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Carbondioxide
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Carbondioxide(chemicalformulaCO2)isacolorlessand Carbondioxide
odorlessgasthatisvitaltolifeonEarth.Thisnaturally
occurringchemicalcompoundismadeupofacarbonatom
covalentlydoublebondedtotwooxygenatoms.Carbondioxide
existsinEarth'satmosphereasatracegasataconcentrationof
about0.04percent(400ppm)byvolume.[3]Naturalsources
includevolcanoes,hotspringsandgeysers,anditisfreedfrom
carbonaterocksbydissolutioninwaterandacids.Because
carbondioxideissolubleinwater,itoccursnaturallyin
groundwater,riversandlakes,inicecapsandglaciersandalso
inseawater.Itispresentindepositsofpetroleumandnatural Names
gas.[4]
Othernames
Atmosphericcarbondioxideistheprimarysourceofcarbonin Carbonicacidgas
lifeonEarthanditsconcentrationinEarth'spreindustrial Carbonicanhydride
atmospheresincelateinthePrecambrianwasregulatedby Carbonicoxide
photosyntheticorganismsandgeologicalphenomena.Aspartof Carbonoxide
thecarboncycle,plants,algae,andcyanobacteriauselight Carbon(IV)oxide
energytophotosynthesizecarbohydratefromcarbondioxide Dryice(solidphase)
andwater,withoxygenproducedasawasteproduct.[5] Identifiers

Carbondioxide(CO2)isproducedbyallaerobicorganisms CASNumber 124389(http://www.common

chemistry.org/ChemicalDetail.a
whentheymetabolizecarbohydratesandlipidstoproduce
spx?ref=124389)
energybyrespiration.[6]Itisreturnedtowaterviathegillsof
fishandtotheairviathelungsofairbreathinglandanimals, 3Dmodel(Jmol) Interactiveimage(http://chema
includinghumans.Carbondioxideisproducedduringthe pps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?m
processesofdecayoforganicmaterialsandthefermentationof odel=O%3DC%3DO)
sugarsinbread,beerandwinemaking.Itisproducedby Interactiveimage(http://chema
combustionofwoodandotherorganicmaterialsandfossilfuels pps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?m
suchascoal,peat,petroleumandnaturalgas. odel=C%28%3DO%29%3DO)
Itisaversatileindustrialmaterial,used,forexample,asaninert 3DMet B01131(http://www.3dmet.dn
gasinweldingandfireextinguishers,asapressurizinggasinair a.affrc.go.jp/cgi/show_data.ph
gunsandoilrecovery,asachemicalfeedstockandinliquid p?acc=B01131)
formasasolventindecaffeinationofcoffeeandsupercritical BeilsteinReference 1900390
drying.Itisaddedtodrinkingwaterandcarbonatedbeverages
ChEBI CHEBI:16526(https://www.eb
includingbeerandsparklingwinetoaddeffervescence.The
frozensolidformofCO2,knownas"dryice"isusedasa i.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebi

refrigerantandasanabrasiveindryiceblasting. Id=16526)
ChEMBL ChEMBL1231871(https://ww
Carbondioxideisasignificantgreenhousegas.Sincethe w.ebi.ac.uk/chembldb/index.ph
IndustrialRevolution,anthropogenicemissionsincludingthe p/compound/inspect/ChEMBL1
burningofcarbonbasedfossilfuelsandlandusechanges
231871)
(primarilydeforestation)haverapidlyincreasedits
ChemSpider 274(http://www.chemspider.co
m/ChemicalStructure.274.htm
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concentrationintheatmosphere,leadingtoglobalwarming. l)
Carbondioxidealsocausesoceanacidificationbecauseit
ECHAInfoCard 100.004.271(https://echa.europ
dissolvesinwatertoformcarbonicacid.[7] a.eu/substanceinformation//su
bstanceinfo/100.004.271)
ECNumber 2046969
Contents Enumber E290(preservatives)
GmelinReference 989
1 Background
2 Chemicalandphysicalproperties KEGG D00004(http://www.kegg.jp/en
2.1 Structureandbonding try/D00004)
2.2 Inaqueoussolution
2.3 ChemicalreactionsofCO2 MeSH Carbon+dioxide(https://www.n
2.4 Physicalproperties lm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2014/MB_
3 Isolationandproduction cgi?mode=&term=Carbon+diox
4 Applications ide)
4.1 Precursortochemicals RTECSnumber FF6400000
4.2 Foods
4.2.1 Beverages UNII 142M471B3J(http://fdasis.nlm.
4.2.2 Winemaking nih.gov/srs/srsdirect.jsp?regno=
4.3 Inertgas 142M471B3J)
4.4 Fireextinguisher
UNnumber 1013(gas),1845(solid)
4.5 SupercriticalCO2assolvent
4.6 Agriculturalandbiologicalapplications InChI
4.7 Oilrecovery SMILES
4.8 Biotransformationintofuel Properties
4.9 Refrigerant
4.10 Coalbedmethanerecovery Chemicalformula CO2
4.11 Minoruses Molarmass 44.01gmol1
5 InEarth'satmosphere
6 Intheoceans Appearance Colorlessgas
7 Biologicalrole Odor Odorless
7.1 Photosynthesisandcarbonfixation
Density 1562kg/m3 (solidat1atmand
7.2 Toxicity
7.2.1 Below1% 78.5C)
7.2.2 Ventilation 1101kg/m3 (liquidatsaturation
7.3 Humanphysiology
37C)
7.3.1 Content
7.3.2 Transportintheblood 1.977kg/m3 (gasat1atmand
7.3.3 Regulationofrespiration 0C)
8 Seealso
9 References Meltingpoint 56.6C69.8F216.6K
10 Furtherreading (Triplepointat5.1atm)
11 Externallinks Sublimation 78.5C109.2F194.7K
conditions (1atm)
Solubilityinwater 1.45g/Lat25C(77F),100
Background kPa
Vaporpressure 5.73MPa(20C)
Carbondioxidewasthefirstgastobedescribedasadiscrete
Acidity(pKa) 6.35,10.33
substance.Inabout1640,[8]theFlemishchemistJanBaptistvan
Helmontobservedthatwhenheburnedcharcoalinaclosed Magnetic 20.5106cm3/mol
susceptibility()
vessel,themassoftheresultingashwasmuchlessthanthatof
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theoriginalcharcoal.His Refractiveindex 1.00045

interpretationwasthattherestof (nD)
thecharcoalhadbeen Viscosity 0.07cPat78.5C
transmutedintoaninvisible Dipolemoment 0D
substancehetermeda"gas"or
"wildspirit"(spiritus Structure

sylvestre).[9] Crystalstructure trigonal

Molecularshape linear
Thepropertiesofcarbondioxide Thermochemistry
werestudiedmorethoroughlyin
Crystalstructureofdryice Specific 37.135J/Kmol
the1750sbytheScottish
heatcapacity(C)
physicianJosephBlack.He
foundthatlimestone(calciumcarbonate)couldbeheatedor Stdmolar 214Jmol1K1
treatedwithacidstoyieldagashecalled"fixedair."He entropy(So298)
observedthatthefixedairwasdenserthanairandsupported Stdenthalpyof 393.5kJmol1
neitherflamenoranimallife.Blackalsofoundthatwhen o
formation(fH 298)
bubbledthroughlimewater(asaturatedaqueoussolutionof
Pharmacology
calciumhydroxide),itwouldprecipitatecalciumcarbonate.He
usedthisphenomenontoillustratethatcarbondioxideis ATCcode V03AN02(WHO(http://www.
producedbyanimalrespirationandmicrobialfermentation.In whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code
1772,EnglishchemistJosephPriestleypublishedapaper =V03AN02))
entitledImpregnatingWaterwithFixedAirinwhichhe Hazards
describedaprocessofdrippingsulfuricacid(oroilofvitriolas
Safetydatasheet See:datapage
Priestleyknewit)onchalkinordertoproducecarbondioxide,
andforcingthegastodissolvebyagitatingabowlofwaterin SigmaAldrich(http://www.sig
maaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/
contactwiththegas.[10]
DisplayMSDSPage.do?country
Carbondioxidewasfirstliquefied(atelevatedpressures)in =PL&language=ENgeneric&p
1823byHumphryDavyandMichaelFaraday.[11]Theearliest roductNumber=295108&brand
descriptionofsolidcarbondioxidewasgivenbyAdrienJean =ALDRICH&PageToGoToUR
PierreThilorier,whoin1835openedapressurizedcontainerof L=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sig
liquidcarbondioxide,onlytofindthatthecoolingproducedby maaldrich.com%2Fcatalog%2F
therapidevaporationoftheliquidyieldeda"snow"ofsolid product%2Faldrich%2F29510
CO2.[12][13] 8%3Flang%3Dpl)
NFPA704
0
Chemicalandphysicalproperties 1 0
Structureandbonding
Lethaldoseorconcentration(LD,LC):
Thecarbondioxide LCLo(lowest 90,000ppm(human,5min)[2]
moleculeislinearand published)
centrosymmetric.The UShealthexposurelimits(NIOSH):
twoC=Obondsare
PEL(Permissible) TWA5000ppm(9000
equivalentandare
short(116.3pm), mg/m3)[1]
[14]
consistentwithdoublebonding. Sinceitiscentrosymmetric, REL TWA5000ppm(9000mg/m3)
themoleculehasnoelectricaldipole.Consequently,onlytwo (Recommended)
ST30,000ppm(54,000
vibrationalbandsareobservedintheIRspectruman
mg/m3)[1]
antisymmetricstretchingmodeat2349cm1andadegenerate
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pairofbendingmodesat667cm1.Thereisalsoasymmetric IDLH(Immediate 40,000ppm[1]

danger)
stretchingmodeat1388cm1whichisonlyobservedinthe
Relatedcompounds
Ramanspectrum.[15]
Otheranions Carbondisulfide
Carbondiselenide
Inaqueoussolution
Carbonditelluride
Carbondioxideissolubleinwater,inwhichitreversiblyforms Othercations Silicondioxide
H2CO3(carbonicacid),whichisaweakacidsinceitsionization Germaniumdioxide
inwaterisincomplete. Tindioxide
Leaddioxide
CO2+H2OH2CO3 Relatedcarbon Carbonmonoxide
oxides Carbonsuboxide
Thehydrationequilibriumconstantofcarbonicacidis
Dicarbonmonoxide
(at25C).Hence,the Carbontrioxide
Relatedcompounds Carbonicacid
majorityofthecarbondioxideisnotconvertedintocarbonic
acid,butremainsasCO2molecules,notaffectingthepH. Carbonylsulfide
Supplementarydatapage
TherelativeconcentrationsofCO2,H2CO3,andthe Structureand Refractiveindex(n),
deprotonatedformsHCO 2 properties
3 (bicarbonate)andCO3 (carbonate) Dielectricconstant(r),etc.
dependonthepH.AsshowninaBjerrumplot,inneutralor
Thermodynamic Phasebehaviour
slightlyalkalinewater(pH>6.5),thebicarbonateform data solidliquidgas
predominates(>50%)becomingthemostprevalent(>95%)at
thepHofseawater.Inveryalkalinewater(pH>10.4),the Spectraldata UV,IR,NMR,MS
predominant(>50%)formiscarbonate.Theoceans,being Exceptwhereotherwisenoted,dataaregivenfor
mildlyalkalinewithtypicalpH=8.28.5,containabout120mg materialsintheirstandardstate(at25C[77F],
ofbicarbonateperliter. 100kPa).
verify(whatis ?)
Beingdiprotic,carbonicacidhastwoaciddissociation
constants,thefirstoneforthedissociationintothebicarbonate Infoboxreferences

(alsocalledhydrogencarbonate)ion(HCO3):

H2CO3HCO3+H+
Ka1=2.5 104mol/LpKa1=3.6at25C.[14]

Thisisthetruefirstaciddissociationconstant,definedas Stretchingandbendingoscillationsof
theCO2carbondioxidemolecule.
,wherethedenominatorincludesonlycovalently Upperleft:symmetricstretching.
Upperright:antisymmetric
boundH2CO3anddoesnotincludehydratedCO2(aq).Themuchsmaller stretching.Lowerline:degenerate
andoftenquotedvaluenear4.16 107isanapparentvaluecalculatedon pairofbendingmodes.
the(incorrect)assumptionthatalldissolvedCO2ispresentascarbonic

acid,sothat .SincemostofthedissolvedCO2remainsasCO2

molecules,Ka1(apparent)hasamuchlargerdenominatorandamuchsmallervaluethanthetrueKa1.[16]

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Thebicarbonateionisanamphotericspeciesthatcanactasanacidorasabase,dependingonpHofthesolution.
AthighpH,itdissociatessignificantlyintothecarbonateion(CO32):

HCO3CO32+H+
Ka2=4.69 1011mol/LpKa2=10.329

Inorganismscarbonicacidproductioniscatalysedbytheenzyme,carbonicanhydrase.

ChemicalreactionsofCO2

CO2isaweakelectrophile.Itsreactionwithbasicwaterillustratesthisproperty,inwhichcasehydroxideisthe
nucleophile.Othernucleophilesreactaswell.Forexample,carbanionsasprovidedbyGrignardreagentsand
organolithiumcompoundsreactwithCO2togivecarboxylates:

MR+CO2RCO2M
whereM=LiorMgBrandR=alkyloraryl.

Inmetalcarbondioxidecomplexes,CO2servesasaligand,whichcanfacilitatetheconversionofCO2toother
chemicals.[17]

ThereductionofCO2toCOisordinarilyadifficultandslowreaction:

CO2+2e+2H+CO+H2O

TheredoxpotentialforthisreactionnearpH7isabout0.53Vversusthestandardhydrogenelectrode.The
nickelcontainingenzymecarbonmonoxidedehydrogenasecatalysesthisprocess.[18]

Physicalproperties

Carbondioxideiscolorless.Atlow
concentrations,thegasisodorless.
Athigherconcentrationsithasa
sharp,acidicodor.Atstandard
temperatureandpressure,the
densityofcarbondioxideisaround
1.98kg/m3,about1.67timesthatof
air.

Carbondioxidepressuretemperature
phasediagramshowingthetriple
pointandcriticalpointofcarbon
dioxide
Carbondioxidehasnoliquidstate
atpressuresbelow5.1standard
atmospheres(520kPa).At1 Sampleofsolidcarbondioxideor
atmosphere(nearmeansealevel "dryice"pellets
pressure),thegasdepositsdirectly
toasolidattemperaturesbelow78.5C(109.3F194.7K)andthe
solidsublimesdirectlytoagasabove78.5C.Initssolidstate,carbon
dioxideiscommonlycalleddryice.

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Liquidcarbondioxideformsonlyatpressuresabove5.1atmthetriplepointofcarbondioxideisabout518kPaat
56.6C(seephasediagramatleft).Thecriticalpointis7.38MPaat31.1C.[19][20]Anotherformofsolidcarbon
dioxideobservedathighpressureisanamorphousglasslikesolid.[21]Thisformofglass,calledcarbonia,is
producedbysupercoolingheatedCO2atextremepressure(4048GPaorabout400,000atmospheres)ina
diamondanvil.Thisdiscoveryconfirmedthetheorythatcarbondioxidecouldexistinaglassstatesimilartoother
membersofitselementalfamily,likesilicon(silicaglass)andgermaniumdioxide.Unlikesilicaandgermania
glasses,however,carboniaglassisnotstableatnormalpressuresandrevertstogaswhenpressureisreleased.

Attemperaturesandpressuresabovethecriticalpoint,carbondioxidebehavesasasupercriticalfluidknownas
supercriticalcarbondioxide.

Isolationandproduction
Carbondioxidecanbeobtainedbydistillationfromair,butthemethodisinefficient.Industrially,carbondioxideis
predominantlyanunrecoveredwasteproduct,producedbyseveralmethodswhichmaybepracticedatvarious
scales.[22]

Thecombustionofallcarbonbasedfuels,suchasmethane(naturalgas),petroleumdistillates(gasoline,diesel,
kerosene,propane),coal,woodandgenericorganicmatterproducescarbondioxideand,exceptinthecaseofpure
carbon,water.Asanexample,thechemicalreactionbetweenmethaneandoxygen:

CH4+2O2CO2+2H2O

Itisproducedbythermaldecompositionoflimestone,CaCO3byheating(calcining)atabout850C(1,560F),in
themanufactureofquicklime(calciumoxide,CaO),acompoundthathasmanyindustrialuses:

CaCO3CaO+CO2

Ironisreducedfromitsoxideswithcokeinablastfurnace,producingpigironandcarbondioxide:[23]

Carbondioxideisabyproductoftheindustrialproductionofhydrogenbysteamreformingandammonia
synthesis.Theseprocessesbeginwiththereactionofwaterandnaturalgas(mainlymethane).[24]

AcidsliberateCO2frommostmetalcarbonates.Consequently,itmaybeobtaineddirectlyfromnaturalcarbon
dioxidesprings,whereitisproducedbytheactionofacidifiedwateronlimestoneordolomite.Thereaction
betweenhydrochloricacidandcalciumcarbonate(limestoneorchalk)isshownbelow:

CaCO3+2HClCaCl2+H2CO3

Thecarbonicacid(H2CO3)thendecomposestowaterandCO2:

H2CO3CO2+H2O

Suchreactionsareaccompaniedbyfoamingorbubbling,orboth,asthegasisreleased.Theyhavewidespread
usesinindustrybecausetheycanbeusedtoneutralizewasteacidstreams.

Carbondioxideisabyproductofthefermentationofsugarinthebrewingofbeer,whiskyandotheralcoholic
beveragesandintheproductionofbioethanol.YeastmetabolizessugartoproduceCO2andethanol,alsoknownas
alcohol,asfollows:

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C6H12O62CO2+2C2H5OH

AllaerobicorganismsproduceCO2whentheyoxidizecarbohydrates,fattyacids,andproteins.Thelargenumber
ofreactionsinvolvedareexceedinglycomplexandnotdescribedeasily.Referto(cellularrespiration,anaerobic
respirationandphotosynthesis).Theequationfortherespirationofglucoseandothermonosaccharidesis:

C6H12O6+6O26CO2+6H2O

Photoautotrophs(i.e.plantsandcyanobacteria)usetheenergycontainedinsunlighttophotosynthesizesimple
sugarsfromCO2absorbedfromtheairandwater:

nCO2+nH2O(CH2O)n+nO2

Carbondioxidecomprisesabout4045%ofthegasthatemanatesfromdecompositioninlandfills(termed"landfill
gas").Mostoftheremaining5055%ismethane.[25]

Applications
Carbondioxideisusedbythefoodindustry,theoilindustry,andthe
chemicalindustry.[22]Thecompoundhasvariedcommercialusesbut
oneofitsgreatestuseasachemicalisintheproductionofcarbonated
beveragesitprovidesthesparkleincarbonatedbeveragessuchas
sodawater.

Precursortochemicals

Inthechemicalindustry,carbondioxideismainlyconsumedasan
ingredientintheproductionofurea,withasmallerfractionbeingused Carbondioxidebubblesinasoftdrink.
toproducemethanolandarangeofotherproducts,[26]suchasmetal
carbonatesandbicarbonates.Somecarboxylicacidderivativessuchas
sodiumsalicylatearepreparedusingCO2bytheKolbeSchmittreaction.[27]

InadditiontoconventionalprocessesusingCO2forchemicalproduction,electrochemicalmethodsarealsobeing
exploredataresearchlevel.Inparticular,theuseofrenewableenergyforproductionoffuelsfromCO2(suchas
methanol)isattractiveasthiscouldresultinfuelsthatcouldbeeasilytransportedandusedwithinconventional
combustiontechnologiesbuthavenonetCO2emissions.[28]

Foods

Carbondioxideisafoodadditiveusedasapropellantandacidityregulatorinthefoodindustry.Itisapprovedfor
usageintheEU[29](listedasEnumberE290),US[30]andAustraliaandNewZealand[31](listedbyitsINSnumber
290).

AcandycalledPopRocksispressurizedwithcarbondioxidegasatabout4x106Pa(40bar,580psi).When
placedinthemouth,itdissolves(justlikeotherhardcandy)andreleasesthegasbubbleswithanaudiblepop.

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Leaveningagentscausedoughtorisebyproducingcarbondioxide.Baker'syeastproducescarbondioxideby
fermentationofsugarswithinthedough,whilechemicalleavenerssuchasbakingpowderandbakingsodarelease
carbondioxidewhenheatedorifexposedtoacids.

Beverages

Carbondioxideisusedtoproducecarbonatedsoftdrinksandsodawater.Traditionally,thecarbonationofbeerand
sparklingwinecameaboutthroughnaturalfermentation,butmanymanufacturerscarbonatethesedrinkswith
carbondioxiderecoveredfromthefermentationprocess.Inthecaseofbottledandkeggedbeer,themostcommon
methodusediscarbonationwithrecycledcarbondioxide.WiththeexceptionofBritishRealAle,draughtbeeris
usuallytransferredfromkegsinacoldroomorcellartodispensingtapsonthebarusingpressurizedcarbon
dioxide,sometimesmixedwithnitrogen.

Winemaking

Carbondioxideintheformofdryiceisoftenusedinthewinemakingprocesstocooldownclustersofgrapes
quicklyafterpickingtohelppreventspontaneousfermentationbywildyeast.Themainadvantageofusingdryice
overregularwatericeisthatitcoolsthegrapeswithoutaddinganyadditionalwaterthatmaydecreasethesugar
concentrationinthegrapemust,andthereforealsodecreasethealcoholconcentrationinthefinishedwine.

Dryiceisusedduringthecoldsoakphaseofthewinemakingprocesstokeepgrapescool.Thecarbondioxidegas
thatresultsfromthesublimationofthedryicetendstosettletothebottomoftanksbecauseitisdenserthanair.
Thesettledcarbondioxidegascreatesahypoxicenvironmentwhichhelpstopreventbacteriafromgrowingonthe
grapesuntilitistimetostartthefermentationwiththedesiredstrainofyeast.

Carbondioxideisalsousedtocreateahypoxicenvironmentforcarbonicmaceration,theprocessusedtoproduce
Beaujolaiswine.

Carbondioxideissometimesusedtotopupwinebottlesorotherstoragevesselssuchasbarrelstoprevent
oxidation,thoughithastheproblemthatitcandissolveintothewine,makingapreviouslystillwineslightlyfizzy.
Forthisreason,othergasessuchasnitrogenorargonarepreferredforthisprocessbyprofessionalwinemakers.

Inertgas

Itisoneofthemostcommonlyusedcompressedgasesforpneumatic(pressurizedgas)systemsinportable
pressuretools.Carbondioxideisalsousedasanatmosphereforwelding,althoughintheweldingarc,itreactsto
oxidizemostmetals.Useintheautomotiveindustryiscommondespitesignificantevidencethatweldsmadein
carbondioxidearemorebrittlethanthosemadeinmoreinertatmospheres,andthatsuchweldjointsdeteriorate
overtimebecauseoftheformationofcarbonicacid.Itisusedasaweldinggasprimarilybecauseitismuchless
expensivethanmoreinertgasessuchasargonorhelium.WhenusedforMIGwelding,CO2useissometimes
referredtoasMAGwelding,forMetalActiveGas,asCO2canreactatthesehightemperatures.Ittendstoproduce
ahotterpuddlethantrulyinertatmospheres,improvingtheflowcharacteristics.Although,thismaybedueto
atmosphericreactionsoccurringatthepuddlesite.Thisisusuallytheoppositeofthedesiredeffectwhenwelding,
asittendstoembrittlethesite,butmaynotbeaproblemforgeneralmildsteelwelding,whereultimateductilityis
notamajorconcern.

Itisusedinmanyconsumerproductsthatrequirepressurizedgasbecauseitisinexpensiveandnonflammable,and
becauseitundergoesaphasetransitionfromgastoliquidatroomtemperatureatanattainablepressureof
approximately60bar(870psi,59atm),allowingfarmorecarbondioxidetofitinagivencontainerthanotherwise
would.Lifejacketsoftencontaincanistersofpressuredcarbondioxideforquickinflation.Aluminiumcapsulesof

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CO2arealsosoldassuppliesofcompressedgasforairguns,paintballmarkers,inflatingbicycletires,andfor
makingcarbonatedwater.Rapidvaporizationofliquidcarbondioxideisusedforblastingincoalmines.High
concentrationsofcarbondioxidecanalsobeusedtokillpests.Liquidcarbondioxideisusedinsupercritical
dryingofsomefoodproductsandtechnologicalmaterials,inthepreparationofspecimensforscanningelectron
microscopyandinthedecaffeinationofcoffeebeans.

Fireextinguisher

Carbondioxidecanbeusedtoextinguishflamesbyfloodingtheenvironmentaroundtheflamewiththegas.It
doesnotitselfreacttoextinguishtheflame,butstarvestheflameofoxygenbydisplacingit.Somefire
extinguishers,especiallythosedesignedforelectricalfires,containliquidcarbondioxideunderpressure.Carbon
dioxideextinguishersworkwellonsmallflammableliquidandelectricalfires,butnotonordinarycombustible
fires,becausealthoughitexcludesoxygen,itdoesnotcooltheburningsubstancessignificantlyandwhenthe
carbondioxidedispersestheyarefreetocatchfireuponexposuretoatmosphericoxygen.Theirdesirabilityin
electricalfirestemsfromthefactthat,unlikewaterorotherchemicalbasedmethods,Carbondioxidewillnot
causeshortcircuits,leadingtoevenmoredamagetoequipment.Becauseitisagas,itisalsoeasytodispenselarge
amountsofthegasautomaticallyinITinfrastructurerooms,wherethefireitselfmightbehardtoreachwithmore
immediatemethodsbecauseitisbehindrackdoorsandinsideofcases.Carbondioxidehasalsobeenwidelyused
asanextinguishingagentinfixedfireprotectionsystemsforlocalapplicationofspecifichazardsandtotal
floodingofaprotectedspace.[32]InternationalMaritimeOrganizationstandardsalsorecognizecarbondioxide
systemsforfireprotectionofshipholdsandenginerooms.Carbondioxidebasedfireprotectionsystemshavebeen
linkedtoseveraldeaths,becauseitcancausesuffocationinsufficientlyhighconcentrations.AreviewofCO2
systemsidentified51incidentsbetween1975andthedateofthereport,causing72deathsand145injuries.[33]

SupercriticalCO2assolvent

Liquidcarbondioxideisagoodsolventformanylipophilicorganiccompoundsandisusedtoremovecaffeine
fromcoffee.Carbondioxidehasattractedattentioninthepharmaceuticalandotherchemicalprocessingindustries
asalesstoxicalternativetomoretraditionalsolventssuchasorganochlorides.Itisusedbysomedrycleanersfor
thisreason(seegreenchemistry).Itisusedinthepreparationofsomeaerogelsbecauseofthepropertiesof
supercriticalcarbondioxide.

Agriculturalandbiologicalapplications

Plantsrequirecarbondioxidetoconductphotosynthesis.Theatmospheresofgreenhousesmay(ifoflargesize,
must)beenrichedwithadditionalCO2tosustainandincreasetherateofplantgrowth.[34][35]Atveryhigh
concentrations(100timesatmosphericconcentration,orgreater),carbondioxidecanbetoxictoanimallife,so
raisingtheconcentrationto10,000ppm(1%)orhigherforseveralhourswilleliminatepestssuchaswhitefliesand
spidermitesinagreenhouse.[36]

Inmedicine,upto5%carbondioxide(130timesatmosphericconcentration)isaddedtooxygenforstimulationof
breathingafterapneaandtostabilizetheO2/CO2balanceinblood.

Ithasbeenproposedthatcarbondioxidefrompowergenerationbebubbledintopondstostimulategrowthof
algaethatcouldthenbeconvertedintobiodieselfuel.[37]

Oilrecovery

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Carbondioxideisusedinenhancedoilrecoverywhereitisinjectedintooradjacenttoproducingoilwells,usually
undersupercriticalconditions,whenitbecomesmisciblewiththeoil.Thisapproachcanincreaseoriginaloil
recoverybyreducingresidualoilsaturationbybetween7percentto23percentadditionaltoprimary
extraction.[38]Itactsasbothapressurizingagentand,whendissolvedintotheundergroundcrudeoil,significantly
reducesitsviscosity,andchangingsurfacechemistryenablingtheoiltoflowmorerapidlythroughthereservoirto
theremovalwell.[39]Inmatureoilfields,extensivepipenetworksareusedtocarrythecarbondioxidetothe
injectionpoints.

Biotransformationintofuel

ResearchershavegeneticallymodifiedastrainofthecyanobacteriumSynechococcuselongatustoproducethe
fuelsisobutyraldehydeandisobutanolfromCO2usingphotosynthesis.[40]

Refrigerant

Liquidandsolidcarbondioxideareimportant
refrigerants,especiallyinthefoodindustry,
wheretheyareemployedduringthe
transportationandstorageoficecreamand
otherfrozenfoods.Solidcarbondioxideis
called"dryice"andisusedforsmallshipments
whererefrigerationequipmentisnotpractical.
Solidcarbondioxideisalwaysbelow78.5C
atregularatmosphericpressure,regardlessof
theairtemperature.

Liquidcarbondioxide(industrynomenclature Comparisonofphasediagramsofcarbondioxide(red)andwater
R744orR744)wasusedasarefrigerantprior (blue)asaloglinchartwithphasetransitionspointsat1atmosphere
tothediscoveryofR12andmayenjoya
renaissanceduetothefactthatR134acontributestoclimatechange.Itsphysicalpropertiesarehighlyfavorable
forcooling,refrigeration,andheatingpurposes,havingahighvolumetriccoolingcapacity.Duetotheneedto
operateatpressuresofupto130bar(1880psi),CO2systemsrequirehighlyresistantcomponentsthathavealready
beendevelopedformassproductioninmanysectors.Inautomobileairconditioning,inmorethan90%ofall
drivingconditionsforlatitudeshigherthan50,R744operatesmoreefficientlythansystemsusingR134a.Its
environmentaladvantages(GWPof1,nonozonedepleting,nontoxic,nonflammable)couldmakeitthefuture
workingfluidtoreplacecurrentHFCsincars,supermarkets,andheatpumpwaterheaters,amongothers.Coca
ColahasfieldedCO2basedbeveragecoolersandtheU.S.ArmyisinterestedinCO2refrigerationandheating
technology.[41][42]

Theglobalautomobileindustryisexpectedtodecideonthenextgenerationrefrigerantincarairconditioning.
CO2isonediscussedoption.(seeSustainableautomotiveairconditioning)

Coalbedmethanerecovery

Inenhancedcoalbedmethanerecovery,carbondioxidewouldbepumpedintothecoalseamtodisplacemethane,
asopposedtocurrentmethodswhichprimarilyrelyontheremovalofwater(toreducepressure)tomakethecoal
seamreleaseitstrappedmethane.[43]

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Minoruses

Carbondioxideisthelasingmediuminacarbondioxidelaser,
whichisoneoftheearliesttypeoflasers.

CarbondioxidecanbeusedasameansofcontrollingthepH
ofswimmingpools,bycontinuouslyaddinggastothewater,
thuskeepingthepHfromrising.Amongtheadvantagesofthis
istheavoidanceofhandling(morehazardous)acids.Similarly,
itisalsousedinthemaintainingreefaquaria,whereitis
commonlyusedincalciumreactorstotemporarilylowerthe
pHofwaterbeingpassedovercalciumcarbonateinorderto
allowthecalciumcarbonatetodissolveintothewatermore Acarbondioxidelaser.
freelywhereitisusedbysomecoralstobuildtheirskeleton.

UsedastheprimarycoolantintheBritishadvancedgascooledreactorfornuclearpowergeneration.

Carbondioxideinductioniscommonlyusedfortheeuthanasiaoflaboratoryresearchanimals.Methodsto
administerCO2includeplacinganimalsdirectlyintoaclosed,prefilledchambercontainingCO2,orexposuretoa
graduallyincreasingconcentrationofCO2.In2013,theAmericanVeterinaryMedicalAssociationissuednew
guidelinesforcarbondioxideinduction,statingthatadisplacementrateof10%to30%ofthegaschambervolume
perminuteisoptimalforthehumaneeuthanizationofsmallrodents.[44]

Carbondioxideisalsousedinseveralrelatedcleaningandsurfacepreparationtechniques,andinPaintballTanks.

InEarth'satmosphere
CarbondioxideinEarth'satmosphereisatracegas,currently
(early2016)havinganaverageconcentrationof402partsper
millionbyvolume[3][45][46](or611partspermillionbymass).
Atmosphericconcentrationsofcarbondioxidefluctuateslightly
withtheseasons,fallingduringtheNorthernHemispherespring
andsummerasplantsconsumethegasandrisingduringnorthern
autumnandwinterasplantsgodormantordieanddecay.
Concentrationsalsovaryonaregionalbasis,moststronglynear
thegroundwithmuchsmallervariationsaloft.Inurbanareas
concentrationsaregenerallyhigher[47]andindoorstheycanreach
10timesbackgroundlevels.

Theconcentrationlevelsofcarbondioxidehaverisendueto
humanactivitiessinceWWII.[49]Combustionoffossilfuelsand
deforestationhavecausedtheatmosphericconcentrationof
carbondioxidetoincreasebyabout43%sincethebeginningof TheKeelingCurveofatmosphericCO2
[50]
theageofindustrialization. Mostcarbondioxidefromhuman concentrationsmeasuredatMaunaLoa
activitiesisreleasedfromburningcoalandotherfossilfuels. Observatory
Otherhumanactivities,includingdeforestation,biomassburning,
andcementproductionalsoproducecarbondioxide.Volcanoes
emitbetween0.2and0.3billiontonsofcarbondioxideperyear,whilehumanactivitiesemitabout29billion
tons.[51][52]

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Carbondioxideisagreenhousegas,absorbingandemittinginfrared
radiationatitstwoinfraredactivevibrationalfrequencies(seethesection
"Structureandbonding"above).Thisprocesscausescarbondioxideto
warmthesurfaceandloweratmospherewhilecoolingtheupper
atmosphere.IncreasesinatmosphericconcentrationsofCO2andother
longlivedgreenhousegasessuchasmethane,nitrousoxideandozonehave
correspondinglystrengthenedtheirabsorptionandemissionofinfrared
radiation,causingtheriseinaverageglobaltemperaturesincethemid20th
century.Carbondioxideisofgreatestconcernbecauseitexertsalarger
overallwarminginfluencethanalloftheseothergasescombinedand
becauseithasalongatmosphericlifetime(hundredstothousandsofyears).
YearlyincreaseofatmosphericCO2:
Inthe1960s,theaverageannual Notonlydoincreasingcarbondioxide
increasewas37%ofthe20002007 concentrationsleadtoincreasesin
average. [48] globalsurfacetemperature,but
increasingglobaltemperaturesalso
causeincreasingconcentrationsof
carbondioxide.Thisproducesapositivefeedbackforchangesinducedby
otherprocessessuchasorbitalcycles.[57]Fivehundredmillionyearsagothe CO2inEarth'satmosphereifhalf
carbondioxideconcentrationwas20timesgreaterthantoday,decreasingto4 ofglobalwarmingemissionsare
5timesduringtheJurassicperiodandthenslowlydecliningwithaparticularly notabsorbed. [53][54][55][56]
swiftreductionoccurring49millionyearsago.[58][59] (NASAcomputersimulation).

Localconcentrationsofcarbondioxidecanreachhighvaluesnearstrong
sources,especiallythosethatareisolatedbysurroundingterrain.AttheBossoletohotspringnearRapolanoTerme
inTuscany,Italy,situatedinabowlshapeddepressionabout100m(330ft)indiameter,concentrationsofCO2
risetoabove75%overnight,sufficienttokillinsectsandsmallanimals.Aftersunrisethegasisdispersedby
convectionduringtheday.[60]HighconcentrationsofCO2producedbydisturbanceofdeeplakewatersaturated
withCO2arethoughttohavecaused37fatalitiesatLakeMonoun,Cameroonin1984and1700casualtiesatLake
Nyos,Cameroonin1986.[61]

Humanmadecarbondioxide(CO2)continuestoincreaseabovelevelsnotseeninhundredsofthousandsofyears.
Currently,abouthalfofthecarbondioxidereleasedfromtheburningoffossilfuelsremainsintheatmosphereand
isnotabsorbedbyvegetationandtheoceans.[53][54][55][56]

Intheoceans
Carbondioxidedissolvesintheoceantoformcarbonicacid(H2CO3),bicarbonate(HCO3)andcarbonate
(CO32).Thereisaboutfiftytimesasmuchcarbondissolvedintheoceansasexistsintheatmosphere.Theoceans
actasanenormouscarbonsink,andhavetakenupaboutathirdofCO2emittedbyhumanactivity.[62]

Astheconcentrationofcarbondioxideincreasesintheatmosphere,theincreaseduptakeofcarbondioxideintothe
oceansiscausingameasurabledecreaseinthepHoftheoceans,whichisreferredtoasoceanacidification.This
reductioninpHaffectsbiologicalsystemsintheoceans,primarilyoceaniccalcifyingorganisms.Theseeffects
spanthefoodchainfromautotrophstoheterotrophsandincludeorganismssuchascoccolithophores,corals,
foraminifera,echinoderms,crustaceansandmollusks.Undernormalconditions,calciumcarbonateisstablein
surfacewaterssincethecarbonateionisatsupersaturatingconcentrations.However,asoceanpHfalls,sodoesthe
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concentrationofthision,andwhencarbonatebecomesundersaturated,structuresmadeofcalciumcarbonateare
vulnerabletodissolution.[63]Corals,[64][65][66]coccolithophorealgae,[67][68][69][70]corallinealgae,[71]
foraminifera,[72]shellfish[73]andpteropods[74]experiencereducedcalcificationorenhanceddissolutionwhen
exposedtoelevatedCO2.

Gassolubilitydecreasesasthetemperatureofwaterincreases(exceptwhenbothpressureexceeds300barand
temperatureexceeds393K,onlyfoundneardeepgeothermalvents)[75]andthereforetherateofuptakefromthe
atmospheredecreasesasoceantemperaturesrise.

MostoftheCO2takenupbytheocean,whichisabout30%ofthetotalreleasedintotheatmosphere,[76]forms
carbonicacidinequilibriumwithbicarbonate.Someofthesechemicalspeciesareconsumedbyphotosynthetic
organismsthatremovecarbonfromthecycle.IncreasedCO2intheatmospherehasledtodecreasingalkalinityof
seawater,andthereisconcernthatthismayadverselyaffectorganismslivinginthewater.Inparticular,with
decreasingalkalinity,theavailabilityofcarbonatesforformingshellsdecreases,[77]althoughthere'sevidenceof
increasedshellproductionbycertainspeciesunderincreasedCO2content.[78]

NOAAstatesintheirMay2008"Stateofthesciencefactsheetforoceanacidification"that:
"Theoceanshaveabsorbedabout50%ofthecarbondioxide(CO2)releasedfromtheburningoffossilfuels,
resultinginchemicalreactionsthatloweroceanpH.Thishascausedanincreaseinhydrogenion(acidity)ofabout
30%sincethestartoftheindustrialagethroughaprocessknownas"oceanacidification."Agrowingnumberof
studieshavedemonstratedadverseimpactsonmarineorganisms,including:

Therateatwhichreefbuildingcoralsproducetheirskeletonsdecreases,whileproductionofnumerous
varietiesofjellyfishincreases.
Theabilityofmarinealgaeandfreeswimmingzooplanktontomaintainprotectiveshellsisreduced.
Thesurvivaloflarvalmarinespecies,includingcommercialfishandshellfish,isreduced."

Also,theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)writesintheirClimateChange2007:Synthesis
Report:[79]
"Theuptakeofanthropogeniccarbonsince1750hasledtotheoceanbecomingmoreacidicwithanaverage
decreaseinpHof0.1units.IncreasingatmosphericCO2concentrationsleadtofurtheracidification...Whilethe
effectsofobservedoceanacidificationonthemarinebiosphereareasyetundocumented,theprogressive
acidificationofoceansisexpectedtohavenegativeimpactsonmarineshellformingorganisms(e.g.corals)and
theirdependentspecies."

Somemarinecalcifyingorganisms(includingcoralreefs)havebeensingledoutbymajorresearchagencies,
includingNOAA,OSPARcommission,NANOOSandtheIPCC,becausetheirmostcurrentresearchshowsthat
oceanacidificationshouldbeexpectedtoimpactthemnegatively.[80]

Carbondioxideisalsointroducedintotheoceansthroughhydrothermalvents.TheChampagnehydrothermalvent,
foundattheNorthwestEifukuvolcanoatMarianasTrenchMarineNationalMonument,producesalmostpure
liquidcarbondioxide,oneofonlytwoknownsitesintheworld.[81]

Biologicalrole
Carbondioxideisanendproductofcellularrespirationinorganismsthatobtainenergybybreakingdownsugars,
fatsandaminoacidswithoxygenaspartoftheirmetabolism.Thisincludesallplants,algaeandanimalsand
aerobicfungiandbacteria.Invertebrates,thecarbondioxidetravelsinthebloodfromthebody'stissuestotheskin

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(e.g.,amphibians)orthegills(e.g.,fish),fromwhereitdissolvesinthewater,ortothelungsfromwhereitis
exhaled.Duringactivephotosynthesis,plantscanabsorbmorecarbondioxidefromtheatmospherethanthey
releaseinrespiration.

Photosynthesisandcarbonfixation

Carbonfixationisa
biochemicalprocessby
whichatmosphericcarbon
dioxideisincorporatedby
plants,algaeand
(cyanobacteria)into
energyrichorganic
moleculessuchasglucose,
thuscreatingtheirown
foodbyphotosynthesis.
Photosynthesisuses
carbondioxideandwater
toproducesugarsfrom
whichotherorganic Overviewofphotosynthesisand
compoundscanbe respiration.Carbondioxide(at
Figure2.OverviewoftheCalvincycleandcarbon constructed,andoxygenis right),togetherwithwater,form
fixation producedasabyproduct. oxygenandorganiccompounds
(atleft)byphotosynthesis,which
Ribulose1,5bisphosphate canberespiredtowaterand
carboxylaseoxygenase,commonlyabbreviatedtoRuBisCO,istheenzyme (CO2).
involvedinthefirstmajorstepofcarbonfixation,theproductionoftwo
moleculesof3phosphoglyceratefromCO2andribulosebisphosphate,as
showninthediagramatleft.

RuBisCOisthoughttobethesinglemostabundantproteinonEarth.[82]

Phototrophsusetheproductsoftheirphotosynthesisasinternalfoodsourcesandasrawmaterialforthe
biosynthesisofmorecomplexorganicmolecules,suchaspolysaccharides,nucleicacidsandproteins.Theseare
usedfortheirowngrowth,andalsoasthebasisofthefoodchainsandwebsthatfeedotherorganisms,including
animalssuchasourselves.Someimportantphototrophs,thecoccolithophoressynthesisehardcalciumcarbonate
scales.AgloballysignificantspeciesofcoccolithophoreisEmilianiahuxleyiwhosecalcitescaleshaveformedthe
basisofmanysedimentaryrockssuchaslimestone,wherewhatwaspreviouslyatmosphericcarboncanremain
fixedforgeologicaltimescales.

Plantscangrowasmuchas50percentfasterinconcentrationsof1,000ppmCO2whencomparedwithambient
conditions,thoughthisassumesnochangeinclimateandnolimitationonothernutrients.[83]ElevatedCO2levels
causeincreasedgrowthreflectedintheharvestableyieldofcrops,withwheat,riceandsoybeanallshowing
increasesinyieldof1214%underelevatedCO2inFACEexperiments.[84][85]

IncreasedatmosphericCO2concentrationsresultinfewerstomatadevelopingonplants[86]whichleadstoreduced
waterusageandincreasedwateruseefficiency.[87]StudiesusingFACEhaveshownthatCO2enrichmentleadsto
decreasedconcentrationsofmicronutrientsincropplants.[88]Thismayhaveknockoneffectsonotherpartsof

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ecosystemsasherbivoreswillneedtoeatmorefoodtogainthesameamountofprotein.[89]

Theconcentrationofsecondarymetabolitessuchasphenylpropanoidsandflavonoidscanalsobealteredinplants
exposedtohighconcentrationsofCO2.[90][91]

PlantsalsoemitCO2duringrespiration,andsothemajorityofplantsandalgae,whichuseC3photosynthesis,are
onlynetabsorbersduringtheday.ThoughagrowingforestwillabsorbmanytonsofCO2eachyear,amature
forestwillproduceasmuchCO2fromrespirationanddecompositionofdeadspecimens(e.g.,fallenbranches)as
isusedinphotosynthesisingrowingplants.[92]Contrarytothelongstandingviewthattheyarecarbonneutral,
matureforestscancontinuetoaccumulatecarbon[93]andremainvaluablecarbonsinks,helpingtomaintainthe
carbonbalanceofEarth'satmosphere.Additionally,andcruciallytolifeonearth,photosynthesisbyphytoplankton
consumesdissolvedCO2intheupperoceanandtherebypromotestheabsorptionofCO2fromtheatmosphere.[94]

Toxicity

Carbondioxidecontentinfreshair(averagedbetweensealeveland
10kPalevel,i.e.,about30km(19mi)altitude)variesbetween
0.036%(360ppm)and0.041%(410ppm),dependingonthe
location.[96]

CO2isanasphyxiantgasandnotclassifiedastoxicorharmfulin
accordancewithGloballyHarmonizedSystemofClassificationand
LabellingofChemicalsstandardsofUnitedNationsEconomic
CommissionforEuropebyusingtheOECDGuidelinesforthe
TestingofChemicals.Inconcentrationsupto1%(10,000ppm),it
willmakesomepeoplefeeldrowsyandgivethelungsastuffy
feeling.[95]Concentrationsof7%to10%(70,000to100,000ppm)
maycausesuffocation,eveninthepresenceofsufficientoxygen,
Mainsymptomsofcarbondioxidetoxicity,by
manifestingasdizziness,headache,visualandhearingdysfunction,
increasingvolumepercentinair. [95]
andunconsciousnesswithinafewminutestoanhour.[97]The
physiologicaleffectsofacutecarbondioxideexposurearegrouped
togetherunderthetermhypercapnia,asubsetofasphyxiation.

Becauseitisheavierthanair,inlocationswherethegasseepsfromtheground(duetosubsurfacevolcanicor
geothermalactivity)inrelativelyhighconcentrations,withoutthedispersingeffectsofwind,itcancollectin
sheltered/pocketedlocationsbelowaveragegroundlevel,causinganimalslocatedthereintobesuffocated.Carrion
feedersattractedtothecarcassesarethenalsokilled.Childrenhavebeenkilledinthesamewaynearthecityof
GomabyCO2emissionsfromthenearbyvolcanoMt.Nyiragongo.[98]TheSwahilitermforthisphenomenonis
'mazuku'.

AdaptationtoincreasedconcentrationsofCO2occursinhumans,includingmodifiedbreathingandkidney
bicarbonateproduction,inordertobalancetheeffectsofbloodacidification(acidosis).Severalstudiessuggested
that2.0percentinspiredconcentrationscouldbeusedforclosedairspaces(e.g.asubmarine)sincetheadaptation
isphysiologicalandreversible,asdecrementinperformanceorinnormalphysicalactivitydoesnothappenatthis
levelofexposureforfivedays.[99][100]Yet,otherstudiesshowadecreaseincognitivefunctionevenatmuchlower
levels.[101][102]Also,withongoingrespiratoryacidosis,adaptationorcompensatorymechanismswillbeunableto
reversesuchcondition.
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Below1%

TherearefewstudiesofthehealtheffectsoflongtermcontinuousCO2exposureonhumansandanimalsatlevels
below1%andthereispotentiallyasignificantrisktohumansinthenearfuturewithrisingatmosphericCO2levels
associatedwithclimatechange.[103]OccupationalCO2exposurelimitshavebeensetintheUnitedStatesat0.5%
(5000ppm)foraneighthourperiod.[104]AtthisCO2concentration,InternationalSpaceStationcrewexperienced
headaches,lethargy,mentalslowness,emotionalirritation,andsleepdisruption.[105]Studiesinanimalsat0.5%
CO2havedemonstratedkidneycalcificationandbonelossaftereightweeksofexposure.[106]Astudyofhumans
exposedin2.5hoursessionsdemonstratedsignificanteffectsoncognitiveabilitiesatconcentrationsaslowas
0.1%(1000ppm)CO2likelyduetoCO2inducedincreasesincerebralbloodflow.[101]Anotherstudyobserveda
declineinbasicactivitylevelandinformationusageat1000ppm,whencomparedto500ppm.[102]

Ventilation

PoorventilationisoneofthemaincausesofexcessiveCO2concentrationsinclosedspaces.Carbondioxide
differentialaboveoutdoorconcentrationsatsteadystateconditions(whentheoccupancyandventilationsystem
operationaresufficientlylongthatCO2concentrationhasstabilized)aresometimesusedtoestimateventilation
ratesperperson.HigherCO2concentrationsareassociatedwithoccupanthealth,comfortandperformance
degradation.ASHRAEStandard62.12007ventilationratesmayresultinindoorlevelsupto2,100ppmabove
ambientoutdoorconditions.Thusiftheoutdoorconcentrationis400ppm,indoorconcentrationsmayreach2,500
ppmwithventilationratesthatmeetthisindustryconsensusstandard.Concentrationsinpoorlyventilatedspaces
canbefoundevenhigherthanthis(rangeof3,000or4,000).

Miners,whoareparticularlyvulnerabletogasexposureduetoaninsufficientventilation,referredtomixturesof
carbondioxideandnitrogenas"blackdamp,""chokedamp"or"stythe."Beforemoreeffectivetechnologieswere
developed,minerswouldfrequentlymonitorfordangerouslevelsofblackdampandothergasesinmineshaftsby
bringingacagedcanarywiththemastheyworked.Thecanaryismoresensitivetoasphyxiantgasesthanhumans,
andasitbecameunconsciouswouldstopsingingandfalloffitsperch.TheDavylampcouldalsodetecthigh
levelsofblackdamp(whichsinks,andcollectsnearthefloor)byburninglessbrightly,whilemethane,another
suffocatinggasandexplosionrisk,wouldmakethelampburnmorebrightly.

Humanphysiology

Content

Thebodyproducesapproximately2.3pounds(1.0kg)ofcarbondioxideperdayperperson,[107]containing0.63
pounds(290g)ofcarbon.Inhumans,thiscarbondioxideiscarriedthroughthevenoussystemandisbreathedout
throughthelungs,resultinginlowerconcentrationsinthearteries.Thecarbondioxidecontentofthebloodisoften
givenasthepartialpressure,whichisthepressurewhichcarbondioxidewouldhavehadifitaloneoccupiedthe
volume.[108]

Inhumans,thecarbondioxidecontentsareasfollows:

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Referencerangesoraveragesforpartialpressuresofcarbondioxide
(abbreviatedPCO2)
Alveolarpulmonary
Unit Venousbloodgas Arterialbloodcarbondioxide
gaspressures
kPa 5.5[109]6.8[109] 4.8 4.7[109]6.0[109]
mmHg 4151 36 35[110]45[110]

Transportintheblood

CO2iscarriedinbloodinthreedifferentways.(Theexactpercentagesvarydependingwhetheritisarterialor
venousblood).

Mostofit(about70%to80%)isconvertedtobicarbonateionsHCO
3 bytheenzymecarbonicanhydrasein
theredbloodcells,[111]bythereactionCO2+H2OH2CO3H +HCO
+
3.
5%10%isdissolvedintheplasma[111]
5%10%isboundtohemoglobinascarbaminocompounds[111]

Hemoglobin,themainoxygencarryingmoleculeinredbloodcells,carriesbothoxygenandcarbondioxide.
However,theCO2boundtohemoglobindoesnotbindtothesamesiteasoxygen.Instead,itcombineswiththeN
terminalgroupsonthefourglobinchains.However,becauseofallostericeffectsonthehemoglobinmolecule,the
bindingofCO2decreasestheamountofoxygenthatisboundforagivenpartialpressureofoxygen.Thedecreased
bindingtocarbondioxideinthebloodduetoincreasedoxygenlevelsisknownastheHaldaneEffect,andis
importantinthetransportofcarbondioxidefromthetissuestothelungs.Conversely,ariseinthepartialpressure
ofCO2oralowerpHwillcauseoffloadingofoxygenfromhemoglobin,whichisknownastheBohrEffect.

Regulationofrespiration

Carbondioxideisoneofthemediatorsoflocalautoregulationofbloodsupply.Ifitsconcentrationishigh,the
capillariesexpandtoallowagreaterbloodflowtothattissue.

BicarbonateionsarecrucialforregulatingbloodpH.Aperson'sbreathingrateinfluencesthelevelofCO2intheir
blood.Breathingthatistoosloworshallowcausesrespiratoryacidosis,whilebreathingthatistoorapidleadsto
hyperventilation,whichcancauserespiratoryalkalosis.

Althoughthebodyrequiresoxygenformetabolism,lowoxygenlevelsnormallydonotstimulatebreathing.
Rather,breathingisstimulatedbyhighercarbondioxidelevels.Asaresult,breathinglowpressureairoragas
mixturewithnooxygenatall(suchaspurenitrogen)canleadtolossofconsciousnesswithouteverexperiencing
airhunger.Thisisespeciallyperilousforhighaltitudefighterpilots.Itisalsowhyflightattendantsinstruct
passengers,incaseoflossofcabinpressure,toapplytheoxygenmasktothemselvesfirstbeforehelpingothers
otherwise,oneriskslosingconsciousness.[111]

TherespiratorycenterstrytomaintainanarterialCO2pressureof40mmHg.Withintentionalhyperventilation,
theCO2contentofarterialbloodmaybeloweredto1020mmHg(theoxygencontentofthebloodislittle
affected),andtherespiratorydriveisdiminished.Thisiswhyonecanholdone'sbreathlongerafter
hyperventilatingthanwithouthyperventilating.Thiscarriestheriskthatunconsciousnessmayresultbeforethe
needtobreathebecomesoverwhelming,whichiswhyhyperventilationisparticularlydangerousbeforefree
diving.
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Seealso
Acidosis LakeKivu
Alkalosis Listofleastcarbonefficientpowerstations
Arterialbloodgas Listofcountriesbycarbondioxideemissions
Boschreaction Meromicticlake
Bottledgas pCO2
Carbogen pH
Carbondioxidesensor pKa
Carbonsequestration Sabatierreaction
Chemicalequilibrium GilbertPlass(earlyworkonCO2andclimate
EcoCuteasrefrigerants change)
Emissionstandards
Indoor_air_quality
Kayaidentity
LakeKivu

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Furtherreading
Seppanen,FiskandMendell,AssociationofVentilationRatesandCO2ConcentrationswithHealthand
OtherResponsesinCommercialandInstitutionalBuildings,IndoorAir1999.
Shendell,Prill,Fisk,Apte1,Blake&Faulkner,AssociationsbetweenclassroomCO2concentrationsand
studentattendanceinWashingtonandIdaho,IndoorAir2004.
Soentgen,Jens,Hotair:ThescienceandpoliticsofCO2.In:GlobalEnvironment,Vol7,March2014,
pp.134171.

Externallinks
InternationalChemicalSafetyCard0021(http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0021.htm)
CID{{{1}}}(https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/280)fromPubChem
CarbondioxideMSDS(http://sdsdata.org/68399)byAmerigasintheSDSdata.orgdatabase.
CDCNIOSHPocketGuidetoChemicalHazardsCarbonDioxide(http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0
103.html)
CO2CarbonDioxideProperties,Uses,Applications(http://www.uigi.com/carbondioxide.html)
DryIceinformation(http://www.dryiceinfo.com/science.htm)
TrendsinAtmosphericCarbonDioxide(http://www.cmdl.noaa.gov/ccgg/trends/)(NOAA)

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_compounds.asp?CAS=124389)
CarbonDioxidePartOne(http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/mv_carbon_dioxide_one.htm)and
CarbonDioxidePartTwo(http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/mv_carbon_dioxide_two.htm)atThe
PeriodicTableofVideos(UniversityofNottingham)
CO2emissionsfromfuelcombustion(http://trendeconomy.com/en/industries/CO2_Emissions)

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