium in serum except sometimes by actively excreting
water at the end of the processing. Potassium is secreted twice and reabsorbed three times
before the urine reaches the collecting tubules. At that point, it usually has about the same
potassium concentration as plasma. If potassium were removed from the diet, there would
remain a minimum obligatory kidney excretion of about 200 mg per day when the serum
declines to 3.0-3.5 milliequivalents per liter in about one week, and can never be cut off
completely. Because it cannot be cut off completely, death will result when the whole body
potassium declines to the vicinity of one-half full capacity. At the end of the processing,
potassium is secreted one more time if the serum levels are too high.
The potassium moves passively through pores in the cell wall. When ions move through
pumps there is a gate in the pumps on either side of the cell wall and only one gate can be
open at once. As a result 100 ions are forced through per second. Pores have only one gate
and there one kind of ion only can stream through at 10 million to 100 million ions per
second. The pores require calcium in order to open although it is thought that the calcium
works in reverse by blocking at least one of the pores. Carbonyl groups inside the pore on the
amino acids mimics the water hydration that takes place in water solution by the nature of the
electrostatic charges on four carbonyl groups inside the pore.
Potassium in the diet
Adequate intake can generally be guaranteed by eating a variety of foods containing
potassium and deficiency is rare in healthy individuals eating a balanced diet. Foods with
high sources of potassium include orange
juice, potatoes, bananas, avocados, tomatoes, broccoli,soybeans and apricots, although it is
also common in most fruits, vegetables and meats. Diets high in potassium can reduce the
risk of hypertension and a potassium deficiency combined with an adequate thiamine intake
has produced heart disease in rats. The 2004 guidelines of the Institute of Medicine specify
an DRI of 4,000mg of potassium, though most Americans consume only half that amount per
day. Similarly, in the European Union, particularly in Germany and Italy, insufficient
potassium intake is somewhat common.
Supplements of potassium in medicine are most widely used in conjunction with loop
diuretics and thiazides, classes of diuretics which rid the body of sodium and water, but have
the side effect of also causing potassium loss in urine. A variety of medical supplements are
available. If potassium supplements are used, such as sodium free baking powder and sodium
free table salt, inadequate thiamine can cause beriberi.
Individuals suffering from kidney diseases may suffer adverse health effects from consuming
large quantities of dietary potassium. End stage renal failure patients undergoing therapy
by renal dialysis must observe strict dietary limits on potassium intake, since the kidneys
control potassium excretion, and buildup of blood concentrations of potassium may trigger
fatal cardiac arrhythmia. Acute hyperkalemia can be reduced through eating baking soda,
or glucose, hyperventilation and perspiration.
Applications
Biological applications
Potassium is an essential component of plant nutrition and is found in most soil types. Its
primary use in agriculture, horticulture and hydroponic culture as a fertilizer as the chloride
(KCl), sulfate (K2SO4) or nitrate">nitrate (KNO3).
In animal cells, potassium ions are vital to keeping cells alive (see Na-K pump).
Food applications
Potassium chloride is used as a substitute for table salt and is also used to stop the heart, e.g.
in cardiac surgery and in executions by lethal injection in a solution. Potassium bisulfite
(KHSO3) is used as a food preservative, for example in wine and beer-making (but not in
meats). It is also used tobleach textiles and straw, and in the tanning of leathers. Potassium
bromate (KBrO3) is a strong oxidiser, used as a flour improver (E924) to improve dough
strength and rise height. Potassium sodium tartrate, or Rochelle salt (KNaC4H4O6) is the main
constituent of baking powder.
Industrial applications
Potassium vapor is used in several types of magnetometers. An alloy of sodium and
potassium, NaK (usually pronounced "nack"), that is liquid at room temperature, is used as a
heat-transfer medium. It can also be used as a desiccant for producing dry and air-free
solvents.
Potassium metal reacts vigorously with all of the halogens to form the corresponding
potassium halides, which are white, water-soluble salts with cubic crystal
morphology. Potassium bromide (KBr), potassium iodide (KI) and potassium chloride (KCl)
are used in photographic emulsion to make the corresponding photosensitive silver halides.
Potassium hydroxide KOH is a strong base, used in industry to neutralize strong and
weak acids and thereby finding uses in pH control and in the manufacture of potassium salts.
Potassium hydroxide is also used to saponify fats and oils and in hydrolysis reactions, for
example of esters and in industrial cleaners.
Potassium nitrate KNO3 or saltpeter is obtained from natural sources such as guano
and evaporites or manufactured by the Haber process and is the oxidant in gunpowder (black
powder) and an important agricultural fertilizer. Potassium cyanide KCN is used industrially
to dissolve copper and precious metals particularly silver and gold by forming complexes;
applications include gold mining, electroplating and electroforming of these metals. It is also
used in organic synthesis to make nitriles. Potassium carbonate K2CO3, also known as potash,
is used in the manufacture of glass and soap and as a mild desiccant.
Potassium chromate (K2CrO4) is used in dyes and stains (bright yellowish-red colour),
in explosives and fireworks, in safety matches, in the tanning of leather and in fly paper.
Potassium fluorosilicate (K2SiF6) is used in specialized glasses, ceramics, and enamels.
Potassium sodium tartrate, orRochelle salt (KNaC4H4O6) is used in the silvering of mirrors.
The superoxide KO2 is used as a portable source of oxygen and as a carbon dioxide absorber.
It is useful in portable respiration systems. Potassium chlorate KClO3 is a strong oxidant,
used in percussion caps and safety matches and in agriculture as a weedkiller. Glass may be
treated with moltenpotassium nitrate KNO3 to make toughened glass, which is much stronger
than regular glass.
History
 Potassium was discovered in 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy, who derived it from caustic potash
(KOH). Before the 18th century, no distinction was made between potassium and sodium.
Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis.
Potassium was not known in Roman times, and its names are not Classical Latin but
rather neo-Latin.
The name kalium was taken from the word " alkali", which came from Arabic al
qaly = "the calcined ashes".
The name potassium was made from the word "potash", which is English, and
originally meant an alkali extracted in a pot from the ash of burnt wood or tree leaves.
Precautions
Peroxides (Yellow) and Ozonides (Red) on surface of potassium metal.
Solid potassium reacts violently with water (usually catching fire at room temperature), and is
usually kept under a mineral oil such as kerosene, and must be handled with care. Unlike
lithium and sodium, however, potassium cannot be stored under oil indefinitely. If stored
longer than 6 months to a year, dangerous shock-sensitive peroxides can form on the metal
and under the lid of the container, which can detonate upon opening. It is recommended that
potassium, rubidium or caesium not be stored for longer than three months unless stored in an
inert (oxygen free) atmosphere, or under vacuum.
The extremely alkaline potassium hydroxide (KOH) residue on the surface of potassium
which has been exposed to moisture, is a caustic hazard. As with sodium metal, the "soapy"
feel of potassium metal on skin is due to caustic breakdown of the fats in skin into crude soft
potassium soap, and represents the beginning of an alkali burn. Potassium should be handled
with care, with full skin and eye protection.
Potassium fires are exacerbated by water, and only a few dry chemicals are effective for them
(see the precaution section in sodium.