V E C T O R A N A L Y S IS

AN INT RO DUCT IO N

VEC T O R -
ME T H O DS

PH YS IC S A N D MA T H EMA T IC S

BY

JO SEPH GEO RGE Q O FFIN , B S . .

, Pu D . .

(l u au. mar man

. m c u nt m m
.

98 03 )
'

n -
m oc u n rnom aon or m ama n m a co mmon or m
CIT Y O F NE WYO RK
OO N BU W D PM E N I E N GIN EER
N G A N D D EVI I
W
ITH m
G EN E RA L B AK IN G C OMP ANY

S E C O N D E DI T I O N

JOH N WLEY
I SON S, IN C .

LO N DO N : CH APMAN H ALL, a '

no
 P
CO YRIG H T, 1 909 , 1 9 1 1 .
BY

J 6 00
. . m

Printed in U 8 A
. . .

I. I . G IL I O N CO I ' AIY
 PREFACE

EVER since the developme nt of Q uaternion analysis by

Sir W
,

illiam Rowan H amilton and of the Ausdehnungs

,

lehre by Grass mann there has been a growi ng feeli ng th at

, ,

the older and more common processes of analysis were in

some way arti c i al and complex .

T his fac t ex is ts f o it is su c h be c ause these newer

,
r ,

meth ods and ideas apply more naturally more si mply and ,

more dire c tly to many of the conceptions of geometry ,

me ch ani cs and mathe mati cal physi cs than th os e long ,

accepted

Why then have these ad mitted advantages not led to a more

.

unive rsal ad option of these meth od s ? The answe r seem s to be

that the required change of ideas of manner of thought and

,

of notation was too radi c al

,
It is well known th at ch anges
.

evolve sl owly and alth ough to many evolution is f ar too slow

, ,

a p roc ess the only way to proc eed is to aid to the b es t of

,

one s ab ility in b ri ngi ng abou t the de sir e d result

.

O ne wh o h as studied and l abored ove r the appli cations

of mathe mati cal analy s is t o physi c al and geometri cal prob

le ms naturall y has reluctance to dis card the old familiar

,

looking formulaeand start anew in an unknown and radically

di erent l anguage .

However great the skill and i ngenui ty shown by the

pioneer in s olvi ng prob le ms by Q uaterni ons there was ,

alway s left the th ou ght to t he u nb i ased s t udent th at a l ac k

of p arallel is m ex i s ted betwee n the old and the new meth ods

of t reat me nt Su c h a l ac k u nd ou b tedly d oe s ex i s t b u t it is
.
,

onl y duri ng the l as t few ye ars th at a method h as been .

V
Vi PREFACE .

evolved which avoids this fatal defe ct I t is c hie y th rough .

the l abors of Gi bbs and Heaviside th at an analysis h as

bee n pe rfe c ted whi c h not only d oes away with t he u nnec
essa y co mplex ity and art i ciality of othe r analy ses b u t
r

0 6ers a s tri c tly natural and the refore as di ec t and s i mple a r

sub s titu te as poss i b le and at the same ti me in no wise is at

.
,

v ari anc e but runs parallel to them

, .

This new yet old meth od is Ve c to Analysi s ; it co m

,
r

b i nes withi n itself mos t o f the advantages of b oth Q uate r

nions and of Ca tesi an Analy si s r .

Th e ad opti on of Ve c to Analysi s is u ged on the grou nds

r r

of natural ness s i mpli c ity and di re c t ness ; with it the t u e

,
r

meani ng of p rocesses and results is b rought out as clearly

as poss i b le and des i ab le ab b evi ati on is ob t ai ned
,
r r .

It is ad mitted th at t o a s traight and cle ar thi nker al most

, ,

any notati on or mathe mati c al meth od su f ce s and to su c h ,

a one c h ang es in not ati on or meth od may appe ar h ardly

,

worth while He h as already attai ned one of the results

.

whi ch perforce follow the i ntelligent assi mil ati on of a

, ,

ve ctor meth od of thi nking To him there is left b ut the .

at tai nment of a si mple not ati on whi c h is the l o gi c al aeco m

p a nim ent o f c le a th ou ght A few

r e x a m pl.es o f ve c to c on r

ce nt rati on are to b e fou nd in the e x e rc i s es of the l as t c h apte r

of thi s b ook B u t the sole use of ve c to not ation without

. r ,

the i nsight and clear conceptions whi h sh ould ob t ai n at the c

same ti me is withou t any v al ue wh ats oever viti ate s the

, ,

vec to poi nt of view and is contrary to the spi it of it

r ,
r .

It is al mos t unne c ess ary t o s t ate th at the mi nd of the

physi cist ought to be of the visual type so well exe mplied in
the mi nd of Farad ay He sh ould see the lines of fo ce
. r

emerging from the magnet ; see that they are conti nuous
within the metal ; foll ow the m in h is mi nd s eye as ,

,

they are di spl aced by va i ous causes ; he sh ould h ave so me

r

sort of a vi s ual concep t i on of t h e manne r in whi c h the

el ec t ro magneti c w aves are t raveli ng th rough the ether

-
 W
IHIEF KHl

arou n d him; to him the di vergence and the diverge nce

theore m should have a si mple me ani ng .

To a mi nd othe r th an thi s the s tudy of mathe mati cal

,

physi cs must be merely a series of analyti cal transforma

tions without t he vitality of thei r visual signi cance To .

purely analytical mi nds as disti nct from the vis ual or i ntu
,

itive type the meth od s of Ve c tor Analysis red uce to little

,

more th an an analyti cal s h orthand To the intuitive mind .

,

h owever they are il l umi native and si mplifyi ng allowi ng

, ,

the mind to gras p and the h and to write the essenti al fac ts
and t rans fo mations u ne mb arrassed with the ge ne rally unde
r ,

s i rab le c omplexity of Cartes i an sy mb olis m I t is i mpossib le

.

to s tudy and to apply Ve c to Analys is to p rob le ms and not

r

to h ave one s ideas and th ought made cle are r and better by

the labor involved .

The re are very good reas ons fo all these adv ant ages
r In .

N ature we are confro nted with q u antities c all ed s c al ars

whi c h h ave size or magnitude only and al so with other ,

q u a n tities c alled ve c t o rs whi c h h ave di re c ti o n a s w ell a s

magnitude In o de r to manip ul ate ve c tor quantities by

. r

the older methods they we re decomposed i nto three com

,

ponente along th ree arbitrary axes and the ope rations made
u pon th ese compone nts Is it not e vide nt th at the b ri ngi ng
.

in of th ree arb itrary axes is an a ti c i al p rocess and th at

r ,

the decomposition of the vec tor i nto c omponents al ong thes e

ax es is also arti c i al u nnat u ral eve n ?
, W h y not go di re c t ly
to the ve c tor itself and manip ul ate it with out ax es and
with out c ompone nts ? To do this is possi b le and in the , ,

following pages an atte mpt is made to s how h ow it may be

done .

T here is s till anothe grou nd f or u gi ng more e xtended

r r

s tu dy of Ve c tor Analy s i s th an now ob t ai ns So many physi .

c i s ts of renown h ave b ee n conve rted to its meth od s and us e

that to ignore their leaders hip is an i mposs i bili ty W he n .

su c h m en as Lo rentz Fop pl Heaviside B uc h erer Gib bs

, , , , ,
viii 15 mm:
Ab ra h am Bje rknes Sommerfeld Coh n and many others are
, , ,

conve rted t o its use it is high ti me th at the s t ude nt famil

,

iari e hi mself at leas t wi t h v e c to r notation eve n if not to

z ,

be co me an e x pe rt in its use .

No one c an de ny the vas t i mpro ve me nt th at h as take n

pl ace in recent years in our conceptions of physi cal p ro
, ,

c ess es ; and few will de ny t h at a l a ge p art of thi s i mp ro ve r

ment has b een due to the ideas introd uced with t h e adve nt
of ve c to meth od s of th ought
r .

Th at Lagrange red u ced all of me c h ani c s to a purely ana

ly tic al b asi s with ou t as he b oas ts ne c ess it ati ng di ag rams
, , ,

is c e rt ai nly a wonde rfu l acco mplis h me nt Yet how muc h .

c le are r and more elegant if the e qu ati ons b e co me ali ve with

me ani ng if t o the algeb rai c trans formations a mental p ic

,

ture of wh at is taking pl ace is ob tained !

Max well gave a s plendid refe re nce in favor of the new
meth ods when he said in spe aki ng ab ou t the motion of
,

the top Poinsot h as brought the subje c t unde the power

,

r

of a more se a c hi ng analy s is th an th at o f the cal c ul us

r in ,

whi ch ide as take the pl ace of sy mbols and i ntelligib le propo

sitions su pe sede e quati ons

r .

Ve c tor Analys is h as the advant ages of Lagrange s ana

ly tic al method as wel l as those of the ide al ogi c al meth od

of Poinsot .

The writer does not in any way urge the reje ction o f
, ,

anythi ng of v al ue in any meth od wh atsoeve I t is not r.

well nor is it intended that the methods of Ve ctor Analysis

sh ou ld be ess e nti ally di erent fro m th ose t o whi c h the

s tude nt is su pposed to be ac cus to med In fac t it h as b ee n .

,

the aim th rough out thi s b ook to evolve an analysis to whicl ~

all the knowled ge of the re ade c an be i mmedi ately applied r

and t o so e x pou nd thi s analys i s th at Cartes i an e qu ati ons may

,
\

be i mmediately writte n in ve c tor notati on and conve rsely .

There is s till another i mp ortant ad vantage whi c h ab oul o ,

not be ove rlooked th at is ve c tor notati on j us t as vect o

, ,
 PREFACE . ix

thought is entirely independent of any ch oi ce of axes or

, ,

p l an es of refe re n c e a nd yet the

,
t ra ns fo r m a ti o n o f the v e c to r

eq u ati ons into other sys te ms re quiri ng these ax e s or pl anes

,

is alw ay s ex tre mely easy To p ove th at a natu al i nveri

. r r

ant is i nv ari ant to a c h ange of ax es h as alway s appe ared ,

to the writer an e x tremely fooli s h ope rati on and a was te

of ti me . Thi s is not sayi ng th at in a mathe mati c al theory
,

of i nv ari ants s uc h a p roperty of an alge b rai c e x p re ssi on is

not i nst ru c tive or i nteres ti ng B u t to say f or e x ample th at

.
, ,

the p roperties of the li nes of force whi ch cut a set of e quipo

tent ial su rfaces at right angles the li nes F
,
V V)
may be depe ndent upon the parti cular set of axes used to
investigate the m is a was te o f ti me t o say the le as t
,
H ow .

c an a tru th v ary with the l ang uage used in e xp ress i ng it ?

No atte mpt at mathe mat i cal igor is made r Suc h re ne .

ments serve only to conceal the si mpli city of fact whi ch it is ,

the aim of these pages to el ucid ate The appe arance of .

e x tended proofs the writer cons iders to be e nti rely out of

,

p la c e in a b o o k o f thi s kind O n the

. o the r h an d n o o n e is ,

more in favor of mathe mati c al igor th an he ; the point is r

s i mply to eli m i nate dis cuss ions wh ose prese nce would lead
the attention astray from t he main ideas of the argu me nt .

In any c ase whenever a de mons trati on d oe s not s ati s fy the

,

fas tidious the results may be found more rigorously if not

, ,

more clearly estab lis hed in works devo ted to mat h emat
,

icall y rigorous demonstrati ons .

T he st udent will nd wi t h a little s tudy th at he may e as ily

take down lec tures given in Ca tes i an notation dire ctly
,
r ,

into vector notation Se ri ous trial will convi nce himth at ti me

.

is gained and wh at is s till more i mportant that e quations ,

wil l be must be understood if this is d one

, ,
I t is by p re .

cisely suc h a process th at the w ite r famili arized hi mself r

with the su bje c t

Th e notati on ad opted is th at of Prof W
.

ill ard Gi bbs one

.
,

o f th e t oo f ew g re at Am er i c an ph y s i c i s t s a n d m a t h em a
ticians . Th e reasons leading to this ch o c ie are fully set

fort h in the Appe ndi x .

The rs t p art of the boo k is devoted to a concise t re at

ment of the fund amental pri nciples of the subjec t the ,

remai ni ng c h apte rs to the appli c ati on of the analy sis to the

,

beginnings of mathe mati cal physi cs i nc l udi ng geo met y ,

r ,

me c h ani cs magnetis m ele c tri city heat and hyd rodynami cs

, , ,
.

I t was fou nd ne cessary to omit many be autiful appli c ations

in el as ti c i ty ele c tron theo ry and othe r p arts of physi cs in
,

orde r to keep t he size of the vol u me wi t hi n b ound s .

The s t ude nt wh o t akes up the l ate ch apte rs is s u pp osed to r ,

be famili ar to a c e rt ai n e x tent wi t h the su bje c ts therei n

, ,

contai ned ,
and these c h apte rs are i nte nded t o s h ow t he

begi nne r h ow to t ans l ate and de mons t rate the theore ms

r

i nto the new cal culus The write r t he refore makes t his his
.

apol ogy f or a c ertain ne c ess ary l ac k of l ogi c al se que nc e in the

treat ment of the various subjec ts

.
.

The tre at me nt of alternati ng curre nts and allied s ubje c ts

h as b een omitted b e c ause in p ac ti c ally e ve ry mode rn b oo k
,
r

on the s u bje c t the no t ati on of t h e s pe c i al ve c tor meth od

e mpl oyed is fully ex pl ai ned in some part of it

,
.

I t is h oped th at b ut few e rors still re main in the te x t

r .

The au th or al one co re c ted t he p roo f b u t nu me ous

, ,
r ,
r

equati ons and spe ci al di f culties met with in p i nti ng in r

a new not ati on rende red the co re c ti ons ve ry di f c u l t and

,
r

l abori ous .

The copy h as b ee n re ad by Prof S aurel p rofe sso of .

,
r

mathe mati cs in the College of the Ci ty of New Yo k and r ,

the auth or wis hes to ac knowledge he e h is i nde bted ness for r

the ki nd ness as well a f o many val uable sugges tions

s r .

A det ailed li st of wo ks on Q u ate ni ons is rende red u nnec

r r

essa y by Professor Mac fa l ane s B i bliography p ublished

r r

by the Associ ati on f o t h e P o moti o n o f the S t udy o f Q ua

r r

te rni ons and Allied Mathe mati s Dubli n 1 904 b ut a list ofc ,

, ,

works whi ch h a ve bee n e s pe c ial ly con ul ted is appe nded to s

 PREFACE . xi

the preface and the w riter he re ac knowled ges his obligations

,

to all of the m I f t his boo k succ eed s in maki ng pl ain the

.

au th or s p arti c ul ar p oi nt of view ; in si mplifyi ng ide as o r in

,

c au si ng si mple ide as t o see m cle are r th an before he will feel ,

amply rep aid for any p ai ns t aken in p ro d uc i ng wh at was to

him a l ab or of l ove .

J G Com N . . .

N l iw Yonx ,
Ap ril 9, 1 909 .

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

IN this new edition a number of small errors whic h are

pecul iarl y di cul t of discovery in a work involving so
many di erent kinds of typ e h ave been correc ted T h e .

s inc ere thanks of the writer are due to the l arge numb er of

corres pondents who h ave g re atly helped h im in this revi si on .

T he au thor is gl ad to be ab le to s t ate th at to h is knowledge

b u t one theoreti cal error h as b een di scovered up to the pres ent
time .

Certain p ortions h ave b ee n rewritten and fou rtee n pages

of notes have b een ad ded to the appendix .

In parti cu l ar a s hort di g ress i o n on di erent v arieties of

'

vectors ; cert ain additional denitions of di e ent ial geometry r

with reference to curves in space whi c h seemed interesting

and us efu l ; the demons t rati on of F enet s v al u ab l e formu l a:

r

f or sp ace cu rves ; an interes ti ng exampl e of vec tor re as oni ng

as applied to the so l u ti on of t h e di e ent ial eq u at ion of r

motion of an elec tron in a magneti c eld ; two new proofs

of S tok es T heorem not found as f a as we k now in any

r

treatis e of vec tor analysis ; an addi tional p oof of G auss s r

T heorem; and proofs of two th eorems in integ ration anal o

g o us to the D ive rge nc e T h eo re m .
 PREFACE .

B oth the publisher and the writer are delighted with the
rec eption ac corded this l ittl e book in this country and

ab road .

Th e writer is of the opi nion that a great many res ults of

mathemati cal physics are eleme ntary and eas ily understoo d
b y the s tu dent if expl ai ned in t h e right way and the s tu dent
,

thereb y nds himself in a position to go right ahead in th e

more dif cult extens ions when h e comes to them Thi s
,
.

book was written with th at end in view I t is prac ti cally

.

an element ary course in mathe mati cal phys i c s .

He also hopes that not only will this volume help t he

s tudent to an ac uisiti on of the fund amentals of Vec tor
q
Analys is b ut th at al so and not leas t it will aw ak en in him a
, , ,

desire for further study in th at mos t beautiful and extens ive

of all b ranc hes of s t udy Math e mati cal Ph ys i cs
,
.

He believes that in this country there is a wealth of mate

ri al f or the making of b ri l li ant i nv es ti g ators in this li ne if ,

they are encouraged to approac h the higher branches with

out the fear th at it is b eyond thei r c ap ab ilities .

He therefore makes a plea fo the encouragement of stu

r

dents having ab ility in this direction so that soon it can no

l ong er b e s aid th at we are not u p to the s tand ard of the in
W
ves tigators of the Old orld T rue they h ad a long s tart
.
,

and we h ave been h andi c apped b ut we hope in the cours e

,

of a few years to be ab re as t of them .

J G CO FF IN . . .

NE WYO RK , June, 1 9 1 1 .
 CO N T EN T S .
5

CH APT ER I

A
.

Emn N ra nr
'
O PERATI ONS or Vnc ro n AN SI S
LY .

PA C.

G
1 . Denit ions Vector Sc alar
2 . rap h ical Rep res entat ion of a Vec tor
3 . Equal ity of V ec tors Neg at ive Vec tor Unit Vec tor
Rec iprocal Vec tor
4 . Composit ion of Vec tors Addit ion and S ub t rac t ion Vec tor
S um as an Integ rat ion
5 . Scalar and Vec tor F ields Point Func t ion Denition
-
of

Lame Cont inu ity of Scalar and Vec tor F unc t ions
6 . Decompos it ion of Vect ors
7 . The Unit Vectors Ij k
8 . Vec tor Eq uations Eq uat ions of Straig h t Line and Plane
9 . Condit ion t h at T hree Vec to rs T erminat e in a St raigh t Line
Exames
10
ll
.

.
Eq uat ion of a Plane
Plane Passing t hroug h Ends of T h ree G iven Vec t ors . .
4
16
16
12
13
14
.

.
To D ivide a Line in a

Relat ions Indep endent of th e Orig in

G
Co ndit ion th at F our Vec tors Terminate in a Plane
iven Rat io
GCent ro id
eneral Cond it ion .
18
18
21

Exnnc rs ns m Pnos u ms .

CH APTER II .

S c am AND Vz c ro n Pno nU c rs -
or T wo Vmc ro ns .

15 . Scalar or Dot Produc t Laws of th e Scalar Product

1 6 Line Integ ral
.
-
of a Vec tor
l7 . S urf ace Integ ral
-
of a Vec tor .

18 . Vector or Cross Prod uc t Denit ion

l9 Distrib ut ive Law of Vec tor Prod uc ts Ph ysical Proof
Cartesian Exp ansion of th e Vect or
xiv CO NTENTS .

ru n

21 . Appl ications to M ec hanics M oment 39

22 . 41
23 . Co mpos it ion of Ang ular Vel oc it ies 41

Exnaa s ns AN D Pnos mu s 43

CHAPTER III .

Vnc ron AN D Sc am Pno nnc rs or Tannin Vnc rons '

.

24 . Possible Co mb inations of T h ree Vectors 48

25 . Triple Scalar Prod uc t V a -
b
( c)
x 48
26 Co nd it ion th at Three Vect ors lie in a Plane
. Manipula
t ion of Scalar Mag nit udes of Vectors 50
27 . Triple Vec tor Prod uc t q ax (b xc ) Exp ans ion and Proof . 51
28 . Demonst rat ion by Cartes ian Expans ion 53
29 . Third Proof
30 . Prod uc ts of M ore than Th ree Vec tors 55
31 . Rec iprocal System of Vec tors . 57
32 .

t hroug h Ends of T h ree G

Plano Normal to a and Pas s ing t h roug h End of b
iven Vect ors
dic ular f rom Orig in to a Plane
Plane
Vec tor Perpen
58
33 . Line th roug h End of 1) Parall el to a 60
34 . Circle and S ph ere 61
Resolu tion of S ystem of Forc es Ac t ing on a Rig id B ody
Central Axis M
inimum Couple

AN D
63

Ex nncrs ns Pno s u ms 66

CH APT ER IV

A
.

DI F F ERENTI TI ON or Vnc ro ns .

35 . Two Wya s in wh ic h a Vec tor may Vary D iff erent iat ion with
Res pec t to Scal ar Variables 7O

G
36 . D iff erentiation of Scalar and Vec tor Prod uc ts 72

met ry N ormal
G
37 . Appl icat ions to eo Tang ent and 73
38 . Curvature Osc ul at ing Plane Tort uosity eodet ic Lines
 CO NT ENTS .

PA C.

39 . Eq uat ions of S urf aces Curv ilinear Coord inates Ort h o

g o nal S ys t em . 79
40 . Applicat ions to K inemat ics of a Part ic le Hodog raphs
Eq uat ions of H od og rap hs . 80
41 . Integ rat ion wi th Res pec t to a Scalar Variable O rb it of a
Planet armonic H
ot ion Ell ipse M 83
42 . H odog raph and Orb it under Newtonian F orc es 87
43 . Partial D iff erent iat ion Orig in of t he Operator V 90

Ex z nc rs s s A ND Pnos nnu s 91

CH APT ER V
A A
.

Tm: DI F F ERENTI L O P ER T RS O .

d
+ 1
d
k _d
O

81 83, a
Scalar and Vec tor Fiel ds
45 . Scalar and Vec tor F unc t ions of Pos it ion M at h emat ical
and Ph ys ical D iscontinu it ies 95
46 . Potent ial Level or Eq uipotent ial Surf aces Relat ion

G
between F orce and Potent ial 98
47 . V ap p l ied to a Scalar F unc t ion rad ient Independence
of

Axes F ourier s Law 1 02

48 . V ap pl ied t o Scalar Func t ions Eff ec t of V on Scalar

Prod uc t 1 04

49 . Th e Operator 8 -
V , or D irec t ional D erivat ive T otal Deriva
1 06

50 . Direct ional Derivat ive of a Vec t or V app l ied to a Vector

Point F unc t ion
-
1 07

51 .

52 . Th e D ivergence Th eorem Examp les Eq uat ion of F l ow

of H eat . . 1 12

53 . Eq uat ion of Cont inuity S olenoidal D istribut ion of a Vec t or 1 16

54 . Curl Th e Op erator V "

Ex ample of Curl . 1 17

55 . M ot ion of Rotation wit h out Curl Irrotat ional M ot ion 1 19

56 V , V .
'
, V "
app l ied to Various Fu nc t io ns Proo f s of F ormula 1 20

Exp ans ion Anal og ous to T ayl or s T h eo rem

57 .
1 24

S tok es Theorem 1 24

58 .

59 . Co ndit ion f or Vanis h ing of t h e Curl Cons ervat ive S ystem

of F orces
 CO NTENTS .

PA C .

60 . Co nd it ion f or a Perf ec t D iff erent ial 1 29

Ex p ress ion f or Tayl or s Th eorem v

61 . T h e Operato r c ( 131

Eul er s T h eorem on Homogeneous F unct ions

62 . 131

63 . Operators Involv ing V T w ic e Poss ible Combinat ions

T h e Operat or V 2
V V -

1 33

64 . D iff erent iat ion of r

'"
by V
1 35
Exs s crs Es AN D Ps o s nnu s 1 36

CHAPT ER VI
A A
.

PP LI TI ONS LECT RI C ORY

G G
A C TO E L TH E .

T h eo rem Th eorem f or t h e

S ol id Ang le

65 . auss s au ss s
Plane Sec ond Proof .

Th e Potent ial F unc t ion Lap lac e s Eq uat ions

s and

66 . Po isson
Harmonic F unct ion
GG
143

G
T h eorems

67 . reen s 1 48
F ormula

F unc t ion

68 . reen s reen s 148
S olut ion of Po isso n Eq uat ion T h e Integ rat ing Op erat or

69 . s

< dv
Pot E
ff L2 1 52

70 . Vec tor Potent ial

-

71 . S eparat ion of a Vec tor F u nc t ion int o S olenoidal -

and Lamellar
Comp onents Ot h er S ys tems of Units 1 54
72 . Energ y in T erms of Potent ial
73 . Energ y in T erms of F ield Intens it y 1 57
74 . S urf ace and Volu me Dens ity in Terms of Polariz at ion 1 59
75 Elec tro M ag net ic Field M ax well s

Eq uat ions 1 60
W
-
.

76 . Eq uat ion of Prop ag at ion of Elec t ro -

M agnet ic aves 1 63

77 . Po ynt ing s T h eorem

Rad iant Vec t or 1 64

78 . M ag net ic F ield d ue to a Cu rrent 1 65

79 . M ec h anical F orc e on an El ement of Current 1 67

80 . Th eorem on Line Integ ral of t h e N o rmal Component of a

Vec tor F unc t ion . 1 68

81 . Elec t ric F ield at any Point d ue to a Current 1 70

82 . M u t ual Energ y of Circ uits Ind uc tanc e N euma nn

s

Integ ral 1 71

83 . V ec tor -
Potent ial of a Current M utual Energ y of S ystems
of Cond uc t ors Integrat ion T h eorem . 1 73
84 . M u t u al and S elf Energ ies
-
of Two Circ u its 1 75

EX ERCI SES AN D P RO LE MS B 1 76
 CO NTENTS .

CH APT ER VII

A IONS A NI S
.

A PP LI C T '
ro DrN A mc s , ME CH C AN D H rnao nr N A mc s .

ru n
85 . Eq uat ions of M
ot ion of a R ig id B ody D Alembert s Eq ua

t ion Eq uat ions of Transl at ion ot ion of Center of M

1 78

86 . Eq uat ions of
Rotat ion K inet ic Energ y of Rotat ion
M oment of Inert ia 1 80
87 . Linear Vec tor F unc t ion -
Ins tantaneous Ax is 1 82

88 . M ot ion of Rotat ion under NO Forc es Po ins ot Ell ipso id

M oments and Prod uc ts of Inert ia Coord inates of a
L ear Vec tor F unc t ion
in Princ ip al
-
M oments of I nert ia

G
Princ ip al Axes 1 84
89 . eo metrical Representat ion of the M o t ion Invariable
Plane Invariable Axis 191
Polh ode and H
erp olh ode Curves Permanent Axes
Eq uat ions of Polh ode and erp olh ode H . 1 92

M ov ing Axes and Relat ive M ot ion T h eorem of Coriolis . 1 94

h
Gy
a nsf or mation of of M ot ion Cent rif ug al Co uple
'
Eq uat ions
roscope . 1 98
Euler s Eq uat ions

of M ot ion 1 99
Analyt ical Sol ut ion of Euler s Eq uat ions NO Impressed

under

Hamilton s
Princ iple Lagrang ian F unct ion 20 2
Ext ension of Vec tor to M ore t h an T h ree D imensions

G
Denitions 204

Lag range s

enerali ed z Eq uat ions of M ot ion T h e Oper
ator VL 0 Co ntains t he Wl ho e of M ec hanics . 20 5
Hydrody namics F undamental Eq uat ions Eq uation of

Co nt inuity Euler s Eq uat ions of Mot ion of a Fl uid

. 207

Transf ormat ions of t h e Eq uat ions of M ot ion . 21 1

1 00 . S teady M ot ion Prac t ical Ap p l icat ion 21 2

1 01 . Vortex ot ionM Non c reat able in -
a F rict ionless S yst em
Helmh olt s Eq uations

z 2 12

1 02 . Circulat ion Denit ion 21 4

1 03 . Veloc ity Potent ial

-
Circ ulat ion Invariable in a F ric t ion
less Fl uid 216

Exnncrs zs AN D Pnos mims 21 7

 CONTENTS .

APPEN DI X .

NOT ATI ON AN D F o rumm .

ru n
22 1
22 1
22 1
22 1
22 2
Co mparis on of Formula in D iff erent Notat ions . 22 2
Notat ion of th is Book

Fo s u u m .

Resumeof th e Princ ipal F ormula of Vec to r Analys is

Vec tors . 229
Vec to r and Scalar Prod uc ts P odu
r c ts of Two Vectors 23 0
Produc ts of Th ree Vec tors 23 1
D iff erent iat ion of Vec to rs
Th e Operato r V , del 233
Linear Vec tor F unc t ion 23 7
N ot e on D iff erent Variet ies of Vect ors 240
Denit ions t h e N ormal, N ormal Plane, Princ ipal N ormal, B i
of
normal and Rect if ing Plane f or a Sp ace C u rve
y .

Franst Formula f or a Spac e Curve

e

Mot ion of an Elect ron in a Unif orm Mag net ic F ield

Other Integration Th eorems

SU GG EST IONS FO R WRI
VECT O R AN ALY S IS
T IN G
ON T H E B OA RD
A nu mber of i nq ui ries h ave g how to write co me in as kin

vec tors on the bl ackboard th at the bold fac ed

. I t s eems -

typ e or Cl arend o n is pe rfec tly s ati s fac tory as f ar as pri nt is

conc erned b u t it is imp rac ti c ab le to p rod uc e s u c h a di ff er
,

enc e in c h al k written sy mbols To a great extent thes e same

-
.

trou b les also oc c ur in manus cript .

T here are s everal meth ods of di erentiat ing ve c tors from

'

purely scal ar sy mbol s whi c h h ave proved satis fac tory .

T h e notati on given in th e text is enti rely p rac ti c ab le and

denite T h at is if a b or 1 de note vec tors in any di s c ussion
.
, ,
'

l et a b or n denote thei r magnitu des and a b or deno te

o, o , , ,

t heir direc ti ons or unit vec tors al ong a b or r res pec tively , .

T hus a a a o l .

Th ere is here a s light c h anc e of amb igu ity in t he equ ati on

a al t a d J
a c

wh ere the i component of a mig ht be conf ounded with the

-

unit vec to r al ong a Th e writ er does not cons ider this a

.

seri ous ob jec ti on Li ke T ait we s ay th at anyb ody ndi ng

.

di c ul ty with thi s small matter h as b eg un the s tu dy of

vec tors too soon !
Anothe r method is to pl ac e a li ne or d as h over the ve c tor
sy mbol So th at if 6 denotes a vec tor th en a is its magni tu de
'

.
, ,

6 is its direc ti on and a is its i c omponent

; 1
-
.

Still another metho d to whi c h the writer is very p art i al ,

h aving b een b rou ght up on H ami lton s not ation is to res erve

,

th e G reek alph abet f or vec tors .

So th at if is any vec tor

a or a is its mag nitu de and , ao , a)

is its direct ion while a a a are its i j k components

, ,, 1 , ;
-
.

XX I
 SUGGES T ION S

After readi ng the book notices and reviews we are s till of

the same opi nion as to the ess enti al superi ority of Gibb s

no tati on over othe rs notwith s tandi ng the c riti ci sms of it

which we expec ted W
,

. e h ave never c l ai med th at a b was a x

sy m metrical f u nction but we do c l aim th at th enotati on of bo th

,

a b and a b is s y mmetri c al
-
T h e minus s ign in a b
. ba x
,

does not mak e the notation uns ymmet ri c al .

Almos t si mul taneous ly with thi s tex t was i ss ued a ve ctor

analys is b y the I tal i an mathemati c i ans B urali Forti and -

Marcolongo .

T hes e g entlemen h ave invented still anoth er notation

whi ch is si milar to ours b ut whi c h employs the X (l arge cross )
f or a sc al ar produc t and an i nverted V (A) f or a vec tor
prod uc t W . i th the s ymmetry of thei r notati on we are in

favor but why introduce any more not ations when there
,

are al ready so many to pi ck f rom?

T his qu es tion of not ation whi ch h as nothi ng to do wit h

,

t he s pirit of t h e metho d is f or each individual to solve f or

W
,

himself . e h ave empl oyed wh at we b eli eve to b e the sim

p l es t an d b es t and we h ave p res ented at le ngth ou r arg u

ments in favor of it .

J G COFF IN 1 91 1
. .
,
 VECT O R AN A LYS IS

H APTER
C I .

ELEMENT AR Y O PER ATIO NS OF VECTO R ANALYSIS .

De nitions .

1 . A Vec tor is adirected s egment of a st raigh t line on wh ich

are dis ti nguis h ed an i niti al and a te rminal p oint A v ec tor .

th us h as a magnit ude and a di rection Any q uantity whi ch .

c an be repres e nted b y suc h a s eg ment may b e c all ed a vec tor

q u an tit y Th e i.m po rtanc e of thi s ge n eralized c onc epti on is

easily u nders tood when it is conside red th at motion or dis

pl ace ment velocity accele ation fo e ele ctri c c u re nt
, ,
r ,
rc ,
r ,

magneti c ux li nes of forc e s t e ses and st ai ns due to any

, ,
r s r

c ause ow o f he at and of u id s al l i nvolve t wo p art s i e

, , ,
. .
,

magnitu de and di re cti on All su c h q uantities are ve c tor .

q u an titie s .

A Scalar on the othe r h and is any q u anti ty whi c h alth o ugh

h avi ng magnitude does not i nvolve di ec tion Fo ex ample r . r ,

mass de ns ity te mp erature e ne rgy q uantity of he at ele t i c

, , , , ,
c r

c h arge p otenti al ocean depths rai nfall nu me ri c al s t ati s ti s

, , , , c

su c h as b i rt h rates mort ality or p op ul ati on are al l s al ar

, , c

q u an titie s .

A s c al ar then red u ced to its i mples t te rms is me rely a

, ,
s

nu mber and as s u h obey al l t h e l aw s of o di nary alge

c s r

b rai e analys is A ve tor h oweve

. i nvol vi ng di e tion in
c ,
r, r c

ad diti on to it s nu me i c al mag ni t ude h as an analy s is poc ul

r

iar to itself th e l aws of whi c h are to b e de i ved

,
r .

2 . Grap h ical Rep resentation of a Vec tor . Any ve c tor

q u an tity may be epresented g aphi ally
r r c by an arro w .
2 VECTOR ANAL SIS Y .

Th e tail of the a row 0 is alled the o igi n ; the head A

r , ,
c r , ,

is c alled the end or te mi nus r .

Sy mboli c ally a vec t o may be denoted by t wo lette rs

r ,

the rst one indi cati ng the origin the se cond one the ,

te rmi nus .

A s mall ar ow is ofte n pl aced ove r these lette rs to i ndi

r

c ate more e x ac tly th at th e q u ant ity c ons ide red is a ve c t or .

Th us 0 A de no tes the ve c tor b egi nni ng at 0 e ndi ng at A

, , ,

and poi nti ng in t h e di rec ti on f o m 0 to A T hi s not at i on r .

while useful is at ti mes c u mbe some Hence more us ually r .

a vec tor will be de no ted by a s i ngle lette r whi c h i nv olvi n g ,

more th an a mere s cal a is p ri nted di erently to di s tingui s h

r

it from purely sc al ar q uanti ties i e in B old f ac ed T ype ,

. .
,
-
.

T h us the vec tor a me ans the goi ng of the dis t anc e 0 A

*

in the direc tion 0 to A from any poi nt i n space as origi n .

Fro . 1 .

3 . Equal ity lines h avi ng the same leng th

of Vec tors . All
or magnit ude and the s ame sense are e q u al ve c tors wh ateve r

thei r origi n may b e Thus in Fig 1 0 A and O A are equ al

. .
,

vec tors .

Neg ative Vec to T he ve to h avi ng the same " "

0 A
r. c r

length and direc tion as a b u t the op posite se nse is de ned ,

Th t m St p St k
e er s Di t d M g nit d
e , m tim
ro e, o r d ec e
r a u e are so e es us e

1 a sy non yms of Vec tor .

 VECTO R AN AL SIS Y . 3
l
as the negative of a and is w itten a Evidently also 0 A r .

is the negative of 0 A
" "
.

Unit Vec tor The di re tional p a t of any vec to a may

. c r r

be conc isely represented b y a ve c to h avi ng the s ame se nse r

and di rec ti on as a b ut of u nit le ngth Suc h a vec to is . r

c alled a unit ve c to and w ill b e de no ted b y addi ng the

r

s u f x 1 t o the s y mb l rep es e nti ng the vec tor

o T h u s a is
r .
l

a vec to h avi ng the same direc tion as a b ut of unit

r ,

lengt h .

T h e le ngth of a vec to is te med its magnitu de s ize or r r , ,

its ab so lu te v al ue So meti mes al so t h e term ten

. is , ,
sor

us ed . Th e mag nitude of a ve c to a will b e written a r ,

us ing the s ame lette as th at wh i c h de no te the ve c to b u t

r s r

p ri nted in ital ic type I t will h e s meti mes convenient also

. o

to denote the magnitude of a by addi ng the s ub s c ript 0 to 8

thus : n a .
o

Th e vec to r athen may be cons idered as one, a ti mes as

l ong as a, and he nc e we may write :

a a a, o r a, a, .
( )
1

Any vec tor then may b e rep ese nted b y the produc t of its r

unit vec tor i nto its magnit ude as in ( l ) .

Th e ex p ression ma de no tes a vec tor m ti mes as l ong as a ,

h avi ng the same di rec tion b ut m ti mes its magnitu de The .

mul tiplie 1 from w h at h as b ee n s aid ab ou t negative

r

vec tors revers es a vec to

,
r .

Paral lel vec tors wh ateve thei magnitu de are s aid to b e r r

coll i near .

R ec ip rocal Vec tor . Th e e t pa allel to a b ut whose

v c or r

leng th is the reciproc al of the length of a is s aid to be the

rec ip roc al of a .

a a a,

1 1
a
2
a a
 VECTOR AN ALYSIS .

Composition tors of Vec .

4 Addition and Subtrac tion

. To ob tai n graphi c al ly t h e
.

su m of the t wo ve c to rs a and b d aw b s t arti ng f o m the

, r r

end of a ; the li ne j i ni ng the o

o igin of a with the end of

r b
is the su m in ques ti on In o the r .

b w o ds it is the di agonal of the

r ,

p a allelogram of whi c h the two

r

vec tors a and b are the sides .

Evidently the s u m (a b ) is
the same as (b a ) I f the e . r

are more th an t wo ve c tors to b e

added the s u m of the rs t t w o

F m2 ,

may be taken and the thi d added

. .

to it as ab ove the n to the res ult ant add the ne x t one and
,

so on A moment s c ons ideration of Fig 3 will s h ow th at

.

.

F ro . 3 .

if we d the ve tors one afte the oth e in a ch ai n e ac h

raw c r r ,

new one f o m the end of the l as t one d aw n the li ne j oi ni ng

r r .

S ee Ap p endix, p 240, N ote o n

. D iff erent Variet ies of Vec tors .
6 VECTOR AN AL SIS Y .

addi ng this in ni te numbe r of i n nites i mal ve c to rs may be

rep rese nted by an i nteg ati r o n s ig n th us :

AB (18 .
( )
3

I f the l c urv e is a c osed one, w hethe r a pl ane e or no t

c urv ,

then A and B coinc ide

p ath is zero .
and AB 0 or
f da a ound a c l osed
r

Scalar and V ector e

F i l ds and th eir Addit ion .

5 . Point F unc tion

-
. De nition of Lame . If f or every
pos ition of a point in a egion of s pace a quantity h as one
r

or more de nite v al u es as s igned to it it i s aid to b e a fu nc

tion of the poi nt or more c nc isely a poi nt function W

,
s

, e o ,
-
.

may h ave both s c al ar and vec tor poi nt func ti ons -

.

As an Exampl e of a Sc al ar Point F unc t ion c onsider the -

,

potenti al at any poi nt due to any dis tri b ution of matte r

M and let its v al ue be V
, Now conside r the po tenti al at
, .

the ame poi nt P due to any othe dis tri bution f matte
s r o r

M and let its v al ue be V

2
Then the potenti al at P d u e
2 .

to b t h masses togethe is s i mply V

o V T his v al ue is
r , ,
.

found by addi ng together the two sc al ars V and ,

Perh aps t h e f ollowing ex a mp le of sc alar eld w ill be c l earer to

so me minds Cons ider a point P and let it be illuminated by a so u rc e
.

of l igh t M Evident ly every point in th e vic init y of t h e sou rce is ill u

minated to a g reater o r lesser extent acmrd ing to its dis tance f rom t h e
sou rc e Th e illuminat ion o r intens it y of lig h t at all po ints o f t h e s p ace
.

co ns idered may b e rep resented b y a s calar po int f u nc t ion Let no w -

.

anoth er sou rce of l igh t M b e b r o ug h t into t h e s pace u nder cons idera

t ion .Th is sou rce p rod uc es a certain intens ity of illu minat ion at
ever y p o int o f th e
inc luding t h e po int P
s p ac e, of co u rse . Th e total
amou nt of illu minat ion now r
e ceived at th e p oint P is t h e scal ar s u m
of t h e amou nts it rec eives f rom eac h individ ual so u rc e . Th is is t ru e
of ever y oth er point in the eld . SO th at in general in o rder to nd t h e
illuminat ion at any point due to sep arate sou rces , one s imp ly ad ds t h e
 VECTOR ANAL SIS Y . 7

Pract ical De nit ion of Continuit y of a Scalar Poin t F unc

tion . we go from any point in sp ace to any near
If ,
as

adj acent poi nt the magnit ude of the sc al ar p oi nt func ti on

,
-

F ro . 5 .

su ers no ab ru pt c h ange the func tion

,
is id
sa to be con

tinuous
m
.

As an Exam e of a t consider the

Vec tor Point F unc ion -

fo rc e o f att rac ti o n at any poi nt P d ue t o the att rac ti o n of

th e mass M T his force is evide ntly a vec to q uantity as r ,

it h as a de nite magnit ude and a de ni te di re c ti on s th at , o

its represent ati on re qui res the use of a ve c to at P ; let F r

,

be this vec tor Si mil arly let F b e the vec to rep res e nting
.
, r

the force at P due to the matte M Then the force at P r

due to the comb i ned ac ti on of M and M is the ve c tor s um , 3

of F and F and mus t b e ob t ai ned by the l aws of ve c tor ad di

, ,

t ion ; i e the p arallel ogram l aw

. .
, I f we go f o m the poi nt . r

P to another poi nt Q in s pac e the magnitudes and direc

values of th e sep arate intens it ies at t h e point due to t h e sep arate

sourc es respect ively Th is const it utes an addit ion of scalar elds
.
.

The elds are h ere el ds because we are cons idering

scalar onl y th e
m i n of the illumination received at any point .
8 VECT OR ANALY SIS .

tions of these forces F and F at Q and hence , , , ,

in
their sum F F at Q undergo c hanges
, , ,, .

F ro 6
. .

t t of th e Continuity of a Vec tor Poi nt

Prac ical De ni ion
F unc t ion I f as we go f om any poi nt in sp ace to any ne ar
.
,
r

adj ace nt p oi nt the di e tion as well as the mag nit ude of

,
r c

the vecto poi nt func tion s u ers no ab rupt c h ange t h e

r -

function is aid to be conti nuous

s .

6. D ecompos ition of Vectors into Components F om 4 . r

it is evident th at any vec tor q may b e conside ed as the r

s u m of any nu mb e f c o mpo r o

ne nt ve c tors whi h w he n j oi ned ,

c

end to end a in ve c to addi ,

s r

tion the rs t one begi ns at t h e ,

origi n f q and the l as t one e nds o ,

at the te mi nus of q Th u s r . :

hese ve c t rs need not lie in T o

F m7
o ne pl ane Ve c to s all f whi c h
: '

. r o

lie in o pa allel to the s ame pl ane are s aid to be oplana

r r c r.

In p a ti ul ar it is ften c onve nie nt to de c mp se a vec tor

r c o o o
 VECT OR ANALYSIS . 9

into t wo or th ree compone nts at right angl es to e ac h o ther;

two in c as e all the vec tors under cons ide rati on are copl anar;
th ree, when they are not c opl anar .

7 . Th e Th ree Unit Vectors i j k ide r the right h anded

. Cons -

Cartesi an sys te m of axes Th e th ree unit ve c tors al ong the

y
.

a: z ax es are c al led i j k res pe c tively I t is evident th at

.

any ve c tor r is e quiv ale nt to a c e rt ai n ve ctor 0 A al ong 0 X ,

plus a vec tor AB al ong OZ pl us a vector B C al ong O Y

, .

F ro 8
. .

In o ,
y
ther words if :c 2 den te the magnitudes of these
o

vec to rs res pe c tively we may w rite f or any ve c tor r wh ose

,

co mponents are r y z .
, , ,

(4 A
10 VECT OR AN AL S IS Y .

1 i, yj , and s the th ree p jec ti ons of 1 along the three

k are ro
'

ax es res pe c tively If 2 b the di e ti n angl f an

'
. e r c ao ,
es,
o y
vec tor p aral lel to 0 0 then evidently ,

a: r oos a ,

y
= r c os a ( )
5
z r oos r .

T his decomposition of a vec tor i nto two or th ree rec t an

gul ar components is of the u tmos t i mportance and is t he
c onne c ti ng li nk b etwee n the t wo o th ree di me ns ional Car r

tes ian and Ve c tor Analy ses res pe c tively ,

.

I f two vec to rs a e given r ,

+ a, k ,

thei r sum is evidently

( )
6

This may be ex tended to any numbe of ve c tors and r

s h ows th at t he c ompone nts of the su m are e q ual to t h e

sums of the c ompo nents so th at ,

2 a 1
2 a, 32 a, k
z
a, (7 )

This theore m is of use in the composition of forces I t is .

possi b le to res olve any vec tor 1 i nto th ree components par '

allel to any th ree non c opl anar ve c to ; and

-
s uc h a resol u rs

tion is easily see n to be u ni q ue Prac ti c ally in order to .

,

nd the re c t angul ar c ompone nts of a ve c tor eq uati ns (5) , o

are e mpl oyed s o th at ,

(8 )
If we divide th rough by the magnitude of r there re mains

(9 )
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 11

so th at the rec tangula components of a

r un it vec to r are

always it s di rec tion c i nes os .

By ins pec tion of Fig 8 it is evide nt th at

.

e = s + y + a

Fro 9 . .

Fro . 10.

Vector Eq uat ions .

8
. Eq uations of th e Straig h t Lin e and Plane .Let r be a
v ariable vec tor wi th o igi n at 0 and a
,
r ,
s vari able s cal ar;
it is th en evident on i ns pec ti on (Fig 9) th at .

r 8 8 ( 0)
1

isthe equation of a s t aight li ne p assi ng th rough th e origi n

r

and p arall el to a I t is al so e asily seen (Fig 1 0 ) th at

. .

r = b + s a ( )
1 1
12 VECTOR AN AL SIS Y .

is the equ ation of the s t aight li ne th rough the terminus of

r

b and p aral lel to a B y me ans of e q uati on ( 1 1 ) the e q ua

.

tion of a li ne pas s i ng th rough the ends of any two given

vec tors a and b may easily be derived .

F IG . 11 .

Th e vec tor A B is (b a) hence by e qu ation (1 1 ) the

,

li ne th rough the termi nus of a parallel to (b a) is

r = a + t (b a ) ,

where t is a scal ar v ari ab le These e quations may

. b e pu t
i nto the eas ily re me mb ered form s

r = tb + ( l t) a ,

and b y anal og y
r = sa (1 s) b .
( )
1 2

It evident th at if the di re ctions of t he coordi nate ax es

is
be t aken al ong a and b then the magnitudes of a and b
,
14 VECTO R AN AL SIS Y .

e
T he q ua tion of 0 0 is
r s (a b ), by eq uati on ( 1 0)
and th at of A B is
r taequation ( 1 2 )
( 1 t) b , by
where and t are vari able sc al ars F r i ntersec tion both
s . o ,

e quations mus t b e s atis ed by the s ame v al ue of r; he n e c ,

equating ,

8 (a + b) ta + (l i) h .
( )
1 4

F ro . 12 .

T his vec tor equ ation is ac tually e quivalent to two sc al ar

e quations and suf ces to determi ne and t f or the vector r 8 ,

to the poi nt of i nte rse c ti on is u niquel y determi ned in terms

of the vec tors a and b so th at the sc al ar c oe f c ie nts o f these
,

ve c tors on both sides of equation ( 1 4 ) mus t be res pec tively

equal Th e coe cients of a give
.

s = t

and of b s = ( 1 t) .

T his makes 8 t l , the

and v e c to r t o the po i nt of i nter

sec ti on is the n ,
tit
b y sub s u ti n g thi s v l e
a u fo s r in r = s (a b) ,

Th i s p rincipl e is ppli c ab le
a to any i d
kn of line p roble m
in t w o or th ree di mens ions . The meth od of equati ng t h e
 VECTOR AN AL SIS Y . 15

co ef c ients of the same vec to on both sides of an e quation r

is anal ogous to the conditi ons f o e qu ality of t wo co mplex r

imagi nary ex pressions ; th at is if ,

then s s

and t

t .

Exampl e As an example of the sy mmetri c al method to

.

prove th at the medi ans of a t i angle meet in a single poi nt r

whi c h trisec ts each of the m Ch ose any p i nt n t in the . o o o

pl ane of the tri angle for ori gi n and de ne t he t i angle by ,

r

the th ree ve c tors a b and c f om the origin to its verti c es

We choo e the o igin out of the plane of
, ,
r

A B and C
, , . s r

the tri angl es so th at we may use th ee i ndependent vec tors r

i nstead of b ut two as would be necess ary if the origin we re

,

taken in the same pl ane .

Th en OA b )

j ( c ,

03 a ):

5 (C

00 a b ),

(a

so th at the equation of
AA is

r = xa + ( 1 (a)
EB is
r = b + ( 1 ( )
b
y
CC is

r = zc + ( l ( )
C

Equ ate the coef cie nts in (a ) and ( )

b f or n i tersection ,

of a , y ) ,

of b.
of c , i ( l -

y ).

so th at a: y 5 and the vec tor to thei point r of intersec

tion is
a b c
on r 9
3
Th is isevidently the poi nt of i nte rsec tion of the thi rd li ne
with eithe r of the rs t t w o by sy mmetry I t is al so th e,
.
16 VECTOR

Fro . 13 .

mean point of A, B , and C, ex pl ai ned b el ow I t is the

as .

p i t of trisec tion
o n , b ec ause ad di ng to a g of AA we ob tain ,

the same result thus :

,

OA b

i ( c ),
A A i l b

i -
a N
and

F ro . 14 .

By h oosing the origi n at one of the verti ces the sy m

c

metry is los t but a gai n in di re c tness and sh ortness is made .

In prob le ms i nv olvi ng alge b rai c c oe f cients i ns te ad of nu

meric al ones the symmetri c al method is generally preferab le .
 m AN ALYS IS . 17

10 . Equation e The vec tor to any poi nt in the

of a Plan .

pl ane determ i ned b y the ve c to rs a and b and p ass i ng th rou gh

the origin is evide ntly
r s a t b, ( )
14
where s and l v ari ab les I f the
t are t wo i ndependent s c a ar .

origin be re moved to the o igi n of a ve c tor c th rough the

r ,

termi nus of whi c h the pl ane p arallel to a and b p ass es ,

then th e vec tor to any poi nt P in the pl ane is now give n by

( 1 5)
11 . e e e
To nd th e quation of a p la n pass ing th roug h th e nd s
-
v ti e t t the
of th e th reenon c op lanar ec tors a, b , a nd c , no c ha vec

tors (a c ) and (b c) evidently lie in the pl ane B y empl oy .

ing th e previous e quation the eq uati on may be written

r = c + s (a c ) + t (b c ) ,

which may be put into eas ily me mb ered form

re , l g
ana o ous

to equat ion ( )
1 2
s t) o .
(1 6)
It de nt
is evi th at if the di re c ti ons of the c o Ordinate axes

be tak en al on g a b a nd
,
c the,
n the i n
,
t e rc ep ts m ade b y th e
18 VECTOR AN AL SIS Y .

F ro . 16 .

pl ane with thes e axes are th e lengths of a b and , ,

c res pec

tively the corres pondi ng Cartes i an e quat i on being

,

a b c

12 . Condition th at F our Vec tors T erminate in th e Same

Plane . Re arranging e quat ion
s a + tb + ( l s t) o r = 0,

it is een th at whenever there is a linear rel ation b etween

s

any four ve c tors t hey termi nate in one and the s ame pl ane

if the su m of the c oef c ie nts is zero O r in othe r word s if

.
,

and (1 7 )
a, b, c , and d termi nate in the same plane and are said to b e
ter mino coplanar-
.

13 . v
To Di ide ven Ratio Centroid To nd
a Line in a Gi . .

the v alue of a vec tor whi c h divides the dis t ance b et wee n
t wo poi nts A and B in a given rati o m to n s ay it is si mply , ,
 VECTOR AN AL SIS Y . 19

necess ar y to express the vec tor r in the form evident

,
on

inspe c tion ,

a or na + mb
r + (b a ) l8

Fro . 17 .

It is a well
wn result in mec h anics th at the ce nter of
-
kno
gravity of t wo masses m and m divides the li ne j oi ni ng
, ,

them i nversely as these masses so th at by ( 1 8) ,

'3

Fro . 18 .

isthe ve ctor to their center of mass or their centroid I f

now the re is a thi rd po i nt a w ith mas m added to the

3
s ,
20 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

system the new centroid will be th at of the two masses

,
r
'
with mass (m m ) and a with mass m or again by
. , , ,,

Em
Th e generaliz ati on is i mmedi ate I f M E m denotes the
.

total mass of the sys te m of p artic les and i the vec tor to "

thei r center of mass ,

Mf = E ma .
( 0)
2

I f t he masses form a con tinuous bo dy ,

th e formu l a
b e comes

r (2 1 )
do

where p isthe density and do is the element of volume .

The integrati ons are t aken th rough ou t the v ol ume .

If
and xni y j
n z nk ,

formul a (20 ) breaks up i nto the th ree well -

known ones f or th e
three coordinates of the center of mass ,

it

M5 =
2 mxm
1

(22 )

Similarly (2 1 ) gives th ree of the form

a: et c . (23 )
22 VECTOR AN AL SIS Y .

whi ch sa sy th at the new c n e te r of gravity is the sa me as

b ef ore, as r

= t + o .

I t will be no ticed on writing (24 ) in the form

(m + n) r ma u b = o

h t the algebrai c s um of the s calar coe cients is zero

t a .

T hi s leads to the
General Condition f or a R elation Independent of th e
O rig in Th e nec essary and suf c ie nt condition t h at a li ne ar
.

vec tor equation represe nt a rel ation indepe ndent of the

origi n is th at the su m of the sc al ar coe cients of the e qua

ti on b e eq ual to zero Let the eq uati on be .

h ange the origi n from 0 to 0 by addi ng a cons tant

C '

vec tor l the dis tance from 0 to

, to e ac h of the vec to rs ,

a,,
a et c ; the e quati on the n b e c omes
,, .

or

I f this is to b e i ndependent of t he or igin ,

i . e
.
,
the sa me as

the coe cient of Imus t vanish , or

S ES AN D PRO B LEMS
EX ERC I .

1 . Prove that th e vectors

1 a :i: b
:: 1 c
::

when drawn f rom a mmon

co orig in terminat e at the vertices of a

parallelo i
pp d
e .

2 . l
A person t rave ing eas tward at a rate of 3 miles an h our nds
t hat t h e wind seems to blow direc tl y f rom th e nort h ; on doub l ing
his speed it appears to c ome f rom t he nort h eas t Find t h e vec t or .

wind veloc it y .

3 A ship wh ose h ead is point ing due south is steaming across a

.

current running due west ; at t h e end of two h ours it is f ou nd t hat

t he s hip has gone 36 miles in t h e direc t ion 1 5 west of sout h

Find .

the velocit ies of t he ship and current , g rap ically and ana yt ically h l .
 VEC TO R ANAL SIS Y . 23

4 .A weight W
hangs by a s t ring and is pushed as ide b y a h ori
sontal f orce u nt il t he st ring makes an ang le of 4 5 wit h t h e vert ica l

.

F i nd the horizo ntal f orce and t he tens ion of t he s t ring .

5 A vector 1 is the resultant of t wo vectors

.
'
a and b wh ich make
angles of 30 and 45 wit h it on oppos ite s ides H ow large are th e

.

6 A car is running at 1 4 miles an h ou r and a man j umps f rom

.

it with a velocit y of 8 feet per second in a direct ion mak ing an ang le
of 30 wit h t he d irect ion of t he ca r s mot ion

h at is h is veloc it y . W
relative to the g rou nd

7 .Verif y , by drawing, the t ru t h of t he laws of assoc iat ion and

t
c ommu at ion, ta king a number of vec t ors , a, b , c , ( 1, et c , t o scale, .

l
a nd sh ow t hat t he resu tant is independent of t h e order of add it ion
o r s ubt rac tion .

8 . Given the vector

d erive the vect or of sa me lengt h perpendicular to it th rough t h e

o rig in .

Derive t h e vect or e
p p
r end ic u l ar t o t h e one y ou nd . Co mpare
w ith the original one .

9 Find the relat ive mot ion of two part ic les moving w it h th e
.

s am e speed one of wh ich desc ribes a c irc le of rad ius a wh ile t he

ot her moves along a diameter .

10 T wo part ic les move with s peed s v and 2 v res pect ively in

.

p
o posite direc t io ns , in t h e c irc umference of a c irc le In wh at .

it i n is t h eir relative veloc it y greatest and leas t , and what

p os o s

val ues has it at t h ose posit ions ?

11 . Draw the vectors

a 6i 4 1 4 1 0 1:
-

b -
6i 4 1 10 k
c 4 i 61 -

10 k
(1 10 1 + 4 k

I t
nd heir sum g raph ically and anal yt ically .

12 . The equat ion

(1
'
a). (r b ).

represents t he p lane b isec t ing at rig h t angles th e line A B .

24 VECTO R ANAL SIS Y .

13 . Find th e equat ion of t h e locu s of a point eq u id is ta nt f rom

two xed planes .

14 The line which j oins one vertex of a parallelog ram t o t he

.

middle point of an oppos ite side trisects t h e diagonal .

15 . To nd a l ine whic h passes t h roug h a g iven point and c uts

t wo g iv en lines in s pace .

16 . If
3 8 + y b -
0

and 2 + y -
0

sh ow that a and b mag nitude and direction Or what

are equal in .

is the same th ing , that measured f romth e same orig in a and b end ,

at the same point .

l7 . 1f
z a + y b + z c -
0

and x + y + z = 0

sh ow t hat a, b , and c terminate in t he sa me s t raight line ; t h ey are

then said to be termino -
c oll inear .

18 . 1f

and

sh ow that a , b , c , and d terminate in the sa me plane ; they are then

said to be termino -
c oplanar .

1 9 A t riangle may
. be cons t ru cted wh ose s ides are equal and

pa ral lel to th e med ians of any given t riang le .

20 . Given a quadrilateral in space Find t he middle p oint of .

t he l ine wh ich j oins t he middle p oints of t h e diagonals Find t he .

middle point of the line j oining th e middle point s of two opposite

sides . Show that these two points are t he same and coinc ide with
the center o f g ravit y of a sys tem of equal masses placed at the
vert ices of th e q uad rilateral .

21 . Disc uss the cond it ionsimposed upon th ree, f ou r, or ve

vect orsif they sat isf y two equat ions , the s um of t he coef c ient s in
each of which is zero .

22 . Take a number of points at random on a sheet of paper,

ass ig ning arbit rary masses t o t hem Verif y b y d rawing th at th eir
.

center of mass is independent of t he origin c h osen in nding it .

 VECTOR ANAL S IS Y . 25

23 If a system of masses , each mass concentrated at a point , be

.

divided into a number of part ial sys tems , and eac h of th ese be
replac ed b y its res ultant mass , t h en th e new system h as th e same

cente r of mass as th e orig inal one .

24 . A cardboard square is bent along a diag onal u nt il th e t wo

part s are at rig h t ang les . Find th e p osit ion of th e cente r of g ravit y .

25 Forces ac ting at a point 0 are represented b y 0 A , OB , OC,

.

ON Sh ow th at if they are in equilib rium 0 is t he centroid

.

of th e points A , B , C, N .

23 .Th e middle point s of th e lines wh ich j oin t he points of

b isect ion of t h e opposite s ides of a quad rilateral coinc ide wh eth er
t h e four sides be in the same plane or not .

27 .Th e b isect ors of th e angl es of a triangle meet in a point wh ich

t risects each of t hem .

Emp loy unit vec tors along t wo of th e s ides as independent

vectors The b isectors are th en a,
. et c .

28 If two f orces act ing at a point 0 are represented b y t he

.

vectors n a and b t heir res ulta nt is represente d in mag nitude and

d irection b y the vector (n 1 ) 0 0 , th e point 0 being taken on AB

so t hat 8 6 nAG
'
.

Th is allows the resu tant l of two f orces t o be drawn k nowing one

and p art of another .

29 . If t wo f orces are equal t o n 0 A and

. m OB
.
, t h e resultant

passes th rough the point C dete rmined so that

3% 1
m
and is

eq ual to (m n) 00 in mag nitude .

30 .Forces F , F a , act ing in a plane at 0 are in equ i

,

l ib rium Any trans versal c uts th eir lines of ac t ion in points L, , L, ,

.

Ln and a lengt h DL, is pos it ive wh en in the same direc t ion as

F
2 OL 0 '

31 . Sh ow that the resultant of any number of concurrent f orces ,

F ,, may be f ou nd th us : measure off any leng h s l , , l, , t
f romth e point of meet ing along them respect ively ; place at
E
th e ends of th ese lines part icles of masses r
p p
o ort ional to
9d ,
26 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

F 4
vi
let G be the center of g ra t y of these part icles ; t hen 0 0
13
is the ine of l act ion of l
the resu tan t of t he given f orces and its mag
nit ude is

F
OG x
2l
32 . l
A partic e placed at 0 is ac ted upon b y f orces represented in
i
magn tudes and dire ctions b y the lines 0 A, , 0 A, , OA, , whic h
join 0 to any xed points A,, A., A ; wh ere must 0 be p laced
so th at th e mag nitude of t he resultant f orce may be cons tant
Ans If r represent the mag nitude of the resultant , 0 may b e
.

ywhere on a sphere of i
l
p aced an rad us
:1 described around th e cen

t roid of the xed points as cente r .

3 ABCD is a quad rilateral of w ich A and C are op osite

. h p
vertices Two f orces act ing at A are represented b y the sides AB
.

and AD ; two at C b y CB and CD Prove t hat the re sulta nt is

.

represented in m ag nitude and direc t ion b y f our t imes t he line

j oining the middle points of the diagonals of t he quad rilateral .

34 Sh ow th at t he resultant of the t h ree vect or diagonals of a

.

pa rallelo i
pp ed m eet ing at a po int 0 is r ep resented b y t wice t h e
i
d agonal of the parallelopiped drawn f rom the same point .

35 If th roug h any point wit h in a parallelog ram, parallels be

.

d rawn to t he sides , the corresponding diag onals of the t wo new

pa rallelog ram s t h us f ormed and of t h e orig inal o ne meet in a point .

33 The middle points P, Q , R of the diagonals

. of any co mplete
q uad rilateral AB CDE F a re collinear .

37Any point 0 is j oined t o th e vert ices of a parallelogram;

.

sh ow t hat t he sum of t h e vec t ors t o t h e vert ices is f our t imes t he

W
vect or to t he intersec tion of t h e diag onals .

hat conclus ion do you derive f rom t h is f act

33 . AB CDEF A is a regular h exagon Sh ow t h at the resultant .

of t he f orces represented b y AB , 2 AC, 3 AD, 4 AB , 5 AF is repre

sented by a vect or of magnitude V 3S I AB , and nd its direct ion .

39 . A BCDEF A is a regu lar h exag on Find t h e resultant . of t he

f orces represented b y the lines AB , AC, AD, AE, AF .

400 is any point in the plane of a t riangle A B C, and D, E, F

.

are t he middle point s of th e sides Sh ow t h at th e s ystem of f orces

.

v
0 A, CB , 0 0 is equi alent t o t he svs tem CD , 0 E, 0 F .
 VEC TOR ANAL SIS Y . 27

41 . ABC is a triangle wit h a rig ht ang le at A ; AD is t he per

pendicular on BC . Prove t hat t he e s ul tant of

r f orces
l
acting
AB

along AB and -
1
acting al ong AC is i act ing along AD
h0
.

AC
42 P,, P, ,
. Pu are points wh ic h divide t he c ircumference of
a circle into n equal part s If a part icle G lying on t he circ um
.

f erence be ac ted upon b y f orces represented b y GP, , GP, , GP,

s h ow t hat t he mag nit ude of t he res ulta nt is cons tant wh erever G is
taken on that circumf erence .

It is n X C
C 0 being
, t he center of t he circle .

43 If 0 be t he cente r of t he c ircumsc rib ed circle of a t riangle

.

A B C, and L the intersect ion of t he perpendiculars f rom t h e vertices

on the sides , p rove t hat t he resul tant of f orces represented b y LA,
LB , LC will be represented in mag nit ude and direc t ion b y 2 LO .

44 . D is in t he plane of t h e t riang le AB C, and Iis the

a point
c enter of its inscrib ed circle Sh ow that t he res ultant of t he vectors
.

aAD, bB D, cCD is (a b c ) ID,

wh ere a, b, c are the lengt hs of

th e sides of t he t riang le .

45 . The ch ords APB and CPD of a c ircle inte rsect at rig ht

angles . Sh ow t hat t he resultant of PA , PB , PC, and PD is rep re

s ented b y t wice the vec t or P0 , where 0 is t h e cente r of th e c ircle .

43 .Prove t hat t he mean cente r of a tet rahed ron is (a) t he inter

s ec t ion of b isect ors of op posite ed ges ; (b) t h e intersec t ion of lines

j oining the vertices to the mean points of t he opposite faces Sh ow .

t h at the f ormer lines b isect one anot her, and t hat the lat ter q uad
riss et one another .

47 A , B , and C being t hree g iven p oints in a p lane sh ow th at

.

any point in t his plane c an be made t heir c ent roid by giving s uit
ab le weig hts t o th ese p oints .

43 . Sh ow t h at t h e medians of a t riang le intersec t in a p oint

h
w ich is t he mean center of th e vertices A , B , C with weigh ts
1 , 1 , 1 ; t hat t h e alt itu des intersect in a p oint which is t he cen
troid of the vert ices wit h weig ht s , t an A , tan B , tan C, res p ec t ively ;
th at t h e bisec tors intersec t in a point which is t he cent roid of th e
v ertices wit h weigh t s eq u al t o t he l ength s of th e op posi te sides .
 CH APT ER I
I .

SCALAR VECTO R PRO DUCTS O F T WO VECTORS .

Th e Scalar or Dot Prod uc t .

15 . Th e Scalar Prod uc t of t wo vec tors a and b, denoted

by a h , S ab , ab or (ab ) by
o
v arious writers ,
is a sc al ar de

ned by t he e quati on

a o
h a b cos (ab ) b o
a. (26)

Fro 20
. .

T hisequation s hows that t he scal ar pro duct may be l ooked

upon as the pro du ct o f the le ng th of one of t he two vec

tors multiplied by the proje ct ion of the other u pon it or ,

0A X O D = OB X OC .

Evidently , if the t wo ve c t pe rpe ndi c ul ar

o rs a and b are

to e ac h other c os (ab ) 0 and t hei r s c al ar p rod uc t is ze ro .

T he c onditi on the n of pe pe ndi cul arity of t wo nite ve c tors

, ,
r

is th at thei r sc al ar prod u c t b e ze ro .

Or if
,
a b 0 then a L b
-
, 27
( ) . .

28
30 VECTOR ANAL SIS Y .

I f the two vectors a and b be given in terms of t heir

coor dinates ,

a a,i a, j a, k

and

b = bl i
3
s bak p

the n , by (28) and

R o
b (a, i a, i a, k ) (b, i
-
b, j bak )
a,b, azb2 aaba .
(3 0 )
If a, and b, are un it vec t rs their projec tions on the th ee
o , r

e
ax s are equal to their direction cosines ; and s i nc e in thi s
c as e a ,
-
b, cos then b y ,

a,. b, cos c os a i
( , ) c o s b i
( , ) cos ( ,
a i ) c os ( ,i )
b
cos ( ,
a k ) c os

the familiar formul a of Cartesian geometry f or the an gle

b etween t wo li nes in terms of thei r di re c tion cos i ne s .

F ro . 22 .

well known and u sefu l formul a giving direc tly t he

Th e -

magnitude of the resu ltant of any t wo vectors in terms of

their magnit udes and the angle b etween the m may b e ,

derived in the following manner In the triangle A B C .

c = a + R
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 31

Squaring to nd its magnitude ,

c c -
c
=
2
c
'
(a b ) (a
o
b) = a a -
2a b -
b b
o

or

and c
' = a

w here
-
is t h e s u pp lement to t h e an gle between a and b .

16
. Line Integ ral
-
of a Vector . Th e s c a ar l produc t pl ays
a ve ry i mportant rble in me h ani cs and c ph ysi s For ex
c .

ample t h e work d one b y a forc e F in th e d is p lacement

,
. ( it

is by de nition

F dr c os (F dr) F dr
-
.

I
f th e force is kno wn in direc tion and magnitude f or every
poi nt of its path the work ,

done in overcoming the fo ces r

from A to B may be found by

evaluating the i ntegral

h
lled the li i t g l
T is is ca ne n e ra
-

of t h e ve c tor F al ong the c u rve

Th e te rm line i ntegral

AB .
-

of a vec t or al ong a c urve thu s

denotes the i ntegral of the

tangential mponent al ong it co .

u nless e x p ress ly s t ated othe r

Fro . 23 .
w i se .

If q deno tes the vec tor

veloc ity at any poi nt of a uid the integral ,

C q d r -
32 VECTOR ANAL SIS Y .

o ver any path in the uid is c alled the ci culation along r

th at pat h I f e de note t he ele c tri c force at any poi nt in

.

s p ac e the i ntegral
,

E
f o
dr

taken along any p ath gives the el ec t o motive fo ce al ong r -

r

th at pat h This kind of an i ntegral is th us of great i mpor

.

tanc e in all branc hes of physics .

17 .
e Integ ral of a Vector As another ex ample
Surf ac -
.
,

i magi ne a surface S d rawn in any vec tor eld ; f or ex ample ,

in a moving uid Let q be the ve c tor veloc ity dete rminate

.
,
.

Fro 24
. .

at every point in the region considered Th e lines of ow of.

the uid are therefore known and may be drawn The .

l nount of li q uid whi c h p asses ou tward t h ro ugh the ele

 VECTOR AN AL SIS Y . 33

ment ( 18 t ti me at any poi nt on the surface is the

in u ni

outward normal compone nt of q mu ltip lied b y the are a dS ,

or

q c os ( nq ) d8 q o
u d8

where n is the unit ou twa d d raw n normal to dS Th e r .

tot al outw ard ux th rou gh the s urface is then the s urface , ,

integral .

To t al Fl ux ( )
3 2

taken over the surface in questi on I t may eas ily be seen .

that in this ex ample the vec tor q may be any phy si cal
ve c tor s u c h as ele c t ri c force magneti c forc e gravit ati onal
, ,

force or ux of heat and others

, ,
.

Th e te rm surf ace i ntegral of a ve c tor ove r any surf ac e

-

will in the foll owi ng denote the i ntegral of the outw ard
normal c o mpone nt over the s urfac e u nless othe rwis e ex ,

press ly stated in the context .

Th e s urface i ntegral (32 ) ex p ress es a ve ry s i mple fac t .

I f f or i ns tance we know the motion of eve y part of a

, ,
r

uid it sh ould be poss i ble at leas t theoret i c ally to nd

, , ,

out h ow muc h of the uid le aves or e nte rs a give n egion r

by c onsideri ng h ow mu c h p as s es th rough every p a t of t h e r

bou ndi ng s u face of the egi on and addi ng the res ults
r r

together To nd the amount passi ng th rough any ele

.

ment of the su rface we mus t evidently cons id er only the

normal c ompone nt of the cu e nt o f uid Th e t ange nti al
rr .

compo ne nt of the cu rre nt d oes n t p a s th ug h the s u fac e

o s ro r .

Th e i ntegral is the mat he mat i c al ex p ess io n of thi c o ncep r s

tion and represents the tot al outwa d ux th ough the r r

surfac e S O f c ours e if the ow is i nward s the res u lt will

.

be negative and if as mu c h ow s ou t w ard s th ough one

,
r

porti on of the surface as there ows i nwards el se where the

res u lt will be ze o r .
34 VECTOR ANAL SIS Y .

Th e Vector or Cross Product .

18 . Th e vector vectors p roduc t of t wo a and b is a vector,

writte n a b (in dis ti nction from a b the

x -
, dot p od uc t ) al so
r ,

V ab or [ ab] b y di erent au th ors and is de ned by t h e

'

equation
a b c a b sin ab
( ) b r
a, ( )
33

where e is a ve c tor normal to the pl ane of a and b and so

,

direc ted th at as y ou turn the rs t named ve c tor a i nto th e

second o ne b 6 poi nts in the di re c ti on th at a right h and ed
,
-

screw (cork s c rew ) would p ogres s if turned in this same

-
r

F ro 2 5 . .

manner . In o ther d s b is a ve ctor perpendi cul ar to

wor ,
s u

both a and b and wh ose magni tude may be repres ented by

the a rea o f the paral lelogram of wh ich a and b are the adja
cent sides . this vec tor is purely conventi onal
Th e sense of

b ut is t ake n to conform wi t h the more usu al sys tem of ax es ,

i e the right h anded one

. .
,
-
.

Ac co di ng to thi s c onve nti on if the fac to b c ame rs t

r r

i nstead of a in the prod uc t th e only diff ere nce would be

, ,

in t he revers al of the se nse of 6 so th at ,

a b b a.
a
 VECTO R ANALYSIS . 35

It is in this c h ange of sign when the order of the factors is

,

c h anged th at the vector prod uct di ff ers from the produc t

,

of ordinary algeb rai c or s c al ar q uantities I t is therefore .

nec essary whe n manipul ati ng ve c tor prod u c ts to p rese rve

the order of the factors unch anged or at eve ry c h ange of ,

order to i ntrod u c e a mi nus s ign as a fac tor

, .

In parti cul ar if a and b be nite ve c tors and

a b 0 then a I Ib ,

as the si ne of thei r i nc l uded angl e must be ze o This then r .

, ,

is the conditi on f or p arall elis m of the t wo ve c tors a and b .

Si nce any vec tor is parall el t o itself ,

a n E O .
( )
34

Re me mb e ri ng th at the unit vec tors 1 j and k are mutually , ,

perpe ndi cul ar , it foll ows i mmedi ately from the denition
that
i k " ir
k x
j i k.x
( )
35
iq = k = pr
Noti ce t h e c y clical or der of the factors in the ab o ve equa
tions
Wh ve
.

e a al so , by
M M k k x E 0
.

19. ve Law f or Vector Products

Dis trib uti . It is ob v ous i
from the denition of a b th at
( )
36

where a the compone nt of a J to b Because in F ig

is . . .

d b i the me pl e d b is the same as
W
as a a n a e n r s a an a s a a n e ,

ef
b o re an
,
d 110
= 8 0 si

n e m ay a l s o s ay th at the ve c tor

p ro d u c t o f b w i t h the compone nt of a p arall el to b is zero .

80 th at in any ve c tor p od u t w e may if we wi s h repl ace

r c , ,

one of the ve c tors b y it s no mal c o mpone nt to the o ther and

r ,

vice versa withou t ch angi ng the v al ue of the prod u c t

,
.
36 VECTOR AN AL SIS Y .

eeping this in mi nd we may p ove th at the dis t i b u tive

K ,
r r

l aw h old s f or vec tor prod u c ts or in sy mbol s th at , , ,

(a b) x
c a e r
b x
c .
( )
3 7
where a and b are any two ve ctors .

Let c be d raw n (Fig 27 ) L to . .

the pl ane of the paper at O and

towards the reade Let a and r .

b be the co mponents of a and

b _ L to c and he nce lyi ng in the

pl ane of the paper The vec tors .

Fro 23 . . Fro 27 . .

u o and

x
b

r
c will also lie in the pl ane of th e paper perpen
dicular to and b res pe c tively

a .

I
bc 2
A B (M o),

2 b
,

S" we m
DA
(a c )o

u 7: a

d o wn
2

the tri angles OA B and OA B

i mil ar he nce

are s , m
and 03 is L to O B Conse qu e nt ly

. .

h )no AB

OA b
'
08

(a a xc c

Wm
x
.

e ay now r epl ace a

and b by

a and b ac cor di ng to (36)
abo ve ,
so th at
(a b) v
c me b x
c .

t
a
see equat io n ( 1 ) f o r notation .
38 VECTO R ANAL SIS Y .

true f or any c u ved su fac e by conside i ng it as the li miti ng

r r r

cas e of a p olyhed ron with an i n nite nu mber of i n nitely

s mall pl ane fac e ts

,
Let a b and (a b ) be the th ree
.
,

s ides of a t ri angle t aken in orde F m the pri s m of ,

r
. or

whi c h this tri angle and any thi rd ve c tor 6 is the sl ant height
or edge T he areas of the l ate al faces of this p i s m are
. r r

res pec tively viewi ng the m f o m t h e ou tside

,
r ,

a e x
b ~c and ( a b) x
c;

th e ar as ofe the end faces are s i mil arly

4 su b and l ax b .

Now b y the pre c edi ng hyd rostati c theore m the vec tor sum
of the fac es of any c l osed s urfac e is ze o hence
r ,

a e x
h a
s (a b) r
o i ax b i ax b 0,

givi ng again (a b ) c a c b c x x x
.

T his proo f whi c h is giv en p u ely f or its phys i al i ntere s t

,
r c ,

amou nts to s ayi ng th at the ve c t o a e a of any c l osed s urf ac e r r

is e qu al to ze o Th e rel ati on h olds ho weve r ne a ly p ar

r .
, r

allel t o the pl ane of a and b c may b e I t may als o be , .

s h ow n to h old whe n c lies in the pl ane of a and b Con .

v ersely ass u mi ng ,
th at the dis tri bu tive l aw h old s the ,

hydrostati c theore m e mployed in the ab ove proof foll ows

i mmedi ately * .

20 . Cartes ian Expans ion f or th e Vector Prod u ct . It is

o f ve ie t e p e
ten c on n n to x r ss a ec or ro u c in rms v t p d t te of the
c o mpone nts of it s ve c t ors .

Let a a, i a, j a, k ,

b b, i b, j b, k ;
th en a b ( a, i a, i b,j b, k )

whi c h by the ex tens ion of ( )

38 b ec o m es
a b ( a, b, a, b, ) i ( a, b, a,b, )j a,b,
( a ,b, )k .
(39)
S till ano th er p roof of th e dis t rib ut ive law may b e f ound in Pop p i :
Einf irh rung in die

M axwell sc h e Th eo rie der

El ek t ric itat , p p 1 6 and 1 7 .
.
 Th is exp ression may be c on veniently con densed into th e
l j 1:
Mb 0 1 a; a;

b1 b2 b;

Th is is a useful mnemoni c form f or the vec tor p roduct As .

previous ly s tated if the vec tor p roduct is zero the vec tors
, ,

if nite are parallel T his condition in terms of their

,
.

projec tions on the axes is given by notici ng that in (39) the

three coeic ients of l l and i: mus t separately vanish or
. . ,

ag ain from the determi nant form b y noti cing th at two

row s mus t be p roportional or that ,

ar _ ae

0:

E

b. s
a well known res ult .

I f a and b are unit vec tors 8 1) is the sine of their

. ; 1
x
;

inc luded angle 0; the quantities a a and b b b 1, s, 1, ,, .,

b eing then their direc tion cos ines respec tively Squaring .

f ormula (39) there res ul ts

8 in

0 ( 0 2 b: (l abs )
2
(G abi 0 1 131 0
2
(Gi b:

I f we exp ress the dis tributive law in the determi nant

form we ob tain the following addition theorem in determi
nants of the third order .

I j k l j k i l k
01 02 a; 01 02 03 + ar a ar

b
( i 61 ) (:
b 02 ) (b3 63 ) br 52 br 61 02 c;

21 . Ap p l icati on to e t of
Mec h anics . Moment . Th e mom n
a forc e F abou t a point 0 is de ned as the pro d uc t of the

forc e i nto its perpendi cular dis tance from the point 0 or in ,

s ymbols b y ,

F X OZ = F e in 0 .
( 1)
4

Co nversely, assuming th e addition theorem f or sh er m en , em.

distrib ut ive law of vec tor products f ollows immediate w
40 VECTO R AN ALYSIS .

This moment the gure ight h anded ab ut a vec tor

,
in ,
is r -
o

perpendi cul ar to the pape and poi nti ng direc tly up so r ,

th at a vector of magnitude F X (TA in this d i e c tion wou ld r

rep rese nt the mome nt of F ab ou t 0 in a ve ry conve nie nt

manner Accordi ng to this conve ntion the vec to

. r

M e ( 2)
4

represe nts in magnitude and di e ti n the mome nt of F r c o

ab ou t 0 where r is t h e ve t o t o t h e poi nt of appli c ati on

,
c r

of the force I f the f r e F i the result ant of a nu mb er

. o c s

of forc es F F ac ti ng at t h e s ame poi nt

,, 2
f appli c at i o n o ,

then by (38)
D P r x F
( , + F, + r-
F, + e , +

or, the moment of the resultant of any numbe f forc es r o

ab ou t a p oi nt is e q u al to the s u m

of t h e sep a ate mo me nts T his

r .

theore m al so shows th at mo me nt s

ob ey the p arallel og ram l aw Con .

vers el y ass umi ng the t ruth of thi s

,

theo em of moments the dist rib u

r ,

tive law for ve ctor produ cts is a

ne cess ary conseq u enc e .

I f F h ave comp onent s X Y Z ,

1 comp onent s a: d M m
'

y z a n co ,

p o n ent s M M M the m om e nt y .,

of F about the o i g i n may be r

F ro 3$ .

immediately w ritten d own b y (40)

.
i B k
M O P a: Q 2 l (yz z Y) j(z X
:cZ) + k (x Y -

yX )
X Z

So th at M , (yZ z Y) ,

M, ( X
2 xZ) ,

M . ( Y
:
c y )
X .
 VECTO R ANAL SIS Y . 41

22 . Motion of a ider the motion of

R ig id B od y . Cons
ro ta ti on of a igid body ab ut an axi s with a constant
r o ,

angu l ar vel oc ity as A vel oc i ty of ot ati on bei ng of neces

. r

s it y ab ou t s ome ax i s it is c nve nie nt t o rep e e nt t hi

,
o kind r s s

of mo ti on b y a ve c to wh os e magnitu de is p o port i onal to

r r

the angul ar vel oc i ty and wh ose direc ti n coi n ides with th e o c

ax is of r t ati ono Its di rec t i on and th at of the corres pond

.

ing rot ation may be si mply represe nted

b y the sy mb ol in F ig 30 . .

No ti c e th at thi s is al so t h e rel ati on

e xis ting between dire c ti on of cu re nt r

and c orres p ondi ng magneti c eld .

Choose an ori gi n on the ax i s of

rot ati on F ig 3 1 and c ons ider a p int
. o

P anywhere in t h e b ody t o nd the , F m 30 . .

velocity of the point P Let P be .

d etermined b y the radi u s vec t r d awn to it f om t h e or r r

origin .Th e vel ity q of P i at right ang les t o w and

oc s

t o r its magnitude b ei ng given b y the e x p ess i on

,
r

= w e in 0,
q

as e as ily seen i n the gu e In other wo ds q is

is r . r repre

sented not nly in magnitu de b ut i n di e tion as well

o r c , by

q er r .
(44 )

23 . Comp ositio n of g l
Ang ular Vel oc it ies . S i nce an u ar

veloc ities may be repres ented b y vec tors let us see whether
they compound ac co di ng to the p a allelogram law To
r r .

p rove this denitely let the body have several angular

,

veloc ities as ab ut ax es p as s i ng th ough the

,
o r

origin Th en the li near vel ocities of P sep arately due to

.

thes e are
42

and he nce the velocity of P due to the m all ac ti ng simulta

neous ly is

or the result ant velocity q of P is the same as if the body

ro t ated with an angul ar vel oc ity u ab ou t an ax is t h rou gh 0

g ive n in m ag ni t u de and d ire c ti on b y

23 .

Th is p roves the above statement .

F ro . 31 .

I f the dy h ave in addition to its angul ar veloc ity a

bo
velocity of transl ation q th e result ant vel ocity q of th e
p oint P is si mply
q ( I Wr :

 VECTO R AN AL SIS Y 43

In the case th at q is J t as the e mus t be a li ne of poi nts

: . o , r

w h i c h are i nst ant aneous ly at es t This l ine is determi ned r .

b y the condition q 0 or
run (I
t, ( 6)
4

whi c h is a straight li ne pa allel t or Ch ange the o igi n to a r o . r

point 0 on this li ne the express i on f or the veloc ity reduces to

,

the form q 0M 4
,

wh ere r
is t h e ve c to r from O to any poi nt in t he b ody I f q

. :

is not A to as, decompose it i nto two components q and Q

:

t

su c h t h at q : q:

Let qc b e

q Ht o w,
we m ay the
and n p ro c eed.as

. l to. as,

b efo e with r I t is th us see n th at the most gene al motion r

p ss ib le of a igid b ody is t h at of a tation ab out a cert ai n

o r ro

ax is and a vel oc ity of t ans l ati on al ong it ; in o th er w o d s a

r r ,

s rew mo t ion
c .

I f m and q are v a i ab le thi h old t ue at any i n tant

: r s s r s ,

alth ou gh t h e di re ti on and pit c h of the s rew mo ti on may b e

c c

rapidly and of cou rse nti nu u ly h angi ng Th e axi of

co o s c s
'

rot ati on abo ut whi c h a i gid b ody is rotating at any given

r

i nstant is alled the instantaneous axis of rotation I f t h e

c .

body h as one poi nt x ed the vel o c ity q is zero and t h e i ns t an :

t aneous axis f rot ati on alw ay s p as se s th ou gh thi x ed

o r s

p i nt The equ ation of the i nstant aneous axis is t hen

o .

give n by the condition th at

'
l r at

S ES AND PRO B LEMS

EX ERC I .

1 . Sh ow t hat t he two vec t ors

a = 9 1 + j 6k
and b = 4 l 61 + 5k

are at righ t angles to eac h ot her .

Th e cord inates of two point s are (3 , 1 , 2) and (2 ,

2 . 2,
nd th e cosine of t he angle b etween t h e vectors j oining t hese points
to the origin .
44 VECTO R ANAL SIS Y .

3 . W rite out in t he f orm

a a ,i a, ] a ,k

several i f mut ually d i l c tors

W
p a rs o e
p p
r en c u a r ve .

4 . rite out in t he f orm

the ex pressions f or several unit vec t ors .

5 . Find a vector in t he ij plane whic h has t h e same lengt h as the

-

vector
a = 4 l 2i + 3 k .

Find a vect or in t h e k
j plane having t he same lengt h , and t he same
j proj ect ion as
-
a .

3 . Let a and b be t wo unit vect ors l ying in t h e ij plane Let a -

.

be t h e angl e t hat 3 makes wit h l , and B t h e angle b makes wit h i ;

then
a a
l eos a j sin a ,
b i c os j sin .

Form t he d ot and c ross prod uc t s and s h ow t hat t he addition

t heorems f or t he c osine and s ine f oll ow f rom t heir interp retat ion .

7 Let .

+ a, k

and b b,l b, k
be th e u nit vect ors t o t h e points A and B Find t h e distance between .

A and B and it s, direct ion cosin es in terms of a, , a, , a ,I and b,, b, , b. .

Th ree vectors of lengt h s a, 2 a, 3 a meet in a point and are

3 .

directed al ong t he diagona ls of t h e t h ree f aces of a c ube, meet ing at

t he point Determine t he mag nit ude of t h eir re sul tant
. Find .

t he res ultant in t h e f orm

=
r x l + y l + z k

and f rom th is cal culate its magnit ude .

9 . The m of th e sq uares of t he d iagonals

su of a p arallel og a
r m is
equal t o th e s um of t h e sq uares of t h e sides .

10 . Parallelograms upon t he same base and bet ween me

sa

parall els are eq ual in area .

Th e sq uares of t h e sides of any quadrilateral exceed t h e

11 .

squares of t h e d iag onals by f our t imes t he s q uare of t he line which

joins t h e middle point s of th e diag onals .
 46 VECTOR ANAL SIS Y .

21 . Find the area of the parallelog ramdetermined by the vect ors

a i] 2 3k
and b -

3l 2i + k .

22 Expre ss the relat ions bet ween t h e sides

. and opposite angles
of a t riangle .

In any triangle of vector s ides a, b , c,

a = b -
c,

take th e vect or product of a wit h th is and interpret .

B y means of the
23 . equat ion of 20 nd th e sine of th e angle
between the two vectors

a = 3i + i + 2k

and b -
21

24Sh ow that the equat ion

. of a line perpendicular to the
vectors b and c is
r a z b m.

25 . Find th e perpendic ular f rom th e origin on the line

ax (r b) 0 .

25 . Derive an expre ssion f or th e area of a sq uare of w hich

is th e semi d agonal -
i .

27 If t h e middle point of one of the non parallel sides of a

.
-

trapezoid be j oined to t he ext remit ies of the opposite side, a t riangle

is ob tained wh ose area is one half of th at of th e t rapezoid-
.

Find the relat ions bet ween two righ t h anded syste ms of
Wi
23 .
-

th eer mutuall y perpendicular unit vectors See Gibbs lson, .

-

p 104
. .

29 . Given c a b .

Exp and t he i t hand

r gh -
s ide of ea c h of t he eq uations

c-c (a b) o
c,

c c 2
(a b ),

Ud g ve th e g eom
i etric i nterpretation of th e ht .
reax
 VECT O R ANAL SIS Y .
47

30 . Given r =z a + yb + zc

where a b c are t ree non cop h -

lanar vectors . Expand t he righ t
hand side of the eq uation
rr -
( z a + yb + zc ) (z
-
a y b z c)

and g i ve th e g eomet ic interp etat ion of r r th e res ul t .

31 Show th at t he work done by a f orce during a disp acemen

. l t
l
is eq ua to the sum of the quantities of work perf ormed by its
components during t he dis placement .

32 . A uid is owing across a p lane surf ace w t h a unif orm i

l
ve ocit y wh ic h is rep res ente d in mag nit ude and direct ion by t he

vector 0 If n is t he unit norma to t he p lane, S how t hat t he

. l
t
volume of t he uid hat passes t hroug h t he unit area of th e plane

in unit t ime is q u o .

33 Show t hat a s ystem of f orces represented in magn u e,

. it d
i
direct on, and pos it ion by t he s uccess ive s ides of a p lane polygon
is equivalent to a couple whose moment is eq ual to twice t he
area of t he polyg on .

34 . If 0 be any p oint whatever, in th e p lane of t he tri

eit her

ang le A B C or out of t hat p lane, t he sq uares of t he s ides of t he tri

ang le f all s h ort of t hree t imes t he squares of t he dis tances of t he

ang ular points f rom O, by t he sq uare of t hree t imes t h e distance

of t he m ean po nt f rom O i .

35 .T he sum of t he s quares of t he distances of any point 0 from

the angular points of t he triang le exceeds the s um of t he s q uares
of its dista nces f rom t he middle points of t he sides by t he s um of

the s quares of half th e s i de s .

33 . Show tha t
(
a b )x (s b) 2 axb .

and g ive its geomet ric interp reta ion, t

37 . Show t hat
(a b ) a b 2
i t
and n erp re t .
 CH APTER III .

VECTO R AND S CALAR PRO DUC TS INVO LVING

TH R EE VECTO RS .

24 . F rom th e th ree vec tors a , b, and c th e f oll owing co m

b inations may b e d erived :

1 (
.
(a ve c

2 a (b c ) (a s al a )
t o
m) 4 a ( n
aot de
5 a (ll o c ) (ab s urd )
ned ) r .

.
- g
c ( 7)
4 r .
-

3 a (b c ) ( a vec to )
.
x x
6 3 01 5 ) (ab surd ) r .
x
.

O f these s ix e x p ess ions 5 and 6 are me ani ngless and

r ,

ab su rd be c ause they a e the sc al a p od uc t and vec tor

,
r r r

p od uc t es pectively of a ve to (3 ) and a cala (b e ) and

r ,
r , c r s r ,

s u c h p od u c ts e q u i e a ve to on each side of the dot o c ross

r r r c r . r .

As to 4 s i nc e no de niti on o f the p od u c t of t wo ve c tors with

,
r

ou t a dot or a c os h a b ee n made it is as yet me ani ngle ss

We
r s s ,
.

In thi s boo k we s h all not c nsider s u c h p ro d u c ts o .

s h all c onside in det ail the th ree re mai ning triple p od uc ts

r r .

Th e rs t one of thes e a (b e) is s i mply the ve c tor 3 multiplied

, ,

by the sc al a q u antity (b e ) and is a ve c to in the same dirc e

r r

tion as a b ut b c (be) ti mes longe This triple prod uc t

,
c os r .
,

then off ers no new di f ulties and me ans

, c ,

a ( b e ) a x be c os b
( )
c .

25 . Th e T rip l e Produ ct V a o
(b r
o ) is l
a s c a ar and rep

e t the vol u me of a pa allel opiped of w hi ch the th ree

res n s r

c onte rmi nous edges a e a b and c This i e as ily seen to r , , . s

be the c ase as b c i the are a of the b as e epresented by

,
x
s r

a ve c tor OS 1 to thi s b ase ; the sc al a p od u c t of a and the r r

vector as will be this area multiplied b y the p ojection of r

the sl ant height 8 along it or in othe wo ds the vol u me , ,

r r , .

As evidently thi s vol ume V may be ob t ai ned b y fo ming t he , ,

r

48
 VECTO R ANAL SIS Y . 49

e t produc ts of any two of the th ee vect rs a b and 6

v c or r o , ,

( t h u s givi ng the a e a o f o ne o f the

r f a e s ) and f o mi ng the c r

s c al ar p od u c t
r f thi s ve c tor are a w ith the e mai ni ng third
o -
r

vector it follows th at
,

V b c a

If the vectors (c a ) (a b ) and (b e) a e take n so th at they

x
, ,
r

form an acute angle with b c and a res pe ti vely then the , , ,

c ,

volume is to be cons idered positive the cosine te m in the ,

r

Fro . 32 .

l product being positive O the wi se the vol ume is to be

sc a ar . r

conside red neg ative O f cou rse the i nve si n o f the fac tors
. r o

in the ve c tor p rod uc ts sh ould c h ange the S ign by so ,

th at we h ave
V E b ( o a )b o
b (a x
C )b
-

c -
c c (b ~
a) C -
( 8)
4
a -
(b x
c ) (b x c ) o
s a o
(
c x b) ( c x b) o
s .

By ideration of these e qualities the foll owing l aws

a c ons

may be seen to h old :

1 Th e sign of the s c al ar t iple p od u c t is u nc h anged as

. r r

long as the cy cli cal order of the factors is unc h anged .

50 VECTOR ANAL SIS Y .

2 . For every c h ange of c yclical der

or a minus sign is
i ntroduced .

3 . the cross may be interc h anged ad libitu m

Th e dot and .

Th e e qualities (48 ) are c alled by H eavis ide the Paral l el o

p iped l a w .

The p d t ro c ) may b e written in te rms of the co m

uc a o
(b x

ponents of it s ve c t ors al ong any th ree rec t angul ar Cartes ian

ht LLi
5 3 L!
b

:x
t
]
b i
.
r
,
t ' .

a -
(b w) Ihe.)

I b2 be 0: bs bi as br b:
62 ca ca 61 cr 63
i

a. a: as ( )
4 9
b: b: b:
61 62 ca

the famili ar dete rminant expressi on f or the volume

is
of a p aral lelopiped with one c o ner at the origi n r .

Th e parallelopiped p ri nc iple then e xpresses the fac t th at as , ,

l ong as the cy cli c al order of the rows is unch anged the deter
mi nant is al so unch anged b ut th at every i nte rc h ange of ,

cy c li c al order i nt rod uc es a mi nus s ig n as a f ac tor To the .

s tu de nt famili ar with dete mi nants thi s is a we ll known r

property Conversely assumi ng this property of a deter

.
,

mi nant as proven the equati on (4 8) i mmedi ately follow

,
s .

Th e twelve ex p ess i ons (4 8 ) a e ofte n w itte n in one as

r r r ,

[ a b c ] a s,
pe c i al s y mb ol o f ab b evi ati on t ake n f om G rass r r

mann .

26 . th at Th ree Vectors Lie in O ne Plane

Co ndition .

Sh ould the th ee nite non p a allel ve ctors a b and C lie

r -
r , ,

in one pl ane the v ol ume o f the p arallel opiped they deter

mi ne is zero Hence the c ondition th at the th ree non
.

parallel vectors s h ould lie in a pl ane is that

[s he] O .
(50)
 VECTOR ANAL SIS Y . 51

In the ex pressio n [abc ], if any t wo of the ve c tors are p arallel

t h e vol ume of the p arall el opiped is agai n evidently zero .

Hence in ge neral
, [a b] , 0 .
(51 )
To l ook at it in another way we ,
may p t,
u b y (48)
a -
(s a
b ) (a x
a ) -
b,

and as a s 0, the n a -
(a x
b ) 0, so h t in a triple scal ar
t a
prod uc t if any t wo of the ve c tors are p arallel their t riple

s c al ar p rod uc t is ze o r .

In the dete rmi nant (4 9 ) above thi s c o res pond s to h avi ng ,

r

any t wo rows p ro po tional t o e ac h othe r the res ult b ei ng

r , ,

as is well kno wn ide nti c ally ze ro

, .

The parenthes is in an ex pressi on su ch as a (h o) is in o n

reality unne c ess ary as its only other i nterp ret ati on (a b ) c
,
- x

is with out meani ng b ei ng the ve c tor prod u c t of a s c al ar

,

(a b ) an d a ve c t or c Th e p a e nthe s es are i nt ro d
. u c ed r ,

h owever when by so doing the i nte pret ation is made e as ier

, r .

Scalar mag nitud es of th e vec to rs it is i mportant to ,

reme mbe r whi c h occ u r in any ki nd of sc al ar or ve c to r

,

prod uc ts may be pl aced in any port of the ex pression as

fac tors .

For example ,

a o
(b r
o ) aa , -
(b x c )
be ( )
52
et c .
,
etc .

27 . Th e Tripl e Produc tq vec tor In thi s a (b x x

c ) is a .

expression or so me sep arati ng sy mb ol

the parenthesis is , ,

ne c essary as a (b c ) a (a b ) c
,
x Th e S ign of thi s prod uc t
x x x
.

c h anges every ti me the orde of the fac tors a and (b c ) is r x

ch anged in a (b c ) or whe neve r the o der of the fac to rs b

x x
,
r

and c is ch anged in (b e ) Th e ve c t o p od uc t bei ng al ways . r r

perpendi cul ar to both of its components q is perpendi cul ar ,

to a as well as to b c hen e x
,
c

q o
s 0 and q (
~
b x c ) 0 .
(53 )
52 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

Equation (53 ) sh ows th at q li es in th e s ame pl ane as b and

6, eith er b y (50 ) or b y seei ng th at it is perp endic ul ar to a line

which is itself perpendi cular to b and c It is i mport ant th at .

this res ul t be clearly visuali ed Th e h abit of visuali zation z .

s h oul d be cu ltivated as it is of great i mpo t anc e to t h e s tudent

, r

wh ateve ki nd of analysis h e be usi ng but p arti cularly so in

r ,

this To a p u el y analytical mind vec tor analysis offers b ut

. r

f ew advant ages .

As q l ies in t he pl ane of b and c it is poss i ble to ex p ress q in

the form
q a xb y e:

where x and y are s cal a multi pliers r . Let us t ry to determi ne

t he q uantiti es x and y Since q . is perp endi c ul ar to a .

a -
q :na o h y a ~c =0

and, therefore ,

y
an y we : aoh or : n a c, -

where n is a s c al ar fac tor of p p

ro or ti onality . So th at
q n (hu ne
) n b
[ (a -
c ) C a ( ( )
54

Wh l e s a l now p rove a n is th t independent of th e magni

tudes i t i tors a b and c It is i nde
and ncl na ions of t h e vec , , .

p ende nt o f th ei r mag nit u des b ec au se th ey may b e t aken o ut

by (52) as s c alar c oef cients and el i mi nated fro m t h e equa
tion Si nce we are deal i ng with th e mutual rel ati ons between
.

any th ree vec tors we may c h oose one of th em arb itraril y

, .

Let th at one be a Let us now repl ace one of t h e remaining

.

vec tors 6 f or i nst ance b y th e sum of t wo oth er vec tors d

, , ,

and e Th en.

ax (bx (d n [ b a -
(d e ) (d e ) a o h ],

or

ax (b xd ) ax (bx e ) n [ b a -
(d e ) (d + e) h],
a o

or nally ,

n f

b a -
d d a
a e ea -
a -
Kd Q- -

QH Q -
a- b ]r

I
I
54 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

ti on and al so to gi ve an ex ample of th e exp ansion

meth od in general its demons tration by this meth od will be

,

carri ed out .

bzbs bi b: bi b:
As the c omponents o f (b r
e) are and
636

we may write :

i 3 k

a a

g
=i b bi os
a x
(b ) bb b
[ 0, b
( l cf -
bzcr) as ( ai
c
1
+ 3 [as (bzca bsc z ) at b
( i of
3 636t i 2

Th e terms may now be rearrang ed i nto

i bi (arc: a re: axes )
3 2 ( r:
b a c 20 2 0 303 )
k bs (arc : 262 3 03 )

i c i (ai bi a zbz (l abs )

0 2 (0 1 b: a zba nabs )

k c: (aibl abs c abs )

Th e new u nderl i ned terms h ave been adde dand sub tracted .

The rs t three lines are

i b
( ll j z
b k b, ) (a c )
- = b (a -
c ) ,

t h e l as t th ree are
(l o, j c, k 0, ) (a o
h) = ( h ),
C a o

hence
a x
(b n
c ) b (a ~
c ) (
C a o
h) .

29 . Th ird Proofh at n 1 in (54 ) may also be proved

. T
as follo ws : Cons ider rs t t h e t i ple vec to r p oduc t in whi c h r r

t wo of th e vec to rs are t h e s ame ,

b (bx r c) n (b b e c b b) o
.
 VECTOR A A Y
N L SIS .
55

i
T ak ng the sc al ar p roduc of is and c , or, in s t th h orter language ,

y
ap pl ing 0 dot (c t o , we ob a n it ti
c - bx (b x c )
B ut by i nterch ange of t he dot and th e cross
an and one

ch cy cl i cal order th e l eft h and s i de beco mes

ange of -

( M(
O IN ) ( ?
IN ( )
56

W
-

e know h owever th at
, ,

(b b
c

, (sea)
as by de niti on

bo
z
00 8

(be) bc
3
sin

( )
bc bc

is equivalent t o it ; hence th e right hand of th e rs t equation

is nothi ng more th an n and compari ng with (56) we

see th at n mus t be unity Th e theorem is th us true when .

,

t wo of t he vec tors are t he s ame Cons i der now th e general .

c ase,
a x
(b x c ) n (b we c ao h ) . 57
( )
Apply b do t to it , ob tai ni ng
b a (bx c ) -
n (b b
x o
a c -
b -
c a o
h)
na -
( c b b o
bb e ) ,

whi ch as we h ave just proved may be written

na

B ut on t h e le ft h and side we h ave

-

b -
a x
(b x
c ) a

by interc h ange of dot and c oss and one of cy clical order

an r .

Co mp ari ng t h e l as t t wo eq u atio ns we see th at n l in

g eneral .

Th e paren th i es s in an
(b r
e ) is necess ar ,
y
f o r (a b ) c is q ui e x x t
i
d ff erent from t he rs t express ion as ,
one may read l see by iy
ex p and i ng t h e t wo or b y t h e eas oni ng of
,
r 27

30 . Produ ct s of More than tical Th ree Vec tors . In p rac

ap pl i c ati ons to p hy s i cs more co mpl i c ated p rod u c ts th an th ose

of th ree vec to rs seldom arise Whenever they de nes ma ; .

x
56 VECTO R ANALYS IS .

be red uced by i
s u c c es s ve ap p l ic a tions of the p eceding p rin r

c ip les . In any c as e th ey represent ext emel y ompli cated r c

Cartesi an ex p ans ons i . A an ex amp le f u h a redu c ti on

s o s c ,

cons i der th e s c al ar ex p ess i on

r cont ai ni ng four vec tors ,

te c hange t h e s t o s and dot and ex p and the mot or

In r r cr s

t riple p roduc t whi h w il l gi ve

,
c ,

a -
b (c d )
x x

a -
(c b d o
db e )
we b d o
a -
d b o
c

we b e
(58 )
ad b d o

h formula will be used in the deduction of S tokes

T is

T h eo
re m in
Ag a n i c ons ider th e q u adru ple vec tor p rod u c t (a x
b ) (a d ),
x

whic h may be ex p anded by

c (ax
b ) -
d d (a b ) c x -

i t
or n o b (c d ) a ( )
59 x -
a (o d ) h , o

taki ng in the rs t c ase (a b ) c and d as the th ee vec tors of x

, , r

a triple p odu c t and in t h e sec ond c as e a b and (Cd )

r ,
By , , .

s ub t ac ti ng th ese t wo eq ual ex press i o ns fro m eac h oth er we

r

h ave
a b (c d )
- x
b a o
(c x
d) + c d -
(a x
b) d (60 )
an i mpo tant elation h olding between any four
r r vec ors t .

Pu tti ng d r th is eq u ati n may be w itt en

,
o r

r a bc
[ ] [ rh e a ] [ rca ]b [ rab c ,]
th at
m
so
rah
a [5 21 b
[ ab c ] [ab c ] [ abc ]
or
b ~
c

ma
( )
62
wb
r r a r r c.
[ a bc ] i
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 57

an i mport ant and useful formula which gives th e coef cients

necess ary to ex p ress 1 in te ms o f any th ree arb it rary vec tors
'
r

not l yi ng in th e same pl ane This ex pansion is under th ese .

c onditions al way s p oss i bl e as ex pl ai ned in

3 1 . Rec iprocal Sy stem of Vec tors . Th e three vec tors

m
bx c o n ax b
7 1 and r

[abc ]
e
p p
r end c ul arires pec tively to th e pl anes of b and c c and a , ,

and a and b oc cur frequentl y in i mp ort ant rel ati ons and are
,

sai d to b e th e y tem reci p ocal t o a b and c

s s r Th ey h ave
, , .

p e c u l i a r a n d i nte re s ti n g p p o e rti es r whi c h t h e s t u d en t wi l l

nd fully demonst rated in anoth er work * .

It will b e noti ced th at only t wo ki nds of produc ts of vec tors

h ave been de ned i e the scal ar product and th e vec tor
, . .
,

p r o d u c t
. O n e s h o u l d c a re fu l l y re m e m b e r a s w el l th at t h e

sc al ar p od uc t and t h e vec t
r p o d u c t
or h a v e b
r ee n d e ne d in
terms of t wo si mple vec tors b ut th at i nstead of si mple vec ,

tors any express ion whi c h is itself a vec tor may be used in
p l ac e o f t h e s i m p le v e c t or s t o f o m th es e p r o dru c t s I f thi s i s .

c areful ly kep t in mi nd it wi ll make c l ear th at in vec tor analy

sis cert ai n c omb i nati ons of sy mb ols are meani ngl ess .

For ex ample a b b eing a vec to r it may b e used in co n

x
, ,

ju n c ti o n with an o th e r s i m p l e ve c t o r e or a n o th e ve c t o
,
r r

p r o d u c t a d ,
t o f o rm n ew sc a l a r p r o d u c t s a n d v ec to p ro d r

nc te suc h as

m
,

(a b ) x -
e and (a r

(a b ) x r
e and

or even et c .
,

whi ch are all leg iti mate ex p ress ons i . B ut , on th e ther

o

b and, neith er a h , nor o

nor (a x b) -
e may be
us ed again to form eith er s c al ar or vec or t p rod u c s t bec ause
t h ey are merel y s c al ars

Wl
.

Gib b s -
i s on, Vect or Anal y sis , p p 82 32 .
4
58 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

Eq uations of Plane, Line, and Sp h ere .

32 . Th e Plane Perp endic u lar to a th roug h th e and Pass ing

Terminus of b Let r be t h e radi us vec to to any poi nt in it
. r .

Th e p rojec ti on of 1 upon a is evidently cons tant and eq ual

'

t o t h e p ojec ti on f b upon a as l ng as th e termi nus of r is

r o o

in th e pl ane; thi s conditi on is ex p essed b y th e equation r

n t cons t ant
o
a b (64 ) -
,

or a o
( r b) 0,

whi ch is therefore the equation of the pl ane

, ,
. It t t
al so s a es

th at (r b ) is perpendi cul ar to a and h ence p arall el to t he

Fro 33 . .

p l ane w hi ch is an evi dent tru th and coul d be used to derive

t h e eq u ati o n of t he p l ane If t h e ori gi n is in t he pl ane b
.
0 ,

and
a"
.
O
is t h e equ a tion wh ich is othe wise evi dent as r is then al ways
,
r ,

e
p pr en d i c u l ar to a . I f t h e e q u ati on of a p l ane is d es i red t he ,

p l ane b ei n g p ar al l el t o t w o gi ve n v e c to rs c a n d d an d p as s in g
th rou gh th e termi nus of b si mply remembe th at a d is a , r

ve to r p erp endi c ul a to t h e p l ane and pu tti ng c d in

r l a
p c e
c
u
,

of a ab ove its equati on is

,

(e a) (
x r -
b) Q .
(66)
 VECTOR AN A LYSIS . 59

It th e eq uation of a p lane passing th roug h th e ends of th ree

t
g iven vec ors a, b , and c is d esired , remember a t h e vec th t
tors ( r a ), (a b ), and (b c ) l ie in the same pl ane and
exp ress this fa t by c
giv ng i
0
'
b ) (b
x
c ) = 0 .

or ex p anding

r- ax b ( b
r c o n) a ~ (ax b b x c o n)
or
( )
67
t ( - r a =
) 0. where oa (ax
b b e o n) .

Fro 34 . .

Comp aring this las t equation with we see th at 4) is a

vec to r perp endi c ul ar to t h e p l ane .

To nd th e vector perpendicular p f ro m th e orig in to th e

-

p lane . f i
Re err ng to t he pl ane in F ig 33 , t he equa ion oi . t
whic h is
a o
( r b) 0,
60 VECTOR AN ALYSIS .

let .bec ome perpendi c ul ar to t he pl ane

r and h ence so me
mul tiple of a, say a: a , th en
a -
(
xa b) 0,

= = a
a o
h l
and p xa (68a)

This resul t i t is also ev i ti denh is th e on nspec on . For a

o

p j
ro ec ti o n of b on a mu l ti p l ied b y t h e m a gnit u d e o f a ; h ence ,

to ob t ain t he value of th e p rojec tion we must di vi de b y t h e

magnitude of a so th at directly ,

93 h
p
a

ao h .

In equa tion (67 ) th e perpendi cular p is then

p o
a .

33 . Th e eq uat ion of t
a s raig h t th roug h th e end
l ine of b
parall el to a is , i
s nce a and (r b ) are al way p arallel s ,

ax (r b) O .
(69 )
This is co mp atib le w ith th e
eq ua ti on derived previously ,

r = b + x a,

f or appl yi ng a to it
n
,
we o b tai n
69 in t h e form
a r x
a x
b .

i
Ag a n, th e equ a tion of a l nei
e
p p
r end c ui
l ar t o c and d and

p as s i ng th roug h t he end of b
F m 35. .

is , bec ause is p arall el to

Cd a

in the above equ a ion, t

b) 0 .
( 0)
7
 52 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

whe e 0 is the angle between r and any predetermined radius

r
,

from whi c h 0 is measured .

In recta ngula r cordinates (73 ) c onsidered as t h e equation

of a s p h e e is written i mmedi atel y
r

F IG 3 7
. .

wh ere a a a are the projec tions of any ch osen radi us along

,, ,, s

th e th ree ax es If th e p l ane of yz b e t aken perp endi cul ar to

.

th is radius a and a are ero so th at

, 2 8 z ,

If we drop t h e z -
i t the equation reduces to th at of a
c oord na e

i
c rc le tangent at th e ori g i n to t h e y ax is and with its center
on the x axis .

Th e eq ua tion with ori gi n at center may be put in the form

= d
or ( r
-

O,

whi c h y
s a s , see th at th e two li nes A D and D B are
Fig 38,.

al way s a t rig h t ang les a famil i ar res ul t Suc h ill us trations

,
.

"
my b e ma] tip lied inde nitel y and sh ow th e eas e wh ln which
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 63

tions may be written down to t al most any condi

ti ons W
eq ua

. h en translated into thei r Ca tesi an equivalents r

they give famili ar fo ms r .

Suc h b ooks as Tait t i it

Q u a ern ,
ons K ell and a nd T a , ,

Introdu c ti on to Q u aterni ons may be consul ted with ad

,

v ant age at this poi nt b y th e stu dent In th ese b ooks t h e .

whole treatment of the li ne pl ane circle sp here and coni c

, , , ,

sec tions wit h f ew ex cep ti ons is one of vec tor anal ys is pure and
, ,

F IG . 38 .

s i mple . Th e oc currence ofi a q u a et

y rare event
rn o n is a ver .

T h e onl y di erence to b e noted p arti cu larly in readi ng th ese

works is th at th e s cal ar product h as the opposite sign to ours .

and th at

a h is written S ab
o

and a b is written V ab
x
.

34 a . Resol ution of Acting on a Rig id

a Sy stem of F orces
B od y Consi der any point 0 as o i gi n Thi s p oi nt may b e
. r .

anywh ere even ou t si de of t h e body

,
Th e sy s tem of forces .
64 VECTOR AN AL SIS Y .

F, , F, , F, , etc , ac ti ng
. on th e bod y is equivalent to a sing le

force R at 0 , where
R =
2 F

and a coupl e whose strength is

C
E a x F,

where a, are th e vec tors to t h e forces F, , F ,

from 0 .

To p rove thi s , c onsi der one of th e forc es F ac ti ng at P ; we

may introduce the zero sys tem F F at 0 with ou t alter

FIG 39 . .

ing in any way th e e ec t of F on t h e b od y . By combining

F with th e F at P we get a c oup le of t th ax F,
Wm
s reng

leavi ng a force F acti ng at 0 . e ay do t h e s ame f or each

of th e forces F ,,
F, , et c .
, soth at nally we h ave
( ) a
all t h e forces F ,,
F ac ti ng at 0
,

and a
( ) an eq ual nu mber of coupl es a s? M S ,
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 65

Comb i ne al l forces i nto a res ultant force R 2 F

th e ,

and all th e c ou pl es in a resul t ant coup le C

E a F whi c h x
,

p ro v e s t h e th eo rem S u c.h a reso l u ti on m ay be m ade f or a ny

p o i nt wh a te v er .

Central A xis .Coup l e a Minimum f or Points on this A xis .

In general t h e ax i s of th e c oup le C deri ved ab ove is not

p ar al le l to t h e re s u l t a nt fo rc e R .

Let us i nqu ire if th ere are any poi nts f or whi c h an anal o
g ou s r eso l u ti o n wi ll g i ve a co u p l e wh ose ax i s is p arall el t o R .

Noti c e th at wh atever poi nt 0 is c h osen R is th e s ame vec tor

.

Let 0 be s uc h a p oi nt and let 0 0 r and f or 0 th e coupl e

,

would be si nce O P a r
,

,

2 (u r ) F x
.

T hen the condition th at this coup le be p arallel to R bec omes

2 m r ) F ~
a: R 2 m e a F,

so th at
a R C e .

T o nd mul tiply by R because R o

is p arall el to R ,

and th e ti
r pl e s c al ar p ro d u c erm vanis tt hes .

a: CR o
.

H ence
e C R (C R ) -
"

R4 0 4 1 "
)
a ti on f or r in terms of R and C (given vectors b y
linear equ a
l as t th eorem) Th ere is th en a li ne of p oi nt f or whi c h thi s
. s

ki nd of resol uti on i p oss ib le Thi s li ne is c al led t h e Central

s .

Axis of t h e Sy s tem whi c h i th en red u ced to a f rce R and a

,
s o

cou ple abou t R of a c ert ai n magnitude xR RCR o

1

R1 (C Ri )

Consideri ng t h e equ ati on of t he cen ral ax is t

e (ii H G) R,
-

u
66 VEC TOR AN L SIS A Y .

it is seen th at one of t he values of r is (R and sinc e

this last vec tor is evidently perpendi cular to R it mus t b e th e ,

line 0 N ; so th at th e eq uati on may also be written

=
r R x C yR 0N yR,
w here R ~ C is th e nor mal t
vec o r from 0 to t h e t
cen ral

F IG 39 x . .

B y (a) we see th t
a th e coup le about th e c en ral ax s is th e t i
component of t he c ou le at an n al n R an d th i t
p y o er p o o g ,

h wy
ence is al a s less an f or any o th
er p o n ; so at it is a th i t th
m n mum and equal to
i i
C R
along R .

h owever
It is , , th e me
sa ,
i . e
.
, cons an t t f or all p o ni
ts on t he
central axi s .

EX ERC IS ES A N D PRO B LEMS .

1 . Prove the f ollowing f ormula :

[ac dl b ac
h ed -

b d o
ax c b ea d

[ b c d t]
v x
ex
[
abd ] [ ]
c e t [ab c] [ ]
d ef
lab el [ ]
f ed 3M
[ ]
 VECT OR A NALYSIS . 67

2 . Prove
[a
x
h b x
c c a r
] [
ab c P
and interp ret th e res ult by determinants .

3 . Sh ow that
p a nb o
9
D ham
-

)ur ( M q b o
(1
rs M) r

4 . Sh ow t a ht
a x
(b )~c b x
(
cx a) cx ax h ( ) 0 .

6 . Sh ow t hat
[
a p x
b q x c m
] [a q x
b a r cx p] [
an r bx p mq] 0.

6 . Prove that
(a r
m -
(md) (a (a

h [ued ] a [b cd]
c [abd] (1 [ab c]

7 . Deduce the f undamental f ormula of sp h erical t ig

r ono met ry
f rom the equa ions t
ao c h d -
ad h o
c,

[ued] h [b ed] a

[ abd c ] [ab c (1 ] .

Make the vectors unit vectors and take an origin at center of sp here
of u nit rad ius th us mak ing all th e vec tors terminate upon t h e su r
,

f ace of the sphere .

8 S ow . a theh th t co mponents of 1) parallel and e

p p
r end ic ul ar to
a are respect ively

ao h
b 8 8 1 8 14.

ax (a~b )
and b ( , b)
a
a, x a x

9 . The second vector a be omi ted f rom w ho

may t . h\ . \lxa s
'

it be o mitted in 3
4 "
(a b) or in ax (a by
.
68 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

10 . The perpendic ulars f rom th e vert ices of a triangle to t h e

sides oppos ite meet in a poin t .

11 . Find the poin t of intersec tion of a line and a p lane and d is

cuss the res ult .

12 . Th e perpendicular b isec to
rs of the s ides of a t iangle meet
r
in a po in t .

13 F ind an exp ression f or th e common perpendicular t o tw o

.

l ines not ly ing in th e same plane .

1 4 Determine the vec t or perpendicular drawn f rom th e origin

.
-

to t he plane determined by th e ree point s a , b , c th .

Find th e equat ion of a plane pass ing

15 . roug a g iven poin th h te
and parallel t o eac h
) and b
of two given s traig t l ines I

h .

Ans (r . O .

16 Find th e length of t h e common perpendicular to eac of two

. h
g iven s t raig t l ines p ah
rall el t o b , and b2 and pas s ing ro u h
g a, and th
a, respec tively , and sh ow t at it is h
d a
y ( i bz ) !
b x

w he re y

17 F ind the equat ion of th e line of intersec io n of two planes

. t .

1 8 Deduce t he Cartesian equatio n f or the vol ume of th e t e ra

. t
h
h ed ron w ose vertices are
a. b. c, d.

w here a. a
a, i a2 ] a, k , et c .

19 . Deduce the Cartesian eq uat ion f or the area of th e t iangle

r

w hose vert ices are

a -
a ,i a, i 03k ,

1) b, l b, ] bak ,
c c
,
l c 2] oak .

20 Find b y t ranslat ing into Cartes ian notat ion t at t he vol ume
. h
of a py ramid , of w h ic h
t he vertex is a given point (xyz) and t h e
bas e a t riang le f ormed b y joining t h ree g iven po ints aoo, obo, ace
in th e rectang ular cordinate axes , is
 CH APT ER IV .

A
DIFF ER ENT I T IO N O F VECT ORS .

35 . Two W ay s in whic h a Vector may Vary . . If a s mall

t
vec or d a be added to th e t t in general will
vec or u , t h e res u l

be a new t
vec or di ering by a s mall amou nt from a not onl y
in length b ut al so in directi on.

If t h e s mall vec or t
whi ch is added h e perpendicular to a ,
then the length of a will remai n unc h anged .

F ro 40. .

If th e s mal l t whi ch is added be p arallel to a then its

vec o r ,

di ection wi ll remain u nc h anged

r .

Th ese th ree c ases are s h ow n in Fig 4 0 . .

Di erentiation with Res pec t to Scalar Variabl es

'
Let t h e .

vec to r a (t) be a f u nc ti on of a sc al ar v arxao\e t

'

i n o t h er

.

70
 VECTOR A NALYSIS . 71

words ,
h and direc tion be known and determinate
let its lengt
as soon as a v al ue of t is gi ven .

Let 0 A b e th e val ue of a (i ) wh en t
, t and let GA be ,, 3

t h e new val ue of a (t) wh en l t Then t he c h ange in a (t) ,

.

d ue to th e c h ange in l of t t is , ,

A1 1 1 2 3 (t2 ) 3 ( i)
t

Di viding this equ a tion b y t2 t, in

d er
or to nd th e rate of c h ange and

maki ng t, tl i nni tely s mall ,

we
d ene
da
6 1, -
1. + 0 t: in

If t, t1wh ere h is some s mall

h,
s c alar thi s may b e written in t h e more
,

famili ar form ,

da a t h a (t)
l gnl (75)
dt b a i)
- h
Evi dentl y th e t ch ange of the ra e

vec tor u with res pec t to t is made u p

vec tori all y of t h e th ree rates o f c h ange

of its components

F IG 4 1
4
3?

5
. .

al ong l, along j , and al ong k,

d
i vi l 2: k
or
dt
'

dt
( )
76
di
Prec isely the sa me reasoni ng h old s f or the rate of c h ange
with respect to t of t he vec tor rep resenting
d da

wri tten or
dt d?
Simil arl y f or th e high er deri vati ves we may then write
W 41 a i + 42 . i + k .

d! "
dl "
di
n
dir
72 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

Th e t i j k are to be cons idered constant in leng th

vec ors

(b ei ng u nit vec to rs ) and in di rec ti o n (b ei ng al ong xed ax es )

in all of these di erentiatio ns .

If i be denoted by p then ,
dt

=
p a p ( a, i + a, j + pa.k

and 7
( )
3

p "
a p
"
( a, i + a , j , )
+ a k p
"
a, i p
n
a J p
"
a, k .

It will be no ticed th at the opera or t p ac s t l i ke a

s c al ar mul tipl ier .

36 . Diff erentiation of Scalar and Vector Prod ucts . Th e

di erent ial of a o
b , f or ns i tance ,
is dened j
us t as in sc al ar

c al c ul us as

( a db ) ab d (a b ) o
.

Exp andi ng and negl ec ting smal l q u an tities of t he sec ond

order there remains

d (a b ) a o
b da h o
a - db a oh
da b -
a o
db ;

h ence, divi ding th roug h by dl ,

d 42 22
'

(a b) .
b+ a .
,
T
Ct dt dt

or p p a .
b b pa
,
p b &.
(79 )
In a s imil ar manner
d
)
b !
da x
b + a L
b
(

a
,
dt dt
ax b ) = a xb b
p ( ax p

01 p .

Th e di erent iat ions then t ake pl ace very much as they do

s c al ar c al c u us
,
l b ut with th is import ant dih erenee t h at t h e ,
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 73

order of fac tors must remain unc hanged in all exp ress ions
the
where a c h ange in order of th e vec tors as previously ex ,

p l ai ned w ou,l d not b e al l o w ab l e F or ex amp l e in ( )

79 t h e.
,

order is i mmateri al w h il e in (80 ) it is essenti al

,
.

Th e formul a
d 42 (b c )
[ s a + 1:
a
. .

dt

or p [a p a o
(b xc ) a -
(p b x c ) a o
b
( p )
c x
( )
8 1

d da db
and
dt
x
(b xc
)+ a
E
x c
)
+a

01
'

p a~ (b x
c ) M p b x c ) ax b
( p )
6 x

are in y
th e same way eas il seen t o be rue res ul ts t .

i t ti
It is ns ruc ve t o no ce t h e manner in ti
whi h
c t he opera

tor p operates in t urn o n eac h one of t h e fac tors .

If a vec tor is to remain cons t ant in length th en ,

a c ons t .

or s a c ons t ; e
.

hence no de O ,

or do is perpendi c ul ar t o a as is geo met ri c all y evi dent b y

,

consi dering
cons t
2
a u a o
.

as th e equati on of a sp h ere o c i rcl e r .

37 Applicat ions to Geometry W

. e s h all ob t ai n some .

interesti ng and useful resu l t as well as a clearer i nsi g ht i nto

s,

t h e c al c ulus of vec tors b y t h e fol l owi ng ap p l i c ati ons to

,

m t y
We
g e o e r .

Let a vari ab le vec t or r b e d raw n from a xed ori gi n 0 .

s h al l assu me th at t h e termi nus o f r c an b e l oc ated as soon as

a val ue of t an i ndep endent s c al a va i ab le is gi ven

, By a r r , .

sl i ght ex tens i on of math emati c al nomenc latu re and s y mbols

we s h all exp ress thi s res ult by writing

 74 VEC TO R ANALYSIS .

read ng i it as : r equals a vec t func tion of t To i ndi c ate t h e

or .

vec or t c h arac ter of t h e fu nc ti on f is p ri nted in bol d faced

,
-

typ e .

As t i
var es c on t itinuously
of r des c ri b es some
,
t h e erm nus
curve c u rves in s p ac e dependi ng u on wh eth er r is a s ingl e
or
p ,

valued or mul ti val ued fu nc ti on of t

-
.

F ro 4 2
. .

W e assu followi ng th at the func tion f is a co n

me in th e
tinuous and single val ued func ti on of th e i ndependent s c al ar
-

vari ab le t .

Let t s b e t h e di s t anc e al ong t h e curve

r = f (s )

from any i t P on th e curve The i ncrement dr is evi

p o n .

at
dently a vec tor al ong t he c urve and of l engt h de h ence
, ,

is t tangent to th e curve at the point u nder con

a unit vec or

si derati on M wh en M h as app ro ac h ed i nde nitel y near to

, ,

M For convenience e h a w ite

. w l l r g a t where t is a u nit
s ,
de
vec to r al on
g t
th e tangen to t h e c urve, or as we c al l it the unit
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 75

and t ,
1,

dz dz
So th at 2
d8 da

are t he di rec tion cosines of

tangent th e .

Tang ent a nd No rmal The eq uat ion of th e t angent l ine

.

at r is then t h e eq uati on of a l i ne th roug h th e termi nus of r

and p arallel to t =
dr
and by (69 ) is written
a
s

dr
( r t) d8
0, ( )
83

wh ere g is th e vari able vector to this li ne from 0 .

Expandi ng this vec tor p rod uc t by means of (4 0) we

o b tai n th e famil i ar Cartes i an eq uati ons

i j k

(3 "
1 ) (ll (
ii
0
da: dy dz
da da de

or making t he three components al ong i, j , and I

t eq ual to

z er0 .

da:
( )
84
dy dz
d8 ds ds

Th e pl ane normal to th e c urve at r is , by

dr
( r 9% o, (85)

o r exp and ng i in its Cartesi an form ,

(z 1 \
do da da
76 VECTOR AN L SIS A Y .

38 . Curvature .
"I
j
Cons der ii o n t h e th ree ad acen t p o nts

c u ve M
r M and M th e u nit t angents th ough M and M
, 2,
r

and th ou gh M and M die onl y in di rec ti on h enc e t h e

'

r 3 3
r ,

vec to added t o t h e rs t o ne t o ob t ai n t h e sec ond o ne is

r

at i ght angles to both and therefo e meas ures t he angl e

r r

F ro . 43 .

th h whi c h it is tu ned in going f om M to M

roug r r , . By
dt
de nition t h e c urvat ure i de ned to be t h e magnit ude of
s
de

It is conven en i t to c al l t h e vec to r g! it t h e vec tor

da de

t
c urva u re, c , as it h as t h e s ame mag ni tude as
gE
and , i
b e ng

nor mal t angent p i nts towa ds t he cente of curva

to t h e ,
o r r

tu e Th e ve to cu vatu e being pe pendic ul a to t wo

r . c r
-
r r ,
r r

c nsec u ti ve t angents
o li es in th ei pl ane ,
Th e adi us o f r . r

c urv at ure 9 h as a l ength i nvers ely p p t io nal to t h e mag ro or

nit ude of t h e c u rv atu e b u t p i nts in t h e s ame direc ti on

r ,
o ,

and hence may b e w itt en r

"
P C 3
( )7

S ee Ap p end ix, p 2 42 , l or oth er dehnni ons

'

.
.
 78 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

Tortuosi y t t wis ted curve in sp a e twists in t wo dis

. A c

ti nc t ways Any s mall portion of th e c u ve l ies in its

. r

osc ul ati ng pl ane at th at p oi nt and this s mal l port i o n of

,

t h e curve h as a urvature as des i b ed abo ve

c As we go cr .

al ong t h e c u ve h oweve
r t h e os c ul ati ng p l ane t urns th ough
,
r, r

a cert ain ang l e; th e l i mit o f t h e rati o of t h e angl e t urned

th roug h b y the os cul ati ng p lane to t he arc t raver ed t o p ro s

duce th at c h ange is c all ed t h e tort uos ity .

H ence if n be a unit no mal to th e os ul ati ng p l ane

r c ,

wh ere da is th e magnitude of the arc .

Geodetic Lines on a Surf ac e Th e dierential eq uati on

'

. .

to a g eodeti c l i ne o n a su face may b e ob t ained in t h e f ol

r

l owi ng s i mple manner f om t h e de niti on :

r

A geo deti c l i ne is a c u ve on a su face t h e os cul ati ng

r r ,

p l ane o f t h e c u rve b ei ng eve y wh ere n rm al t o t h e

r s u f ac e o r .

It is t h e c u ve a tret c h ed st i ng woul d lie al ong if t h e

r s r

surface were a p erfec t ly s mooth one t h e reac tion of th e su r ,

fac e t o th e pressure of th e st ri ng b eing everywhere al ong t he

normal to t he surface wh ere it is in cont ac t with t he st ring .

Let t be th e unit t angent to t h e geodeti c let u be t h e ,

unit normal to t h e cu ve and l et in r a t be a u nit vec tor

,
x

l yi ng th erefore in t h e s urface no mal t o n and to t r .

Th e oscul ati ng pl ane is determi ned by t and di whi c h l ie

in it by de niti on If th e urve is a geodeti c t h e normal
. c ,

to thi s p l ane t dt l ies in t h e s urface and is h ence perpen

x
,

dic ul ar to n .

Ex p ress i ng this fac t ,

n o
(tx
dt ) 0.

Since t li es along d r 37 ) and dt l ies al ong d

r t his
equ ati on bec omes

n 0, (890 )
I whi c h is th e di erential equ ation t o th e geodeti c
'

.
 VECTOR AN ALYSIS . 79

f th e su rf ac e is
I of th e f orm
N 6
V (r) c ons t .
,

th en V V is a v ec to r normal to it . See B u t V V h as direc tion

c osines p p
ro o rtional to

6V 6V 6V
6y Oz

and

II is al ong

H ence bec omes , by

6V 8V
01/ Oz

dz dy dz
d

z dy
da

39 . Eq uat ions of Surf aces . Cu rviiinear Coiirdinates . Th e

equa tion
r f (
u: v ) :

where u and v are t wo independent i

s c al ar var ab l es , rep re

sents a su r ace f .

If a p arti c ul ar val ue u , be g i ven to u while 12 is unre

s tric ted ,

r f (u , ,

i
b e ng of th e form is some c urve lyi ng wh oll y on th e
s ur ace f . If a p arti c ul ar val ue v be gi ven to v whi le u is ,

unres r c ed , ti t
r f ( u ) vi )

is so ther curve lyi ng wholly on the surface These

me o .

t wo urves i ntersec t at t h e poi nt or p oi nts r determined b y

c

t h e equation
ti f (i t
 80 VECTOR A ALYSIS N
.

Wme ay then dete mine a poi nt

r on t he s ur acef b y gi vi ng
p aticul ar val ues u and s ay to u and v
r , ,
. Th is point will
be fou nd at th e i ntersec tion of th e t wo curves
r f (u ,, )
v and r f (u,

Curvilinear c oordinates is t h e g i ven to th es e v ari me

na
ab les u and e, s uc h a seri es of c urves di vi des t h e s urface

up i nto a network of c urvil i near q uadril aterals the angles ,

of whi c h may h ave any val ue In th e p arti cul ar c ase th at

.

these curves cut eac h other al ways at ri ght angl es they

Fro 45

W
. .

are s a id to form an O rth og onal Sy s tem of c urves . h en

the tw o s ys tems of i vi de th e surface up i nto
c u rves d
innitesi mal squa e el ements they are sai d t o f orm an
r

Isoth ermal Sy stem Su h s ys tems are of t he greates t i mp or

. c

tance in mathemati cal p hy sics The s tudent sh oul d cons ul t

.

on thi s s ub ject an ex cel l ent b oo k b y F eh r Ap pli c ati ons ,

de la Mth od e Vect ori el l e e l a G omtri e In nit si male

(C ar r et N au d Pa
, i s r ,
H is no t ati on is di er ent
'

from ours and is fully ex pl ai ned in h is i ntroduc tion b ut

, ,

his meth ods are q uite si mil ar .

40 . App lications to th e K inematics of a Particle Let .

41
th e i ndependent vari ab le t now denote th e ti me; th en v -

dt
12
9 th e vec to r vel ocity along th e curve r i m . R etiree th at
82 VEC TOR AN L SIS A Y .

c oncep tion was i ntrod uced by H amil ton and is an e cient ,

aid to t h e s t udy of c urvil i near mo tion .

Evidentl y t h e h odograp h itsel f may h ave a h odograp h ,

and th i s p e rh ap s a no th er d ep ,
en d i n g u p o n t h e c o m p l ex ity
of t h e moti on and so o n
,
.

Th e h odog raph of a partic l e at rest is a p oi nt at th e arb i

t rary o i gi n
r .

Th e h odog raph of unif orm motion in a s t rai ght li ne is a

p o i nt at t h e en d o f a v ec to f l en
r og th eq u a l t o t h e ve l o c ity .

FIG . 46 .

Th e h odog raph of unif or ml y accel erated motion in a

t i ght li ne is anoth er s t aight li ne p arallel to the rs t

s ra r ,

des cri bed with unif orm speed by t h e h od grap h vari able o .

Th e h odog raph of unif orm motion in a c ircl e is anoth er

c i rc le s i nce t h e s peed is c ns t ant
, of adi us equal to t he
o ,
r

speed . The vec tor vel o ity in t h e ci rcle is al w ay s perpen

c

dic ul ar to the radi us ve tor in t h e ori gi nal p ath

c Evi dently .

t h e poi nts P and P move ar und th ei o i gi ns with the

o r r

s ame ang ul ar veloc ities Th e veloc ity of P in general is

.

t h e rate of c h ange of v and h ence is t h e ac cel eration

,
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 83

Si nce t he two i
c rc les mus t i
b e des cr b ed in th e me
sa

2 m 2 1w ,

1) a
h ence
I
o
a

a famil iar result .

Eq uat ion of th e H odog raph . If

r f (t)

b e th e equa tion of th e p a th
desc r bed b y a p art c le, con i i
i i
t a n ng not merely f
t h e orm of th e p a b ut th e l aw of its th
d es cri p ti on as well th en
,

dr
f

t
d,

is t h e equa on ti of th e h odograph and t h e l aw of its des crip

i
t on . Ag a n i

is th e h odograp h of th e h odograph , and s o on .

41 . t
Integ ration wi h R espect to Scalar Variab l es .
(Recon
s ult p aragraph s 4 and
Th e i nverse of di erentiat ion o ers merel y th e di c ul
' '

ties of s c alar integrati n Th e cons tants of i ntegration

o .
,

h owever are const ant vectors As a simp l e example con

, .

s id er th e motion of a p arti cl e und er cons t ant ac c elerati on ,

under g ravity f or inst anc e T h e di erential eq u ati on of th e

.

motion may be written

d
r
a
2
dt

where a is a cons tant vec tor . Integrati ng once,

d
-

dl
 84 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

where V is a constant vector as it is a vec tor equation and

0 ,

v is determined by t h e v al ue of
0
when t O Integrat .

ing ag a n i we ob a n t i
r l at
2
vot 93
( )

wh e e ag ai n s is a sec nd constant vec tor and whose val ue

r
o
o

is th at of r w h en t 0 Equ ati on (93 ) gives th e val ue of

.

r at any ti me t Th e equati on s ays th at t arti ng f om th e

. s r

p oi nt 3 (,i e a t S ).r t.h e ve t o r t o any p

,
o in t.o f t h e p ath may c ,

\ S va t

Fro . 46A .

be found by add ng i to so t h e vec to r su m of th e t wo motions

vot and l t
a t e

m .i nus o f
Th e r evi dentl y des cri b es a
r

p ara b o l a p ass ing th o u g h s b e c a u s e trh e c oo d i n ates o f

o,
r

any p i nt on t h e c urve refe ed t o t h e ob l i que ax es p arallel

o rr

to V and a are p roport i nal t

0
t h e s t p ower and t h eo o r

second p o wer of t h e s ame q u antity t es pec ti vel y ,

r .

O rb it of a Pl anet Central A cc el eration . As anoth er .

ex ampl e cons i de t h e m t i n
,
f a p arti cl e under a cent ral
r o o o

ac cel e ati on ; th at is o ne al w ay s d ire ted to w a ds or away

r , c r

f m a x ed p oi nt t h e ex ac t l aw of t he force of attrac ti on
ro ,

as a f un c ti on of th e dis t ance b ein l ef t in d et e m i n a te Th e

g r .
 86 m \ K A LYS IS .

B ut is t he t
vec or vel oc ity alo ng the t angent and r is

th e rad ius t
vec or, so th at tion is by 1 8 th e ab ove eq ua

twice t h e area s w ep t u t b y t h e rad i u vec t r in unit ti me

We b tain the result then th at unde any central accelera
o s o .

o , ,
r

ti n the ate of des i pti on of areas is a cons tant and the

o r cr ,

orb it l ies in a p l ane perp end i c ul a t a co ns tant vec tor c r o .

H armonic Motion Eq uation o f El l ips e

. As anoth er ex .

ampl e to i ntegrate

d r
3
mr
O, (96)
ll
a

whic h is the equati n of a cent al accel e ation proportional

o r r

to th e dis t ance f om t h e c ente

r S uc h mo tions take pl ace r
.

whereve B oek e s Law is f llowed

We know that the two solutions of the scalar equation

r o .

dr
mr
O,
di z

are r = a cos mt and r = b sin mt,

and th at th e co mplete sol ution is t h e su m of these two If .

we repl ace t he arb itra y r t t

c ons an s a and b by t he arb itrary
t t vec tors a and b
c ons an ,
ob t ai ni ng

r a c os mt b i mt
s n , (97 )
it is easily seen by di erentiation
,
'

, th at this eq ua tion is t he
c o mp l ete sol uti on of t h e vec tor dierential tion

equ a

d
r
mr '
O .

dt

By i t this p ocess whi c h is easil y seen to hold

an ex ens o n of r , ,

we may th en s t ate th e ule f o t he sol ution of l inear dier

r r

ent ial eq uations to any de with ons t ant coef cients : F i nd

or r c

th e sol utions , ass u ming the vec tor variable to be a scal ar variable,

mul tip ly th ese each by an arbi trary vector and add . The res ul t
m7! he (h e comp l ete vector sol ution .
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 87

Thes e arb itrary ti

vec ors from the
are to be de erm ned t
i niti al or nal conditi ns of the pr blem exa tly in the same
o o c

manner as we do with sc alar equations Eq uation (97 ) is .

t h e comp osition of two s imp le h armoni c motions al ong dirc e

tions determi ned by a and b and is eas il y seen t o rep resent in
,

F IG 4 7A . .

g eneral ipse inscrib able in

an el l t he p arallel ogram whose
s i des are 2 a and 2 b res p ec ti vel y .

r = a cos mt + b s in mt

is therefore one f or m of t h e eq ua ti o n of an el l ipse if mis real

,
.

42 . H od og raph and O rb i t u nd er New tonian Forces . As

ano ther example in vec tor di erentiation and i ntegration
c on i der th e c ase of moti on under a force direc ted al ong t h e
s

radi us vec tor and i nversel y p oport ional t t he square of r o

t h e dis tance in mag nitude This is th e ordinary pl anet ary

motion W
.

e are to sol ve t h e di erent ial eq uati on

.

Mul tiplyi ng by h ,
we h ave at o nc e

d
r
r 0,
dz :

and hence
rx c, Q
Th is eq ua tion s tates h t th e ac cel erati
t a on is direc t ed ont maros .
 88 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

wh ere c is a const ant vec tor This l as t eq uation s tates t h at

.

th e rate of des c ri p ti on of areas is cons tant as ab ove ,

.

Lemma in Diff erentiation Consi der now t he identity

.

r a r r, , f l
,
0 4 4 "
then dr rd r, r,dr,

hence mul ti plyi ng by t ,a ,

r,xd r r r, x dr, ,

n dr
so th at ,
r

a resul t we might have written down immediately by similar

Mul tiply this t resul t
l as by t i i
t ,u , ob a n ng from the l eft
h and side of eq uati o n

r, ( r, - d r, ) dr, ( r, - r, ) dr, ,

s i nce r
, and dr, are e
p p
r end c ul ar and r,
-ir, 1, so th at
dr,

dr
and
dt

N ow t h e p arenthesis on the ri g ht is a c ons an t t vector f or

cent ral forces by (b) s o th at , by (a),
,

d

r

c _
m
r are
m dr
as r
'
dt

and i ntegrati ng ,

dr

W
h ere d is a c ons an t tv ec tor p erp endi cul ar t o o , ss i e seen h is
mul tip ly i ng by c .
 90 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

the pol ar equa tion of a con c ; i t he angle a be ng i measured

from t h e l ne d
i .

Comp ari ng with

l
T i
l e c os a

t he general pol ar tion of a c ni wh e e the foc us is the

eq ua o c r

ori gi n wh ere l i t h e semi l at us re tu m and wh ere e is t h e

,
s c ,

ec cent i c ity we nd th at t h e p ath of t h e orb it is a c oni c of

r ,

ec cent ri c ity th at d is al ong the major axis and th at the

m
mc
magnitude of th e major ax is is 3
m d

43 . t
Par ial D iff eren ia ion t t . Wh en any vec or t is a func
tion of more th an one s c alar va iab le it c an be dierentiated r
'

p a rti al l y with e s p ec t t r e ac h o ne t h e e,
m aoi ni ng v a ri a b l es ,
r

b ei ng consi dered const ant d u i ng t h e d ierentiations S uc h

r .

p a rti al d i erent ia l
'

o e f c i en t a ec wr itt en jus t a s in s
or d i na r y r

6a 4 6
s c al ar c al c ul us as et wh ere x z are t h e i nde
c .
, , ,
61 : dz

p enden t sc al ar vari able The t tal c h ange in a due to si mul

s . o

t aneo us c h anges in t h e va i ab les dx dy d is written r , ,

z,

da
an
dx + i s
dy + a dz .
(98 )
a; 6y 6:

S y mb oli cally we may w ri te this as

ow i 3
da
(6x 3y
dy +
dz
dz
) a, (99 )

wh e e r the ex p ress o n i th
in p aren eses is to b e cons dered i as

a d i erent ial
'

op era t or t o b e ap p l ied to a , as in

O rig in of t h e O perator Del ( )

V . Th e t (99 ) h as
opera or

th e f m of a or s c al ar p ro d u c t ,
t h e t wo cons tituent vec tors

of whi h a e c r

d d d

+ k and
.

+ 1
5 9 52
S ee Ap p en d ix, 24 5, f or P ath D es crih ed o
'

s an El eet ron i n
p .

" 7" M a n e ti c
g F iel d
 VECTOR ANA LYSIS . 91

If the i
s ngle s y mbol V (read del ) be used to denote the
rs t ex p res s on i
6 6
+ 1 +k ( 1 00)
35
t he eq ua ti on may be written
do ( V d r)a ( 1 01 )
W
-
.

th us led naturally to the

e are cons i deration of th e
p p
ro erti es o f thi s s y mbol i c vec tor V .

PRO B LEMS AN D EX ERC I

S ES .

1 . If r -
dr 0, s h
ow that r const .

If n dr 0, s h
ow hat r
t . cons t .

If r dh d r
-
0, s
'
h w that
o rxd r h as a xed direct ion and that r
is always parallel to a xed plane .

2 . S h ow t ath

and ht
t a

3 . Given a partmoving
ic le in a p lane curve, in t he plane of ],
I
i
;
(
o b tain th e c omponents of along and e
p p
r end icular to the
d
rad ius vect or .

They are
dr dd
J r
dt

A unit lin e . L to r, is e ,, w h ere k is nor mal to the plane .

Ob tain similarly b y dierent iat ion of

'

4 .

r do
on )
.
J
t he ac celerations along r, and e
p p
r endic ular t o r, .

They are

Lr
 92 VECTO R AN ALYSIS .

5 If r,
. 0 be a s ys tem of polar c ob rd inates in space, w ere r is h
t h e distance of a point f rom t h e orig in, at h e merid io nal ang le, and
0 t he polar angle, ob tain t he ex press ions f or t he c ompo nent s of t he
veloc ity alo ng t he rad ius vec t or, t h e merid ian, and a parallel of
lat it ude .

6 . Find th e accelerat ions along t h e same direc t ions in t he problem

above .

Expre ss t h
e m in Cartesian f orm .

7 . The c urve

r a c os t b s in t
represent s an ellipse of h h
w ic a and b j
are c on ugate radii . The
vec or t
15 a sin t
r
'
= = + b cos t
dt

( ) (

a cos -

+ t + b s in Z+t
r

2 2
is the rad ius con ugate j to r, and parallel t o t he tangent at r .

8 The parallelogram determined b y t he

.
j
c on ugate rad ii of an

ellipse is cons tant in area .

[

rx r

9 . An ellipt ical hel ix is rep resented by

r a cos t b sin t cl .

10 . Sh ow t hat
t he t angent l ine and t h e osc ulat ing plane of any

c urve r f (s ) may be respec tively written in the f orms ,

9 r xr ,

"
p r 21 y r ,

z
df
w h ere

r E : and r
(I "

and
da de
2: and y are variab le sc alars .

11 Find t he t ort uosity , T , of any c urve wh ere T is de ned as t he

.

h
rate c ange of t he no rmal n to t h e osc ulat ing plane wit respec t to h
t he arc dc .

( )
dr d r d r
x
z 8
d a da (is

(I
s 0 d r d r
z 2
da ds
Exp res s th is in Cartesian notat ion .

L 12 Find th e c urva
.
tu e of
r a ci rc ul ar h eli x . m
Fi nd th e t ort ncsi g
Ia c irc ula r h el ix .
 CH APT ER V .

lTBB DHFTHEREH TLAI. (IPEHLAJIMBS W .

Th e Vec tor O perat or V ( read del ) . T his sign is so me

ti mes c all ed i ide) and als o atled whi c h
nabl a ( H eav s ,

is del t a ( )
A re v e r s ed T h e term d el

is h o wever
.
, ,

well worthy of adoption as it is sh ort eas y to pronounce

and con i c ts with no oth er termi nol ogy
,

As V is t he mos t
,

i mportant diff erential operator in math emati cal physi cs its

i wi t i t i

p p
ro ert es ll b e s u d ed in d e a l .

De nition V is de ned b y t h e equati on

.

Q V i
a a
k
a
a
ax
1
eu 62
( 1 02 )

Wh e ave al read y come across th e s c al ar di erential o per

a ort p on a
p g e 72 . Th e p aragrap s concern ng p s ould h i h
be c ons ul ed at t thi s p o ni tA s b y it
. s d e n o n V is made iti
up of three sy mboli c comp onents along t he three ax es

a a
i j k, t he sy mbol i c mag nitudes of th emb ei ng '
a n 2 .

dy dz
res pec ti vely it may be loo ked upon as a sy mboli c vec tor
,

itsel f This view of V as a vec to i i mportant and of great

. r, s

help in th e comp ehension of wh at follows The employ ment

r .

of V in t h e t eat ment of t h e p hy i c al p operti es of s p ac e is

r s r

of t h e mos t frequent oc u r en e It i theref re ex tremel y

c r c . s, o ,

desi rab le to h ave a geo metri c r vi su al rep resent ati on of o .

s u c h p hy si c al p op erti es in s p ac e or el ds
r as th ey are , ,

c alled and of t h e effec t of operato s up n th em

,
r o .

to
t 5 at this poi nt

44 . Scal ar and Vec r Fiel ds . Recons ul .

De niti n If t o eve y p i nt in a egi on nite o r not

o . r o r , ,

th ere es p nd a de nite val ue f o me p hy s i c al p ro perty

c orr o s o s
,

th e regi on s o de ned is c all ed a fi el d Sh oul d t his p r perty . o

94
 VECTOR AN ALYSIS . 95

be a s c alar one t he eld is c al l ed a sc al ar eld . As mples

ex a

of su c h may be mentioned th e temperature at any given

i ns tant at al l p oi nts of a body ; or the density at all poi nts ;
,

or t h e p otenti al at all poi nts due t o elec tri c al mag neti c or , , ,

g ra v it ati onal m a tt er res p ec ti ve l y .

O n th e o ther h and if t he p operty is a vec tor one it is

,
r

s aid to be a vec to eld As ex amples f these are the

r . o

veloc ity at all p oints of a ui d ; t h e el ec t ri cal mag neti c or

, ,

g ra v it ati onal i nte n s ity (o f fo c e ) at al l p o i nt s of a reg iro n due

to el ec tri c al mag neti c o g avit ati onal matter res pec ti vely
, ,
r r ,
.

45 . Sca lar and Vec tor F unctions of Posit ion . Ass u me

any arb it
y ori gin 0 and f om it draw a vari able radius
rar r

vec tor r Thi s vec tor r may ex tend to and determine any
.

po i n t in s p ac e B y t h e. te r m v al u e of r

is m ea n t t h e

p o s iti o n o f t h e term in u s o f r N o w if to ev ery va l u e o f .

,

r th ere corres p onds a de nite c al a q uantity V V is sai d to s r ,

be a sc alar poi nt func ti o n of r and is written

-

V f ( ) r .
( 1 03 )
If to ever y val ue o f r the e co es ponds a denite vec tor
r rr

q u atity
n F , F is sai d to be a vec tor poi nt func ti on of r and -

is written
F f (r) .
( 1 04 )

tions of scalar and vector el ds re pecti vely s .

Math ematical and Ph y sical Dis continuities Th e func ti ons .

met with in p hysi c s a e al mos t al way continuous and r s

single val ued ex c ep t p erh ap s at i sol ated p i nts li nes

-
r su o ,
o r

faces nite in numbe If not th ey can b e made so by r .

,

vari ous devi c es s u c h as b y i nse ti ng d i ap h ag ms to p revent

,
r r

p as s i ng i nt o a regio n b y t w o o m or e d i ff e ent p ath s et c r r , .

Th e func ti ons deal t with in wh at follow are s upp osed to ,

s,

be of this des cri p ti on .

T he mos t common kinds of d iscont inuities th at u \n oc c r

ma th ema tics are th ose in wh ich eith er th e v ahu e \t ehi ,

s e\
 96 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

a function su ers an ab up t h ange o wh ere the rate

'

r c ,
r

o f c h ange of t h e fu n ti n ab up tly t akes on a new v al u e

c o r

as t he i ndep endent va iab le is conti nu us ly increased or

r o

di mi ni s h ed .

Grap hi c ally th ese mean a b eak in th e c urve or a su dden r ,

c h ange in t h e d i re t i n of th e c u ve rep resenti ng t h e

c o r

fu n tion as in Fig 4 8 (a ) at P and at Q In nature suc h

c ,
.
,
.

disconti nuiti es do n t t ake p l ace oFor ex ample th e tem .

,

F ro . 48 .

p erat u re c annot h ave one value on one side of a surface and

ano th er v al ue on t h e o th e ide wh ere t h e t wo s i des of th e
r s ,

s urfac e are i n ni tel y near to ea h o ther In reality th ere c .

is a continu us b ut ve y rap i d c h ange in t h e temperature

o r

from its value on one side to its value on the other as we

p a ss th ro u g h t h e s u rf a e B es i desc i n. n it el y thi n s urf ac es ,

do no t ex is t ex c ep t in ou i magi nation r .

If t h e temp erature gradient in a body h as one de nite

val ue and seems to c h ange ab ru p tly to anoth er val ue quite

di ff erent from the rs t we kn w th at in real ity th ere is a
,
o

very rap i d b ut nite ate f h ange of th e g adi ent at t h e

r o c r

p l ac e in q u e ti sn o T. h i ab se n c e o f s d i s c on ti n u ity in a ny
na t u al f unc tion is i ndi ated in F ig 4 8 (b) whi c h sh ows t h e
r c .
,

c on tin uo us f unc tion wh ich t o al l intent s and p urp oses

,
 98 VECT OR AN ALYSI
S .

46 . Th e Potential . For t h e s ak e of de niteness we sh all

c ons ider potenti al due to electrical matter Th e wh ol e
th e .

arg rment appli es al m os t id enti c al ly to m agneti c or g ravita

tional p o tenti al ; to t h e di s tri bu ti o n of tem p erat u re in a body ,

or to t h e vel oc ity po tenti al in m ovi ng u id s et c

-
et c ,
.
,
.

De nition .The potenti al at any poi nt in s p ace due to a

dis tri bu tion of el ec tri c al m atter may b e d ened as t he work
d one on a u nit p os itive qu antity of electri city as it is bro u ght
by any path from in nit y t o th at p oint As li ke ch arges re
.

p el e ac h oth er it wi
,
l l req u i re p o siti ve w ork t o b e d on e on t h e

unit ch arge t o b ri ng it in t he neig h b orhood of any positive

di st ri bution of elect ri cit y and hence the potenti al around
,

su c h a dis tri bu ti on will be p os itive increasi ng as t he poi nts are

,

t aken nearer and nearer t o it It is evid ent al so th at th e

.
, ,

forces acti ng on th e unit c h arge are repelli ng f orces and th at

th ey ac t in t he d irec tion oppos ite t o t he i nc rease of p otenti al .

F or i ns t ance in t h e el ec t ri c field d ue to the c h arge q o n

a s m all sph ere t h e u nit p os iti ve c h arge at P is repell ed b y
,

a force ac ti ng radi all y ou tw ard of am ou nt c al c u l ated b y

,

Cou l omb s Law

F r"

wh ere r dis t ance fro m P to th e center of t h e s ph ere

is t h e .

The forc e F evid ently beco m es greater as P app roac h es t h e

s ph ere and work h as t o b e d one u p o n t h e u nit c h arge in ord er
,

to m ake it do s o .

Level or Eq uipotential S urf ac es Let al l the p oi nts h av i ng

.

t h e s am e p otenti al b e f ound or in oth er word s nd all th ose

, , ,

points whi ch requ ire t h e s am e am ount of work to be ex

pend ed u pon t he u nit positi ve c h arge to bri ng it from i nnity
u p to th em If C be this am ou nt of work and V be t he
.

potenti al func tion th en th e equ ati on to t he loc us d ened by

,

th ese poi nts will b e

V) C ,

Wh ere r is meas ured f rom some arb itrary orxgm ' '

.
 VECTO R ANALYSIS . 99

Find si m il arly all poi nts whi c h req u i re a s m all amou nt

more of work C (1 0 ; t h e eq u ati on t o th is l oc us will be

In th e s peci al c as e of t h e s ph ere, F ig 4 8A, th ese

. points will
lie on s ph eres concent ri c with t h e c h arged s ph ere .

F ro 4 8A. .

Th ese eq u ations de ne s u faces whi c h

r c al l ed evel or L
Eq u ipotenti al Su faces of th e f unc ti n V(r)
r oLet m any s u c h
.

s u f aces b e c ons t ru c ted and l et t he q u ant it ies oi ma k

r m r . e

l
p ya ed in rea c hing th e s u c cessive ones Xx er b y qe( ua l ma n u m . g
 1 00 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

It req u ires no work to it c h arge from one p oi nt

c arry the un

to anoth er h avi ng t h e s am e po tenti al f or b y d e ni ti on it

,

requi res t h e s am e am ou nt of work t o b ri ng t h e u nit c h arge

from i n nity to eith er of th ese p oi nts by any p ath and we ,

may c h oose t h e p ath leading to the sec ond poi nt to p ass

Fro . Sh owing Lines of Force andEq uipotential Surf ac m Around

a. Ch arged Conduct o r.

th rou gh th e rs t p oi nt H ence th e work d one in going fro m

.

th e rs t p oi nt to t h e sec o nd p oi nt mu s t b e z ero .

Relation between F orc e and Potential Consi der in p ar

.

ti c ul ar t wo adjac ent l evel s u rfaces t h e di ff erenc e in po ten

,

ti al b et ween th em bei ng d V Th is means th at reqxim

 1 02 VECTO R AN ALYSIS .

writing f or t he work d one in goi ng fro m one s u rface to th e

nex t ,

dV F dn,
-

where da is t h e nor m al distance between th e two surfaces , so

th at
1X
F ( n) .
( 1 05)
dn

where n is th e u nit norm al pointi ng in t h e direc tion of increa s

i ng potenti al Thi s i m port ant eq uation s t ates th at t h e fo rc e
.

at any p oi nt is norm al to t h e l evel s urf ace p as s i ng th rou g h th at

po i nt ; o pp osi te t o t h e d i rec ti o n of f astes t i ncrease in V an d ,

eq u al in m agnit u d e t o th is f as tes t rate of nc rease

i .

Th u s a knowl edge o f t h e p o tenti al every wh ere g i ves a

knowled ge of t h e forc es every wh ere not onl y i n magnitude but
i n direction as wel l .

A l
s c a arp oint func tion as it does not i nvol ve direc tion is
-

, ,

c l earl y s i m pl er of rep res ent ati o n o n a di ag ram th an a vec to r

o ne . Th e p otenti al f unc ti on is very u sefu l f or this reas o n as ,

a c o m pl ete kno wl edge of its val u e every wh ere i mm edi ately

g i ves us a co m pl ete k n owl ed g e o f t h e forc es every wh er e .

Th us t he com p arativel y si m pl e s c al ar f unc ti on i ntri ns i c al ly

cont ai ns al l th at we wis h to k no w ab o ut t h e co m p arati vely

m ore c o m pli c ated vec tor fu nc tion Thi s p rop ert y al one is .

s uf c i ent to jus tify its i nventi o n and us e .

47 . V Appl ied to a Scalar Point F unction -

. Gradient or

Sl ope of a S ca lar Point F u nct ion-

.

De nition . The vec tor, e

p p
r enl l s u rfac e
d c u ar i l to t h e eve
at any p oi nt eq u al in m ag ni t ude t o t h e f as tes t rate o f i ncreas e
,

of V and poi nt i ng in t h e d irec ti on of thi s fas t es t i ncreas e

, ,

is c al l ed t h e g rad ient o r t h e sl op e of V at th at poi nt and

is written
g rad V o r s l o pe V ,

p re f erab l
y th e rs t .
 VECT OR ANALYSIS . 1 03

I
Grad V ndependent xes Th e force F acti ng
of Ch oic e of A
o n t h e u nit c h ar e is b y t he ab ove d e niti on in c onnec ti on
.

g ,

with 4 6 evidently equ al to g ad V b ut as F is entirely

, r ,

i d p d t of any c h oi ce of axes so is grad V independ

n e en en
,

ent of th em .

I t remains to s h ow th at t he operator v applied to V gives

FIG 51
. .

t h e grad asd e ned above The work d one on a u nit c h arge

.

as it is carried from M to M is by 1 6 wh ere MM

, ,

F dr
-
g ra d V dr-
dV .

Cons id eri ng now V as a func tion of x y z,

61 : dz
so t h at

g rad V dr =
( g
i + k
 1 04 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

As th i s eq ua ti on is true wh atever path dr is t aken between

th e t wo s u rfa es c ,

g rad V E VV .
( 1 06)
Th us ppli c ation of th e operato r V t o a s cal ar poi nt
th e a

fu nc ti on is a vec tor whi c h gi ves its rate of mos t rapid

inc rease in m agnit u de and di rec tion Th e s i g ni c anc e and .

importance of this op erator is now eas ily u nders too d .

T h e vect or V V is often c all ed after Lame t he rs t d i er

ent ial p aramet er of V .

F ourier s Law
I f i ns tead of p otenti al we c onsider tem
.

p e ra t ure t h e l
, evel s u rf ac es are th en i s o th erm a l s u rf aces ,

and t h e V of t h e tem perat u re f unc ti on gi ves t h e rate of

t h e m os t rapid i nc reas e of t h e tem peratu re in m agnit u d e

and direc ti on As t h e o w of h eat t akes pl ace in t h e dirc o
.

ti on of m ost rapid decrease q t he intensity of fl ow is gi ven , , ,

by k V O,
q
wh ere k is a c h arac teri s ti c o f t h e m edi um at th e poi nt in
qu es ti o n and c al l ed it s c o nd u c ti v it y and 0 is t h e temp era ,

tu re at any p oi nt This is c alled Fou rier s Law f or t he

.

ow o f heat .

48 . I l l ustrations of th e Appl icat io n of V to Scalar F unc

tions of Pos it ion . By m eans of o r dinary p arti al di erent ia
t ion on th e fu ncti ons

and a 3 i
r :
( y + 2 )
th e followi ng i m port ant res u l ts are o bt ai ned :
Vr __
3
i

rl
r

i"
Lame . Lecons su r les coord onnes c u rvil ig nes et l eu rs d iverse.
ap p l i ca tions . Paris , 1 859 .
 1 06 VEC T OR ANALYSIS .

ti s tes p arti ally th e vec tor 8 al one bei ng cons idered vari ab le
,

in th e p arenth es i s In p arti c ul ar if t h e vec tor co say of

.
, , ,

th e s c al ar p rod u c t ( n r is a c ons t ant vec to r we ob tai n t h e

o
.
,

i mportant res ult

V , (o -
)
r o , ( 1 1 1 )
f or
V V r (wrx w i ll

i w, + j 3
w + k w = n
o
3 .

49 . Th e Scalar O perator s , V or Directional Derivative -

.

S i nce u
V V is a vec t or, it s sc al ar p rod c t with any o th er vec t o r
8,may b e taken and b y d e nit ion this woul d gi ve t h e c om
,

ponent of the m agnitu d e of V V in th e direc tion of th at vec

tor Thi s is ordi naril y written
.

av 6V 6V 6V
= s,
as

wh ere s are t h e com p onent s of t h e u nit vec t or

,

or wh at is t h e s am e thi ng t h e d i rec t ion cos i nes of t h e d irc e

,

tion
This ex press ion may be l oo ked u pon as th e op erati on of

d
8, -
V a s,
- = ( 1 1 2 )

u p on whi ch
V, is t h e f a m ili a di rec tional derivative of
r V in
t h e d irec ti on 3 , o r,
o therwise ,

( 8, -
V)V s, -
VV ( 1 1 3 )

so th at th e directional deri vat i ve in any di rec ti on is th e com

ponent of t he m agnitu d e of t he gradi ent in th at direc ti on .

Th e d irec ti onal derivative th en appli ed to t h e po tenti al fu nc

tion g i ves th e component of t he force in th e direc tion in which
 VECT OR ANALYSIS . 1 07

Total Derivat ive I f s be repl aced by the

of a F unc tion .
,

s m all vec to r dr th e operator d r V appli ed to a sc al ar po int

,
-

f u nc ti on gi ves t he total derivati ve of the fu nc ti on bec ause

dr V V -
(dr-
V )V
y l
62
dz =
V dV .
(1 1 4 )

T hi s is th e s ame thing as the di recti onal derivative along

multiplied by dr, or

dr- V V dr ( ( dr 1 ) -
V V) .
( 1 1 5)
Wm e ay now o btai n equ ation (1 08) f or t he di erentiation
of r
"
by means of th e id entity ( 1 1 4 )
dt
v ( ) r

"
as d, r "
nr H
dr nr r, -
dr,
so th t a th e f t
ac o r o f o
dt , rzr
"
l
r, is t he V r "

and Vr "
nr 'H
r, nr ""
r

as before .

(E ic Th e Scal ar O p erator V App lied to a Vector Th e

p s, -
. .

p t
o era or s , - V may be l
a so appli ed t o a vec tor p oi nt f nc tion -
u
F g ivi ng
, as a res ult a new vec tor fu nc tion th us : ,

= i 8 ,- V F, + 1 S,
V F2 k 3; V F:

l
( g
g
s, E -

+ 1 s, ( 6)
1 1

+k

This is th e directi onal deri vative of th e vec tor fu nction F in

t h e di rec tion I t is al so the vector whose comp onenns m
th e direc tional deri vatives of th e comp onent s oi B
1 08 VEC T OR ANALYSIS .

Th e p arenth eses may be om it ted in and t h e ex

p ress io n wri t ten si m ply s V F b ut it d oes ,
-
,
not mean th at
(s, - V ) F E s, because V F h as no i cance in this sign

ana l y si s . s, -
VF may then be interpreted as no thi ng else
bu t F V)
W
( 3, -
.

e may p rove th at th e c o m p onent al ong any co ns t ant

vec tor a of t h e di rec t i onal d eri vati ve al ong b of a vec tor ,

fu nction F is th e di rectional derivati ve al ong b of the

,

com p onent o f F al o ng a ; th at is ,

8 1 (b 1 V0
p F)
And even with out res r c t i ti on t o unit vec ors t that
a o
(h V -
p F) b v y (a F)
- -
.
( 1 1 7 )
Thi s f oll ows di rec tl y b ec ause V di ff erenti ati ng F l
a one,

a may be pl aced after t h e V . Al so bec aus e ( 1 1 6)

a (h V F )
o -
a i b V F,
o -
a j b V F,
-
a -
k b V F,
-

a, b - V F, az b -
V F, , a, b - V F,

b v l (ar F r
"
1 z
b v y (a F )
- -
.

Applying mV -
to r, th e ra di us vec or, t gives

Th is ex press i on sh o u ld not be c onfou nd ed with o V r, wh ere

'
-

t h e r is t h e ma g ni tude of S i nc e V r r, t h e val ue of t his

l as t ex p ressi on wou ld be

o- V r
a o
n .

Combining o oV r o with equ at ion we see t h at

( o o
V) r V . (
on ) a .
 110 VECIOR

ANALYSIS .

line may be ad opted if d es irabl e I f an element of vol u me

.

be cons id ered f or ex am pl e a s m all p aral l elo piped with its

,

s id es da: dy dz p arall el to t h e ax es of a: y
and 2 respec ti vely ,

th e amou nt of el ec tric al m atter wit hi n it may evid ently b e

meas ured by nding th e ex cess of th e lines whi c h co m e ou t
of it over th ose whic h go into it
, .For every u nit of p osi tive

Fro . 52 .

l t i ity th ere wou ld em anate 4 1: li nes ou tward and f or

e ec r c ,

every neg ati ve u nit 4 7: li nes would ent er i nt o it. Cons id er

ing th ese li nes to c ancel eac h o th er wh en goi ng in opp osite
direc ti ons it is eas il y seen th at t h e al gebrai c su m of t h e
c h arges withi n t h e b ox may b e found in am ount and s i g n

by an ex amination o f th e li nes whi c h l eave or enter th e box .

H en c e th e l ines w hich diverge tro m th e el ement wxh oo o

.
 V ECT OR ANALYSIS . 111

measu re of the positi ve c h arge withi n it I f the ch arge is .

negati ve li nes will end ins id e of t h e b ox and th erefore will

, ,

converge i nto it .

To ob tai n an analyti c al ex p ress i on f or this q u antity resol ve

F or t he ux of force as it is c all ed i nto its th ree com ponents
, , ,

p arall el to i j and k The u x i nto t he face p arall el to t he

.

yz pl-
a n e nea res t t h e o ri g i n is F dy dz t h e ux o ut o
, f t h e ,

oppos ite f ac e is

6F

( 13 + dz
) dy dz ,
4
ax

so th at t he m u nt whi h c m es out in ex cess of th at whi ch

a o c o

g oes in, as f a as th e
r o m ponent
:c c f F is concerned is
-
o ,

6F 6F
P, + dy dz F , dy dz dz dy dz .

ax ax

Si mil arl y , f or th e other t wo components , whi ch are ob tained

in th e same manner,
6F ,
dz dy dz ,
631

so th at th e total amou nt of th e u x F which diverges from

t h e box dx dy dz is

a
E 1 dx dy dz .

03/ 62

Di vidi ng by da: dy dz t he elem ent of vol um e to obt ain th e

, ,

amou nt of ux whi c h wou ld co m e ou t of a u nit vol u me u nd er

th e s ame c onditi ons th e e em ai n p eci sel y

,
r r s r

k}
V
62: By 62
( 1 20 )

Stric tly th en th e term di vergence means th e numb e r oxKans a

s

whi ch di verg e p er uni t vol u me .

 112 VEC TO R ANALYSIS .

I f th e operator V b e applied to the vec tor fu nction repre

~

senti ng t h e ux of h eat or t h e vel oc ity of a u id it will gi ve ,

by ex ac tly the sam e reas oni ng t h e rate at whi ch h eat is issu

ing fro m a poi nt per u nit vol um e or t h e rate at whi c h t h e
uid is ori gi nating at a poi nt per u nit volu me I n th e c ase of .

h eat if th e di vergence ex i s ts and is p ositi ve th ere mu s t b e at

, ,

th e p oint in q ues ti on a sou rce o f h eat h eat ac tu ally c reated , ,

or el se at t h e p oi nt w h ere t h e h eat is l eavi ng t h e tem p erature

mu s t b e di m i nis hi ng .

In th e c ase of u id s if t h e di vergence exi s ts and is p os iti ve

, ,

th ere mu st b e eith er a source of uid u id ac tu al l y c reated , ,

or el se t h e d ens ity of t h e b ody at th e p oi nt mu s t b e di m i ni s h

ing .I f t he di vergence is neg ative t he op p osite conditions ,

hold in both t h e above examp l es For i nst ance if t he di ver .

,

g e n c e o f h eat is n eg ati ve or in o th er w o rd s if it
,
co n ve rg e s , ,

th ere mu st b e a si nk of h eat h eat ac tu all y destroyed anni , ,

b il s ted or el se th e te m p erat u re at t h e pl ace mu s t b e ris i ng

, ,

etc .In t he c as e of el ec tri c ity t h e ex i s tenc e of a p os iti ve,

di vergence p roves t he ex i s tence of positi ve el ec tri c al matter

at t h e oi nt T h e neg ati ve o f d i vergenc e is s o m eti m es c al l ed
p .

convergence I t is better h owever t o ret ai n b u t one of th e

.
, ,

terms and use t h e neg ati ve si gn to i ndi cate convergence .

52 . Th e Diverg enc e Th eorem i m portant th eorem .

* This
h as a si gni c ance al m os t ax i o m ati c wh en c onsi dered in t h e
li ght of t he foregoi ng Consider any c l osed s urface S Fig 24
.
,
.
,

ly ing in a vector el d q the vel oc ity s ay in a movi ng inco m

, , ,

pressi bl e u id I t is evident th at t h e ex cess of uid whic h

.

comes out over th at whi c h goes in may b e meas u red in t wo

, ,

dis ti nct w ay s : rs t b y ndi ng t he tot al ou tward normal ux

,

ov er th e s u rface or sec ond b y g oi ng th rou gh ou t th e i nteri or

, ,

and t aking t h e al geb rai c s u mof t h e s ou rc es and si nks or di ver

F or math emat ical p roof see A

a rig id El ec t ric ity . G . Wb e st er,

a nd Mag netism pp 60 62 ; Dy namics pp

, .
,

340 3 4 2 ; also R Gans, . .

E in/ h rung in die Vek to ranal y sis p p 29 .

S ee Re . ain VD 2 52 .

m
f or o th er th eorems D T h m N Y
Wi ed
analog ous t o th e iv erg en c e eore an .

0 P8
; a t c Mc a niq u c mt ionnelie . t ome
 1 14
"

VEC T OR ANALYSIS .

ppl y this result usi ng 1

Let f or q in t he di vergence
W
'
us a ,

th eorem e ob tai n i mm edi ately.

ff n r d8 = 3
o

fff dv = 3 x ~rot

O r in o th er word ti m es t h e vo l um e i ncl u d
l
c ose d

er
Iri ai sp her for i nst anc e, t a ki ng t h e ori gi n at t h e center, 1 is
-
' -

'

u
perpendi c l ar to every el e ent of s rface and is of cons tant m u
l eng th therefore n r ,
o
r,

v ol s p h ere = r
f dS = 4 '
3 X 7rr ,

a tru e resu lt .

To obtain V -
r, . B y ( 123 ) and

V 3 V VI r, - V r rV
g; (b y
'
-
r { ,
-
I,

rV -
r, l .

2
H ence
r

Eq uation of th e Fl ow of H th er ex am pl e of th e ea t . As ano

use of th e Di vergenc e Th eorem ( 12 1 ) c ons id er t h e g eneral

l aws of th erm al ow Consi der a vol um e of matter th rou gh .

whi c h h eat is owi ng and consid er a s urface S d rawn any ,

wh ere ia this sp ace Let q b e t he ux of heat or in other .

,

word s th e am ou nt of h eat whi ch c rosses u nit area d rawn

,

norm all y t o t h e li nes of o w per u nit ti me; q is al so c al l ed

t h e h eat c u rrent d ensity -
.

Th e am o u nt of h eat whi c h esc apes th rou gh t he s u rface

in any ti m e is fu rni sh ed at t h e ex pense of th e materi al
i nsi de th at su rface whi c h m us t th en b e cooli ng o at a
c ert ai n rate .

By F o urier s Law 4 7 t h e h eat ows in t h e direc tion of

, ,

g a tes
re t decreas e in temperature, 0 and wi th an i nt ensit y
 VECT OR ANALYSIS . 115

proportional to a p roperty of the m ateri al th rou g h whic h it

is owi ng c alled its heat or th erm al cond u c ti vity I
, s So th at .
,

q kV 0 .

The i t k may v ary fro m poi nt to poi nt of t he

c oef c en

medi um and may be al so a func ti on of t he tem peratu re

, .

In m os t p rac ti c al appli c ati ons it is ass um ed to b e cons tant .

I f there are no so u rces nor s i nks of h eat withi n t h e s ur

f ace any el em entary vol u m e dv is c ooli ng at s om e rate
60
Th e a m ou nt of h eat whi c h leaves this el e ment ary
at
volu me in unit time must then be , if p be its density and 0
its speci c h eat ,

c p dv o

at

F or t h e wh ole vol u me S t he h eat l ost whi c h mu st

, , ,
be eq u al
to th at p ass i ng th rou gh t h e s urface is ,

fl i t f n -
q .

B y th e Divergenc e T h eore m the s ur ac e f i ntegral is

If vol
V q dv,
-

and since q kV 0, V q - V -
kV 0 .

So th at
9
0
V h v 0 dv
o
.

Si nc e th is equ ati on h old s wh atever s u rface be cons id ered ,

t h e integrand s are equ al every wh ere and

99
-
C() V kV -
.

at
 M r

1 16 V VECT OR ANALYSIS .

If k be ass u med t
c ons an t this becomes
60 11:
V 0 2

6t cp

"
a

V O,
wh ere a '
( 1 0 7 )
E
p

T hi s is th e general di ff erenti al eq u a tion f or t he ow of

h eat in a ody b .

If t
th e t t is reac h ed th at is if the tem peratu res
s eady s a e , ,

are every wh ere c ons t ant (thi s d oes not mean th e sam e

everywh ere) it b ec o m es,

i nd epend entl y of t h e val ues of k p and c ; th at is th e , , ,

di s tri bu tion of tem p erature foll ows t h e s ame law as t h e

di s tri bu ti on of p otenti al ac cordi ng to apl ace s Equ ati o n L

So th at wh at is t rue ab o u t t h e p otenti al is u nd er
, ,

anal ogo u s c onditi o ns t rue o f tem p erat u re and t h e t wo ,

s ubjec ts tem p erat u re di stri bu ti on and potenti al become

, ,

identical in m ath em ati c al t reat ment .

53 . Eq uation of Continu ity . Consideri ng ag a n ai movi ng

li qu id , if
there are no sources nor s i nks of the uid in t he
regi on c ons id ered th en t h e eq u ati on
,

v q -
div q o ( 1 24 )

ex p resses dition t h at t he uid d oes not concent rate

t he con

to ward s nor ex p and fro m any p oi nt as this is th e o nly ,

remai ni ng way b y w hi c h m ore li q uid c an l eave any s m all

cl osed s u rfac e th an c an enter it or c onversely I n o ther , .

word s it m eans i nco m p ress i b ili ty Thi s equ ation is c alled

,
.

t h e eq u ati o n of c onti nu ity I t is of great i m portance in

.

el ec tri city as ac cordi ng to the th eory of Max well the el ec tri c

,

disp l ac emen t b eh aves li ke an i nco m p res si bl e u id I f t he .

di verg ence d oes ex i s t it means th at at th e p oi nt co nsi dered .

 118 VECT OR ANALYSIS .

any li ngeri ng d ou b t in th e m i nd of t he s kepti c To a ph y si .

c is t h owever to s ay th at t h e op erati ons of V u p on any fu nc

, ,

ti ons are depend ent u pon a c h oi ce of axes is li ke s ay i ng th at ,

t h e phy s i c al p roperti es of any m ediu m d ep end u p on t h e l an

u
g g a e in w hi c h y o u ex p ress th em F o r i ns t.anc e w e h a ve ,

s h o wn 4 7 ) th at V V wh ere V is th e p o tenti al s ay gi ves rise

, ,

to a vec tor s h owi ng t h e di rec ti on in whi c h V c h anges mos t

rapidl y and its m ag nit u d e

W
.

h at h ave axes to do with su ch a res u lt ? It is tru e

wh atever ki nd of coordi nates are used h owever pl aced o r , ,

even if none are u sed at all

W
.

e are h ere d eali ng with t h e p ro perti es th em sel ves and ,

not with any p arti c u l ar m eth od o f rep resenti ng th em I t is .

in this res p ec t th at t h e anal y s is of vec tors is ex trem ely usef ul ,

as b y its i ntelli gent s t u d y c l ear conc epti ons mu s t necess arily

be ob tai ned .

Examp le of Cu rl .In ord er t o g i ve an id ea o f t h e m eani ng

of th e V or c u rl o f a vec to r fu nc ti on co ns id er t h e g eneral

W
I
:
,

moti on of a ri gid body . e h ave seen 22 ) th at t h e mo ti on

may be res ol ved i nto a vel oc ity of transl ati on q of t he orig i n o

c h osen arb itraril y and an angu l ar vel oc ity of rot atio n o n

abou t a li ne p ass i ng th rou gh th is ori gi n Th e vel oc ity q of .

any p oi nt r is th en gi ven b y

q qo (ox rr

wh ere q and on are the sam e f or all poi nts in th e body at any
o

gi ven i ns t ant T a ki.ng t h e c u rl o f thi s eq u ati on Or in o th er , ,

words apply i ng or op erati ng with V we obtai n

,
s
,

q V qos

Si nce q, is t t t h rou g h ou t
a c ons an t he body q 0 0 and

q V x
(
cox r ) .

In th is p rod uc t V
different iates r alone ec a se onis a con b u
s t an t th ro u h o u t t he b od
g y at any ti me i n out er \o h n nth o .
 VECT OR ANALYSIS . 119

u
v al e of this ex p ress i on ex p and th e triple vec tor prod u c t by
cons i deri ng V as an ordi nar v e to
y c r ,

m(v ,
-
)
r

As V c annot a t u pon an we i nterp ret t he l as t termas (oo V

c ,
-
r )

b ut V r 3 by ( 1 23 ) and (co V ) r
-
on by -

Vw= 3 a m= 2 m
and co 5q 5 c u lq
r .
( 1 2 6)
See l u ati
W
a s o eq on 131 .

h en th at when a ri g id sy s tem is in motion th e

e s ee t

o perator V applied to its vel o c ity f u nc ti o n g i ves twi ce its

W
s -

angu l ar vel o c ity in mag nit u d e and di rec ti on e may .

t h en w ri te q q g cu r] q r x ,
o

Cons id er now a very s m all p ti n of a uid su ch th at th e

or o

porti on may b e co o ons i dered t

r m ve as a igid bod y fo t h e
r

i nst ant ; it is fai rl y evident th at t he c url of the vel ocity th ere

would gi ve si m i larly t wi ce its angu l ar velocity of rotation .

Th e c url or V is an operator s u c h th at wh en applied t o any

s

vel oc ity fu nc ti on it g i ves twi ce t h e ang ul ar vel oc ity of rota

-

ti on at any point in di rec tion and m agnit u de .

55 . Motion of Rotation wh ic h h as No Curl . I rrotat ional

Motion . A id ea of c url may perh aps b e given by a

l
c earer

cons id erati o n o f t h e foll o w ing t wo p os s i b l e m oti o ns of a u id

abou t an ax is Co nsi deri ng F ig 53 if t h e i n nitesi m al

. .
,

porti ons of the u id i ndi c ated b y sh ort s traight l i nes m ove

, ,

from positi on 1 to position 2 as i ndic ated th en evidentl y , ,

every el em ent ary po rti on o f t h e u id h as ro t ated by t h e

s am e am ou nt and t h e operato r V w ould g i ve thi s rot ati on x

mu ltiplied by 2 O n the contrary if t h e i n nites i m al ele

.
,

ments in movi ng abo ut th e ax is 0 do no t rot ate h o t rero oxrx

'

f acing one way as in B th en th e curl oi su ch a m ,

o t xo n w omb .
 1 20 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

be zero * . Super ciall y , motions

h owever ,
to t h e ey e th e t wo
here desc ri bed would l oo k t h e s ame I f we ass u me th at the .

molec ul es of iron are free to ro tate we may reali z e th ese t wo

moti ons I f a piece of i ron were rotated in a s trong magneti c
.

eld t he m olec ules cons tantl y pointi ng in th e xed direc tion

,

of mag neti c i nd u c ti on we s h ou ld ob t ai n a m o ti on s u c h as B
, ,

F ro . 53 .

whil e if ro a e t t d in a non -
m agneti c eld th e m otion woul d be
si mil ar to A .

Any m otion whi ch l is said to be rotational or vor

h as a c ur

tical ; if it h as no c u rl it is c all ed i rrotational or non vertic al -

.

Any mo ti on rep resented b y a f u ncti on wh ose c url is zero is

one in whi c h th e i nfi ni tes i m al el em ents do not rotate and ,

conversely .

56 . V , V and V x App lied to Various F unctions . It is f re

q u ently m any cases to apply the operators
nec ess ar y in
formed with V to c om b i nations of sc al ar and vec tor fu nc
tions The followi ng rul es will be fou nd useful f or reference
. .

A rig id body wh ose elementa ry p arts mo ve with it as in A , F ig 53 , .

migh t be called atomic allym gid ; a rigid body wh ose elementary parts

move as in B would t h en be no matomk al ly rigid A calcul ation was -

.

made to s ee wh et h er t h e di erence in t h e moment of inertia of t h ese

t wo k inds of motion co uld be o bs erved in t h e case of iron . B ut mole
c ul es are so s mall th at th e diff erence in moment of inertia
calcu lated
c o ul d n o t be obs erved b y th e most sensitive \ah orat org meth ods .
1 22 VECT OR ANALYSIS .

majority of formu l a on p age 1 2 1 c an be written d own at

th e
once with ou t rel y i ng u p on t h e dem ons t rati on ou tlined ab ove .

I t is evident at once fro m th e de niti on of V th at

V( u v = ) Vu Vv .

T ake th e form ul a f or i ns t ance

V o
( u v ) Vu v -
uV v-
.

Th e V is u pposed to ope ate u pon both a and v All the

s r .

poss ib le comb inati on of V and a dot with u and v are fo m ed

s r

whic h c an h ave a m eani ng letting V act once u pon each ,

va i ab le
r In t h e above ex am pl e as u i a s c al ar V c an ac t
.
,
s ,

on it onl y as V a Th e dot whi c h is as y et u nempl oyed is

.
, ,

used in fo m i ng the s c al ar p od u ct of V a a vec to with v

r r ,
r, ,

ano ther vec to r As y et V h as not di erentiatc d v In th e

. .

sec ond term t h e only w ay it c an ac t on v is by formi ng a

s c al ar p rod u c t g i vi ng V v whi c h mu ltiplied by u is u V v

, ,
-
,

t h e c orrec t res u l t .

As anoth er ex am pl e c ons id er t h e ex pans ion f or V (u v )

W
x x .
,

e ex p and this t rip le vec tor p rod u c t as u s u al considering V ,

to b e an ordi nary vec tor ,

= u (V uv v ) '
v

wh ere b e it remem b ered th at V is to differenti ate both 11 and v

in each of th e term s T his is h ere s peci c all y indi c ated by
.

t h e u se of s ub s c ripts F ro m 11 (V W v) c an be form ed u ( V v )
.
-
.
-

and (v V )u onl y ; so th at
-
u

-
v) u ( voV
u ) u

si mil arly from v (V w o

u ) ,
v (V u u ) o
and ( u v c an be
d eri ved so th at
,

v ( V w u
o
) v ( V a u ) o
( r , ) v .

i l ubscripts
h ere u sed are not y ac cord
W
Th e s ng e s as necess ar

ing to th e c onvention ex pl ai ned above . e th en h ave

V ( u v)
x
uV v x v Vu Wm - -
( 32 )
1
 VECT OR ANALYSIS . 1 23

where the V on t he left is to operate on both 11 and v while ,

o n t h e ri g ht it operates only o n t h e vec tor f oll owi ng it This .

kind of not ation is ex ac tly s i mil ar to

u v + u

E
v + u
g
Co nsid er t h e e x pressi on in whi c h V is to ac t u pon it
l
a one . E x panding ,

v" (V a u ) V u (u v ) '
u (V a v) '

(u ~
v ) (v V u )-
u .

S i mil arly
V , (u v ) -
(
u -
V,) v .

Addi ng the t wo equ ations we c o mbi ne V (u v) , ,,

o
V , (u )
cv

into V (u v ) by d e ni t ion h ence equ ation

-
,

The notation

V (u v) -
V u (
v -
) V , (u -
v)

is t i tly
s rc l
ana ogo s u to

d (u v ) -
d (
u v -
) d, (u v ), -

w hi c h c orres ponds to partial d i erentiat ion, and is true f or

t h e sa m e reasons
Wm
.

e ay write also
V s
(u V ) V u" (u v) v) .

or V (u v)
x x V u~ (uxv ) etc .

Th e process ou tli ned above will alway s l ead to correct

res u lts I t is so mething more th an a h elp to the m emory
. .

A general rig id math em atic al p roo f of its validity has been

g iven!

Boo to th is eff ec t Joly . Manned

1 24 VECT OR ANALYSIS .

57 . E pans ion Anal og ou s to Tay l or s Th eorem

x
. Ex p and
ing as a t riple vec tor p rod u c t and ass u ming t w p
l
a one, we h ave
u x (v s v) V . (u v) -
v V
( s
VV

and Vv u '
:

or u -
Vv V, ( u v o
) ( 1 33 )
If u r, , a u nit vec t o r, and v q, then ( 1 33 ) beco mes
r, - V q V, ( r, - q ) r,x c u rl q , ( 1 3 4 )
and s a es th at t he direc ti onal d eri vati ve of a vec tor fu nc
t t
tion q in the direc ti on r is equ al to th e deri vati ve of t h e p ro
,

je c t ion of q in th at di rec ti o n pl u s t h e vec tor p ro d u c t o f t h e

c u rl of q i nto th at d irec ti on .

Mu ltiply i ng t h e direc ti onal d erivative by dro we ob tain t h e ,

dierence in q due to a dis pl acem ent dr in t h e di rec tion r

'

this gi ves th en if q is t he val ue of q at th e end of r and qw d

, r ,

is t h e val u e of q at t h e end of r dr ,

dq dr V q
-
q. V . (d r q )
e c ) .

So th at
q. V . (dr q ) -
( qh .
V dr
( 3 5)
1

or q ( r d r) q ( )
r V o id

This eq u a tion is analogou s to t h e ex ans p i o n of a fu nc tion

by means of Tay l or s th eorem

.

58 . Th eorem Due to Stok es . Th e li i t

ne n egra of a vec o r
-
l t
fu nc tion F around any c l osed contou r is equal to the s urface
i ntegral of the cu rl of th at f u nc tion over any s urface of wh i ch
t h e c onto ur is a boundi ng edge .

I n sy mbols this is

j
D
p dr
f n c -
u l F dS
r .
( 1 36)
 1 26 VEC TO R ANALYSIS .

on the c on ot ur . T aki ng th e var a i tion of th e integral we

ob tai n

jA fA f
B

fA
3
a! a F dr-
)
. (F d r) -
aF dn - F adr
-
.

T hi s becom es ,
i nterc h ange of d
by an and 6 in t h e l as t
i ntegral and with an i ntegration by p arts ,

m)
/A jA
B B
For + (aF d r -
ar .

T h e i ntegrated term is z ero f or s ince th e li m its A and B are ,

x ed th ere c an be no vari ation 6r at th ese points Re mem

,
.

beri ng al so ( 5 50 ) th at
6F dr V F F -
and dF dr V p F ,
-

(M F or (d r V F ) F
o '

d A
r -
V p (d r F ) d r V p (6r F ),
- - -
using ( 1 1 7 )

wh ere V ac ts onF alone .

By (58 ) thi s may be w ritten as

fA
8
= 6 xd r
( r )

Or more direc tly by

h ence
dr- V F V r dl (
'
-
F) d W x F ),

d r (or V F )
- -
dr -
V p (6r F ) ~ -
d r ars (V x F )
o
.

B ut by ( 1 17 ) the lef t sid e is o r

-
Vp d F
(r-
) .

H ence
V F (ar F ) s F
(i n V F (d r F )
- -
dr - -
a d
n r V -
.

Ref erring to the gure it is seen t h at dru

dr is th e vec t or
area o f t h e inni tesimal s uri ace i ormeo h g hr

ar mo x , so
 VECTO R ANALYSIS . 1 27

t h at lli ng n the u nit norm al t o th e elem entary

ca area dS , we
may write dr dr 11 d8 so th at
x
,

L
B
M = n

Anoth er i n nites i m al trans form ati on is now m ade to a new

c u rve A GB h avi ng t h e s am e xed end s A and B and so on ,

u ntil t h e m ov ab le p ath h as swep t over t h e su rface i ncl uded

between th e li miting c u rves I and II Let now the su m of .

al l t h e vari ati o ns in J b e add ed togeth er Th e res u lt will be .

eq u al t o t h e di erenc e between J and J t h e val u es of J f or ,

t h e ex t rem e p ath s : h enc e

J, J , li m dJ -
(V xF
) dS .

B ut J li ne integral from A to B al ong 3 0 A and

, is t h e -

th erefore J J is the val ue of t he line i ntegral around the

2 ,
-

c ontou r A DEGA So th at .

F dr
o n o
cu rl F) as .
( 1 36)

This is Stok es Th eorem

.
"I

59 . Condition f or th e Vanis h ing of th e Curl of a Vector

a ct ion. d emons trati on if the val ue of t he
In t he b
a ove ,

i ntegral J is t he s am e wh atever p ath is taken between A and

B and if this is t ru e wh erever t h e p oints A and B are taken
, ,

it follows th at J alway s equ als J so th at f or any surface S

,

ff 8
n o
c url F as o and h ence V F s
c u rl F o ( 1 3 7 )

mus t be true every wh ere . In this c as e l ue of Id epend s

t he va
o nl y u pon t h e p os iti on of t h e end s of t h e p ath and in no wise

See also f or oth er demons t rations of Sto kes Th eorem,

B uc h erer, Elemente der Vekto r Analy sis , pp 42 4 4

W
- -
. .

Gibb s ilson, Vec tor Analy s is , p p 1 88 1 90

-
.
-

Gana: Finf h mng in die Vektoranaly sis , pp as ss .

-
.

S ee Ap p endix, p 24 9, f or t w o ot h er p roois
. .
 1 28 VECT OR ANALYSIS .

u p on the s h ape of if th e curl F 0 in a

it . Conversely ,
reg ion th en t h e li ne i ntegral of F between any t wo po i nts
,
-

A and B in th e regi on is ind epend ent of th e p ath c h osen

between them In this case if one end A of a c urve is xed
.
,

f
B
the va l u e of t h e i ntegral F dr is
o
s i mply a fu nc tion of its
A

u pper li m it wh atever t he p ath from A to B may be Let

B .

95 d en o t e thi s scal ar f u nc ti o n T h e i ntegrand F d r mu s t .

o

th en be a perfec t dierential and h ence of the formdd wh i ch

'

by ( 1 1 4 ) is the same as
(195 d V v.

so th at f or all va l ues of dr,

dr-
q d F
r-

and h ence F V 95 .
( 38 )
1

O r in th er word s if F h as no c u rl it is the rate of fas test

o , ,

i ncrease V qS or grad qS of a sc al ar fu nc tion

L
B
=
a, F dr -
a,

wh ere gSA is t t
a c ons an .

Th e s c al ar fu nc ti on 4) th u s determi ned is call ed th e poten

t i al of F .As we h ave s een before a s cal ar fu nc tion di vid es ,

s p ace u p into s h ell s or l ami na b y m eans of its l evel s urfaces .

Th e vec tor fu nc ti on F
-

n d eri ved f ro m s u c h a f unc ti o n

is f or thi s reason s aid to be a lamel lar vector (Max well ) Th e .

c url of a l amell ar vec tor is th en always z ero ,

or c u rl 0 .
( 39 )
1

Conservative Sy stem of F orces B y Sto es Th eorem ( 1 36) k

.

we see th at if
li i tth e l ne n egra
-
u of F d r, i e , th e work aro nd
-
. .

any cl os ed p ath alw ay s v ani sh es th en t h e forces h ave no

, ,

c url ; and al s o th at in this c as e th e i oroes m th e h ol d are

'
1 30 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

whic h may be ex p anded as

V x f
(p ) [ 1 f 0 .

Applyi ng f to li m inate the second term bec au se a a b

e ,
- x E 0
in general th ere rem ai ns ,

f (f f =
) 0
,
1 -
.

So th at nally we nd th at th e conditi on th at t h e equ ati on

d e ned by f d r= 0 s h ou ld be integrable is th at f and its c u rl
-
,

f s h al l b e at ri g ht ang l es or th at t h e c u rl vani s h
, To p u t .

thi s disc u ssi on in a m ore fam ili ar form we h ave proved th at ,

th e conditi on of i nteg rab ility of

F dr -
d Ydy Zdz
is th at Fo F 0 ( 1 40 )
dZ 6 6X 6X
or X
( By 62
Z
62: g
0

a well known res u lt -

.

I f t he
c ulF r 0,

th is equ ation is evid ently satis ed .

I f the c u rl F is not z ero th e equ ation says th at it mu s t , be

everywh ere perpendi c u l ar to F

For ex am ple ,

yz dz 22: dy xy dz

h as no c r and isul th erefore derivable fro m a single primiti ve ,

i . e
.
,

xyz co ns t .

O n th e o th er h and ,

ay z

da: bz
x

dy ox
'
y de

h as a c u l bu t this c url
r , ,

2 2
.
"
(
cy be) i 2 y
( az c m
) i

2i K
bx
.

sa w s,
 VECTO R ANALYSIS . 1 31

and th e vec tor F ,

i j k

ay z bz x

er

y ,

are at r i ght angl es and this equ ati on is also deri vab le from a
,

singl e pri mi ti ve i s ,
. .
,

a: y z

Tay l or s Th eorem
h Tayl or s
"V
Th e O p erator (

l . . 0

T eore m is o ften written concisely as

a a a
f (z yz ) +
0 )
1
f (x + h , h +1 f ( xyz )
17 3, ay 53
1 a a

+ i k i l
5] E
' - -

ay

-
1 3 + k i +l i
3! 6y 62

I f the co mp onents of r be r y z and th ose of , , ,

e be h , k , I
,
it
may still f urth er be condens ed into

i( ) r vi m ( e -
v wm
Remembering t h e e xp ans ion fo r e

,

e
1 I
. ;
I
a

we may write th e l as t eq u ati on sy mbolic ally in th e s till

s h orter form ,

f( e) ( 1)
1 4
'
l

th at the sy mboli c dierent ial op t ting

'

so era or e ac on any

fu nction f (r) gi ves its val ue wh en r bec omes r e.

62 . Eul er s Th eorem

mog eneous on H o F unct ions . W e

may empl oy thi s equ ation to demonstrate a u seh nth eorem

d ue to Eul er and know n b y h is name . it tu n otroo do .

o k
 1 82 VEC T OR ANALYSIS .

degree n ini ble r is s aid to be h omogeneous wh en 1

a v ar a
'

occ u rs t h e s ame nu mber of ti mes in every term of it I t is .

one s u c h th at
<1 a5( ( 1 42 )
wh ere a is any cons tant Apply Taylor s Th eorem to the
.

h omogeneous fu nc ti on (r) and let 6 g r wh ere g is a small ,

s c al ar mul tiplier Th en .

4 0
6 '

g r) oi l ( 1 aw e) .

and h ence

6
90

Sub trac ti ng (r) from both s ides and di vidi ng throu gh by

there rem ains
W
9

12
r o
v o(r) +
f, ig 9+

This equ ati on bei ng tru e f or an i n nite number of val u es of

9, we m a e
y q u a te t h e c oef c i ents o f t h e s ame p ow ers o f g on

both sid es of t h e equ ati on, gi vi ng

Mo) .

( 3)
1 4
no: l ) <n z)o( r > ( v ro
r-
m .

rst of equations (1 4 3 ) is known as Eu ler s Th eorem

Th e
'

on h o m ogeneou fu ncti ons w hi c h in terms of a: y 2 becomes

s ,

( 1 4 4 )

maini ng equ ations are ex tensions

Th e re of th e th eorem ,

in vol ving derivati v es of h i gh er orders .

 1 84 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

eas y to remember wh ether it is c url grad V or grad c u rl V .

,

whi c h is id enti c ally z ero For when th ey are written in .

terms of V i e V V V and V (V V) one is evidently zero and

,
. .
,
x x
,

t h e o th er c an h ave no m eaning at all In oth er words th e .

,

del notat ion wh en interp reted according to th e ordinary mics

-

of vec tor p rodu c ts l ead s us to c orrec t resul ts indep endentl y

,

of any p h y s ical or oth er c ons iderat ions .

Th e O p erato r V 3
or V V
-
.
( Re a d del s q uare o f
O p erati ng on

_
v

with V or in o ther word s t aki ng th e di v of t h e grad of V we,

ob t ai n ,

+ + V' ( 1 4 7 )
r
c y a: 2
537

th e well know n i L pl
p t w hich wh en eq u ated
a ac an o era o r, to
z ero is s atis ed b y t h e po tenti al fu nc ti on in free s p ace .

It is evid ent on i ns pec ti on th at

V (V V) = (v V ) vs w
o .
v v .

S i nce t h e c u rl of grad V or in sy mbol s V V V is zero id en

,
x
,

ti cally th ere can be no amb iguity wh atever w hen V is twi ce

applied to a s c al ar fu nc ti on hen V is applied to a vec tor
' -
. W
fu nc tion it m eans th at it is applied to the three sc al ar f unc
,
-

tion components of t h e vec tor fu nc tion and hence oers no

'

new di f c u lty .

If V F
0

th en
V F,

V F,
0
V P,

th a t is the t h nee co m ponent s oi F s ati ety Le m m on

me} s s umat i .
 VECTO R ANALYSIS . 1 85

S ince V xV V 0 c ur l g ra d V,

it follows th at the vec tor V V is a l amell ar vec tor by ( i ,

S ince Vo F 0 div c u rl F.
,

it follows th at th e c url of any vec o r t is a so eno l id al vec or, t

by (5

64 . Diff erentiation of th e Scalar F unct ion by v

. W e

p rove d eq u ation th at

Take th e di vergence (V of this vec or t .

V m if V -
r r -
V r
'H
l
m{ 3 r (m
b ec au se by
V o
r =3 and ro v = r r, o V r 1
5
dr
so t hat -
2 ) ml ,
and nally m(m ( 8)
1 4

l ues of mwhi c h will satis fy the dierential eq ua

Th e t wo va

t i on

V r
"
0,

are easil y seen to be m = 0 and m= 1, so th at t h e s c al ar

func tion satis es L pla

ace s eq u ation , or

1
v ' - - = o .

This may al so be sh own , of c o rse, u by direct di erentiation

of th e f unction 1
r
1 86 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

S ES A N D PRO B LEMS
EX ERC I .

1 Prove th at V F is an operat or independent of ch oice of axes ,

.
-

b y ac tually carrying out the t rans f ormat ion t o a new set of axes .

If t he coordinates of th e new set be denoted b y primes , it sh ould

be found that
ex av 62 or 6Y
az '

+ + + +
ez ag az ac ay 57

wh ere X ,Y,Z, are t he comp onent s of a vec tor f u nct ion F , and wh ere
X ,Y , Z are it s comp onent s ref erred t o t h e new axes

.

2 . Prove directl y b y a c h ange of axes t hat

V F x
or Curl F

is invariant to that c h ange .

3 . Prove t hat
Va -
r a,

Vr r,,
i
Vr Vr -
r 2 r,

where a is a const ant vect or . Th ese f ollow f rom t h e relat ion

d dr V -

V -
r = 3,

3 V 4 3 ) 0
V o
n .

l 1

V 0 o

r r

6 Verif y that
.

6 3
6
6
V VF =
"

6 7 2

where F = iX + JY + k Z .

6 . Prove t hat
V V = a- V V)
(a -
) (

and state
in p o tential
th e
.
res ult ing th eorem . Apply this to a si m m
e p roblm
e
 CH APT ER VI

I I I
.

APPL CAT O NS TO ELEC TR CAL TH EORY .

65 . Gauss
s Th eorem . p oi nt 0
Sol id Ang l e . Cons id er a ,

and any s m all area in s p ace dS Joi n every poi nt in t h e

W
.

bou nd ary of t he area dS t o 0 th usforming a s mall cone

, e .

de ne as t he solid angl e sub tended by th e area (18 at O the ,

va l ue of
f
i ,
w h ere d 2 is t h e area c ut out , by t he cone ,
on

any s phere of di u s r d esc ri bed abou t 0 as center T his is

ra ,
.

nu meric all y eq u al t o t h e area dw c u t ou t b y t h e s ame cone on

,

F IG . 55 .
0

the s ph ere of u nit radi u s des c rib ed abou t 0 Th e dimen

,
.

s i ons of s olid angl e are ev id entl y z ero Since t h e t ot al area

.

of a u nit s ph ere is eq u al t o 4 this is al so th e solid angl e s ub

tend ed by th e wh ol e of sp ace or by any surf ace whi c h com
p l etel y s u rrou nd s t h e p o i nt 0 d 2 ev id e
.ntly s ub ten d s t h e

s am e s olid angl e at 0 as dS Calli ng n t h e u nit norm al to dS

.
,

its sense bei ng t aken in any c onventi onal manner p revi o usl y
ag reed up on (ou tw ard f rom t h e s u rface in t h e fol l owing ) ,

(1 2 (18 c os k m\ ,

1 38
 VECTO R ANALYSI S . 1 89

di ng as it m akes
ac c or an ac u te or an o btuse ang e l with
res pec ti vely .

Now bec ause dw and d2 are p ara e ll l sec tions of th e sa me

c o ne we may write
d2 r

dm,

th at d l
'

so th e sou ang e

dS c os (
rn )
do: ,
h
:
,
.
( 1 4 9 )
r r

If a pint 0 is ch osen i ns id e any closed s urface any s m all

o ,

c one with vertex at 0 will c u t ou t th rou g h t h e s u rfac e

al w ays onc e m ore th an it c u ts i nto it bu t if t h e point be out ,

s id e t h e s u rfac e it will c u t in as m any ti m es as it c u ts out If .

n be c h osen p os iti ve w h en d rawn ou tw ard s th en t h e angl e ,

between 11 and 1 will be ac u te wherever t he cone cu ts out

'

ob t u se wh erever it c u ts in Th u s an el ementary cone wh en

.

it s vertex is i ns id e a cl osed s u rface c ontri bu tes an el em ent of

s oli d angle + da ,
As f or ex am pl e in t h e gu re t h e solid
.
,

ang l es dw and do) due to l and 2 annu l eac h oth er l eav

W
, , ,

ing dw due to 3 h en th e vertex is ou ts ide th e res ulti ng

.
,

solid angl e is z ero ; as f or ex am pl e t h e solid ang les dw and

,

dw d ue to 4 and 5 c om pl etely annu l eac h oth er

, , So also .

do t he el em ents at 6 and 7 and 8 and 9 in p ai rs I f we i nte .

g r at e o r s u m u p al l t h e so lid ang l es d ue t o al l t h e el em en t ary

areas dS over t h e wh ol e s u rf ac e S we s h all ob t ai n 4 71 f or t h e ,

s u m if th e p oint 0 is i ns id e and z ero if t h e p oi nt is ou ts id e

, .

Ex p ress ing th ese res u lts in sy m b ol s we h ave

ff dw - l
g d8 = 4

0
a

inside of S ( 1 50)
m) d8
f f g w =0
c os
=

0 o u tside of S .

T h ese res ults whi h

,
c are p u rely mathemat ic al , are \movm an
14 0 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

Gauss
s Th eorem f or th e Plane pl ane we may ob tain
. In a

an anal ogou s th eo rem i e t h e pl ane angl e s ub tended b y a

,
. .
,

cl osed c onto u r in a pl ane at a p oi nt 0 is 2 1: or 0 ac cordi ng as

.

the poi nt is i ns id e or ou tsid e of t h e c l osed c ontou r I n the .

gu re (56) consider a poi nt A connec ted to 0 by a radi us

vec tor whi c h s t arts from B and m oves once aro u nd th e con

to ur until it reac h es B ag ai n Evidently wh atever the s h ape

.

F ro . 56 .

of the t u r may b e t he radi us vec tor r h as made bu t one

c on o ,

revol u ti o n ab ou t 0 and th erefore c overed an are eq u al to 2 71

'

on t h e u nit c i rc l e ab ou t 0 In t h e c ase th at th e c onto ur is

.

co m pl etel y ou ts id e of 0 t h e s am e reas oni ng s h ows th at t h e

radi u s vec to r wh en it reac h es B h as not rot ated arou nd 0 at all .

I n a pl ane th e ang le dglr s ub tend ed by an are (It at a poi nt

0 is u s i ng a not ati on s i m il ar to
,
1 42 VECT OR ANALYSIS .

tu de of F falls o ex ac tly as fas t as t he areas of th e s pheres

inc reas e with i ncreasi ng radi us the s urface i ntegral of this
,

vec to r over eac h of t he s ph eres is t he s ame O r in oth er .

,

F ro 57. .

word s th e ux th at gets th rou g h one reac h es th e other

, .

Evidently th e s ame am ou nt of ux mu s t h ave p assed thro u g h

t h e s u rface so th at we may wri te f or t h e ux

L
f I/ 118
1
.

r dS - .

R ,

s p h ere RB s
o f rad . R,

l
4 TI R? QR
F1
.
2
 VECTO R ANALYSIS . 1 43

As f or t he s u rface S ux is gai ned or lost in going

,,
i
s nc e no

fro m s phere R to s ph ere R w h atever ux went into S , mu st

, ,,

also h ave co m e ou t of it ag ai n and th erefore ,

,
dS O
.

H ence the theorem !

66 . Th e Potential . Poisson
s and Lap lace s Eq uations

.

F rom the de nition f t he potenti al in 4 6 as the work done

o

o n a u nit pos iti ve c h arge in b i ng i ng it f om in nity u p to

r r

th e poi nt at whi c h th e potenti al is desi red we may sh ow th at ,

t h e sc al ar fu nc ti on is t h e potenti al fu nc tion correspond

ing to th e i nverse s qu are ,

or Cou o l mb s (in gravitation

, New
ton s ) l aw of force F :

o

Consid er a q u antity
positi ve matter m at 0
of , ,
.

The potenti al at any poi nt P or in oth er words t h e work ,

done on a u nit p ositi ve c h arge in b ri ng i ng it from innity to

\ ~ M
Fro 58
. .

P, is equ al to t he li ne i ntegral of the force fu nc tion F from P

-

to co al ong t h e p ath PQ traversed by th e u nit ch arge .

Vp =
r F dr=
.

wh ic h may be written bec ause V,

l 5 by

S ee Ap p end ix, p 251 , f or

. anot h er p roo i oi G au s s s
'
Yh eom
 1 44 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

This l as t ex p i
ress on is t h e o a t t l deri vati ve of m so th at t he
r
i ntegral is i nd epend ent of th e p ath and d epends onl y u pon
th e li mits th at is u p on th e s t arting poi nt and ending point
, , ,

giving
v,
m

S h ould th ere b e oth er m as ses present ,

t he potenti al fu nction

Fro 59 . .

due t o th em all is t h e s u m of t h e p
se ara e t fu nctions due to
eac h ,
or

E
r,,
l
r,,
2
2
1
r,,
c
( 1 53 )

wh ere r, , is th e di s tance from p oi nt at whi ch the po tenti al

th e
is to be fo u nd to th e m ass If t h e m asses i nstead of bei ng
at di screte p i nts form a
o c onti nu ou s di s t ri bu ti on t h e s um
,

ma tion bec omes a vol u me integral ; dm ,

th e e\ement oi moss ,
1 46 VECTO R AN ALYSIS .

of s p ace . Thi s is eq u va en i l t to i ntegrati ng over th e matter

alone, as wh erever th ere m and is no atter p 0 th e i ntegral
contri bu tes no th i ng So th at we may write ( 1 55) as
.

ff S
n V V dS = 4 n
-

ff p du,

p dv bei ng the tot al q u antity of matter within S .

By means of t he di vergence th eorem ( 1 2 1 ) t he su face into r

g ral abo ve m a y b e t an fo rm ed i ntro a v l um e

s i nteg ral t aken o

th ou gh u t t h e vol ume encl osed by S

r o .

ff S
n V V dS
-
V dv = 4
ff
rr
8
p dv .

As this equ ality h old s wh atever s u rfac e S is taken it fol l ows

,

th at t he integrand s are every w h ere equ al and

V VV -
V V '
4 p
7r .
( 1 56)
This is Poisson s Eq uation
.

I n free s p ace wh ere o 0 thi s becom es

V V= 0
'
( 1 57 )
I
.

wh i c h is
Eq uat ion
Wm
a p l ace s .

e i nterpret th ese equ ations as foll ows : Every

ay

q u a ntity o f m a t ter em i t s li nes o f fo rc e 4 7: li nes per u nit

q u an
,

tity Th is numeri c 4 7: is p u rely conventi onal and appears

.

bec ause the i ntensity at u nit distance from u nit c h arge is

d e ned as u nity ; and s ince u nit i ntens ity corres ponds to
one line per u nit area th ere mu s t b e 4 7: lines emitted in ord er
,

to h ave one for eac h of t h e 4 7: u ni ts of area in t h e surf ace of

t h e u nit s ph ere So th en if a s u rfac e of vol u me dv be drawn
.
,

arou nd a p o i nt wh ere th e d ensity is p th e lines p assing ,

th rou gh t h e su rface are equ al to 4 1: ti m es t he qu antity of

matter p dv within it or ,

div F (due to vol um e dv) 4 up dv ,

and p er uni t vol u me

div F Amp .
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 47

Now if h ave a p otenti al t h at is if F c an be represented

F
W
, ,

as t h e d V f m l f u ti th p u tti
W
gra o r o s o e s c a ar nc on en ng ,

F V
W W
,

V V-
V "
4 m
2 .

T his eq u ation is t rue f or t h e potenti al Wd ue to a ttrac ting

matter .

I n t he c ase of repelli ng fo rces s i nce the force is op p osite ,

to t h e di rec tion of inc rease in t h e sc al ar fu nc tion we may

W
,

pl ace V and we may write as before

,

V V '
4 1 m
.

In free sp ace wh ere th ere is no density p the equ ation becomes

div F = 0,

whi c h says th at the li nes of force are solenoid ally dis tri bu ted ,

th at is the ux t akes pl ace in u nb ro ken conti nu ous p ath s

, ,

and h enc e c annot end nor beg in at any p oint of sp ace d evoid

o f m atter .

Th e reas on f or t h e term (div ) divergence is evident from

t h e foregoi ng .

H armonic F unc tion A fu nc ti on whi c h in a regi on is

L
.

s i ngl e v al u ed conti nu ou s and s ati s es apl ace s eq u ati on is

-

, ,

s aid to be harm onic in th at regi on .

A Sp h erical H armonic of d egree n is any homogeneous

( 1 4 3 ) h ar m oni c p oi nt f unc ti on of-
sp ac e T h at is if V s at .
,

is es th e eq u ati ons
V V
0

and VV n V,
'
l o

it is a sph erical h armoni c of d egree n The s t u dy anduse of .

s u c h fu nc ti ons is of great i m p ortance in all b ranc h es of math

ematic al p hy sics .
 1 48

Green s Th eorems th eorems due to Green of Two

67 . .

very i mport ant appli c ati on in th eoretic al physi cs f ol low

immediately by ati on of t h e di vergence th eorem ,

V - W dv,

t o th e fu nc ti on W
UV V wh ere U and V are two sc al ar ,

p oint fu nc ti ons whi ch with th ei r deri vati ves are u niform and
W
-

c onti nu ou s in t h e s p ac e c onsid ered Applying V to .

o
,

V -
W V -
( UV V) UV V
V UVV
-
.

Subs tit u ti ng in t he eq u ati on b

a ove

ff n UV V dS =
ff V V dv +
fff V U V V dv
-
-
.

( 1 58 )
Si mil arly , by sy mmetry p u tti ng f o ,
r W VV U, we h ave

ff n -
VV U dS == U dv +
fff V U V V dv
-
.

Su btrac ti ng th es e t wo equ ations there remains

ff n -
( UV V

( 1 59)
Th e s u rface i ntegral s a e to be t aken over th e su rfaces bou nd
r ~

ing t h e reg i on u nder c ons ide ati on and th e vol u me integral s

r ,

th rou gh ou t t h e vol um es en l osed b y th ese s u faces Equ a c r .

ti ons ( 1 58 ) and ( 1 59 ) are c all ed Green Th eorem in its rst

s

and second form s res p ec ti vel y .

68 . Green
s u
F orm l a . Ap p l y Green s Th eorem in its

sec on d form to t w o fu nc ti o ns U and V Let U b e t he fu nc

.

ti on U l and let V b e th e p otenti al due to any dis trib u

r

ti on of matter The reg on i t o be cons idere is t hed s p ace

men
.

[f l ag bet ween the in nite s ph ere, SQ , any su ri aoes S a

 1 50 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

sph ere abou t 0 th e rs t p a t r of i t

t h e n egra l may be trans
formed ,

_
ff ff
1 (n
n . . v vazs = -
Vd .
r

wh ere da is the solid angl e sub tend ed by an element of th e

s m all s ph ere at 0 and wh ere 5 its s m all radi u s is c ons t ant
, , , ,

d u ri ng integrati on As 5 bec omes s m aller and small er and

.

bec ause n V V the norm al force on th e s urface is nite th e

-
, , ,

i ntegral vanis hes in th e li m it .

Cons id eri ng t h e s ec ond p art of t h e s u rfac e i ntegral over

t h e s m all s ph ere we may w ri te ,

_
ff( n .
vv dS = V
,
ff dw = V, X 4 x,

becau se nV
-

g -
dS d8 solid ang el d ue to dS . As

the ra diu s of t he s m all sph ere di m i nish es V approac h es V0,

it s v al u e at 0 .

So t h at nally ,

J
V
l
"
V V

I
l _
l
VV VV
Regi o n S u rf ac es
( 1 6l
th e u face i ntegral being taken over the bou ndi ng su rfaces
s r

S and th e vol um e i nteg ral over t h e regi on b ou nded b y th em ,

s h ad ed in t h e gu re .

If V V is equ al to ero in t h e regi on cons id ered th e poten

z ,

ti al fu nction at any poi nt 0 is

__
ff (
V0
1
n . i vy VV dS , ( 62 )
1
4 7: S r

whi c h s h ow s th at it is c om p l etely d eterm i ned everywhere if

th e val ues of th e potenti al V and of its norm al d eri v ative n V V -

are kno wn over th e b ou ndi n g s u ri ac es S \ i th e mat t er

 VECTO R ANALYSIS . 1 51

p ro du c ni
this potential and distrib uted
g in any manner
w ithin S be t aken out and repl aced b y a f
s u r ace densi ty
o f matter on S of amou nt
a

( )
1 l
a n .
V V r vv , ( 1 63 )
4 7: r!

t h e po tential at 0 will be ex a tly the s ame as c before, bec ause

by s u b s titu ting t h is v al ue f or in a

3
0 (1

we ob at in equ a tion W h ll e s a c all this distri bution

an Eq u ival ent Lay er . B ut in general thi s wil l not neces
s arily make th e surf ace an i potential s urf a e
eq u c .

If t h e po n 0 is i t inside t h e surface S a si milar deduction ,

gives t h e o rmu lfa

v
i fff f iff e

V. dw m vv
n

( 64 )
1

wh ere n is to be drawn as t he xternal normal to t he region

in whic h 0 l ies W
e

ith th i c nvention t he t wo formula; due to

. s o

Green (1 61 ) and ( 1 64 ) are identi cal in form .

Green s F unc tion Add i ng t ogeth e Green s equati on

. r

whi ch may be written

fff w ff
0 = vw VV U) dv
n -
( UV V VV U) dS ,

and whi c h h old under t he same conditi ons , we ob tain

Q V V dv
fff IV U dv
' / '

)
U l v v
r
 1 52 VECT OR ANALYSIS .

T his equati on is of es peci al i mportance in the theories

of l i g ht and elec t ri ity Th e quantity U
c . wh i c h ap
pe ars in t h e i ntegral is s o meti mes kno wn as G reen s Fu n c ti on

.

69 . Sol ution of Poiss on tion ( 1 61 ) s tates

s Eq uation . Equ a
th at if the quantity V V is known th roughout a region

b ounded by any surf a e S and if t h e qu antities V and V V

c ,

are known at all p oi nts of t h e s urfa e th en V is compl etely c ,

determined within t h e su face Allow th e su rf ac e S to r .

recede to in nity so th at we are now c ons i deri ng t h e poten

ti al in the wh ole of sp ace Then in t he equati on the surface

.

integral contribu tes nothi ng as all th e quantities mul ti plied ,

by d8 app roac h ero to a su f c ient ly hi gh order

z T here .

remains th en in t h e l i m
,
it onl y
,

V V
V, = dv .
( 66)
1

1

Now , b y Po isson s
Equ ati on, V sa tis es the rel a tion
V V
4 up .

So th at by ,
if t he value of p th e dens ity be given , , at

every p oi nt in s p ace V is determined b y t h e integral

,

V ( 1 67)
T

whic h is therefore a soluti on of Po isson s

Equa tion .

Th e Integ rating O perator Pot tion of nding . Th e opera

t h e po tential due to a d is t i b u ti on wh ose dens ity is denedr

every wh e e b y t h e sc al ar fu nc ti on p ( l ) p l ay s su c h an i mp or

r

tant ole in mathemati al phy i cs th at P of Gibbs h as gi ven

r c s r .

to this operati on a pe ial name and denes

s c

read ti al of p )
Pot p E
ff .
( 1 68)

( p o ten .

Th e s ig n 00 i ndi cates th at th e\xmxt s may b e t aken over t he

Wb ol e of s p ac e, as wh erever th ere i s no meme: th e mm

m
1 54

Th e vec or t
fun tion V so dened is c alled the vector
c

po t en ti al of 9 Its th r ee co
. m p onen ts evi dent l y s atisf y t h e

rel ati ons s atis ed b y t h e s c al a p otenti al so th at we h ave r ,

V V
4 7: p .
( 1 70 )
In t t analogy with the solution of Poisson s Equation
s ric

f or a sc al a potenti al we h ave th en f or t he solu tion of a vec

r

to potenti al
r
-

1 V V
dv .
( 71)
1
4 7: r

71 . Separation of a Vector Point F unction -

Ww , h ich h as
a.Vector to Sol enoidal or Rotational and Lamel lar
-
Poten ial , int
rrotat ional Component s Thi s means th at t h e vec tor
functi on Wis to be sep arated i nto t wo parts one of whi c h
or I .

We then assume
,

h as no divergence and t h e oth er no url c .

W X Y , ( 1 7 2 )
where V X-
0 and V A! 0 .

i
Cons der t h e s c al ar func tion 95 and the vec to func tion V r ,

rel a ed t to X and V, res pec ti vel y in t h e foll owing manner;

,

X = mm
Y= V
hen
W
T
V xV V 4 ) .

it is p oss b le t o de ermine V and 95t h e problem is

i t
Wi
If solved.

To do s thi t
ake t h e d vergenc e of , g
v nig i
V -
W V gb
.

So th at the soluti on f or 95 is by

m
,

sw i

l
p ot (V W) .
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 55

Simil arly , t aki ng th e cu rl of W

W
,

V x
V x
(V V) x V (V V) o
V V
.

Now since V is as y et u ndetermi ned, we may as su me th at

it s divergence is z ero or th at V v 0, h ence

W
o

Vx V V

th at V Wis 4 times the vec tor func tion of whic h V is the

.

So x
7!

vec tor potenti al and b y ( 1 7 1 ) ,

1 v v a
V iw
V dv dv
4 7: r

p ot (mm w hi h d t ,
c e er mines v .
(1 74 )
Finall y , si nce
w v v,
w dv v xw
fff fff
1 v 1
w
.

v + v dv, ( 1 7 5)
G r a r

t h e dec ompos ition is t h us acc omplish ed This dec omposi .

tion is someti mes wn as kno H el mh ol t z s Th eorem * '

.

Oth er Sy stem of Units Th e fa tor 4 w hi c h oc c urs in . c 7:

many of th ese equations is due to th e de nition of unit quan

t ity of matte In virtue of thi s de ni ti on it is ne ess ary to
r. c

ass u me th at every u nit of matter emit s 4 l i nes of forc e so 7! ,

th at f or ex ample th e number of li nes cutti ng th rough any

, ,

c l osed s u rface arou nd any amou nt of matter wi l l b e 4 ti mes '

11

as many as th ere are u nits of matt e i ns i de O f l ate it is t h e r .

fas hion to el i mi nate thi s e upti on of n as H eavis ide h as

r

s

it This may be done in various w ays one of whi ch is to

.
,

rede ne t h e u nit qu antity in s u h a manne th at it emits c r

b ut one l i ne of force in whi c h c ase t h e equ ati ons ,

3 4
F = 1

1
1
q div F = 4 p
7r and V V=
7t p,

bec ome respec tively

F= L LE

L
z r
, div F p and V V= '
p .
( 1 7 6\
W
4 a
t r
m . Abb B and 1 , p 1 0 1
. . . For a mnemoni c it not m im: ew
ax e

0 1 th i s th eorem,
'

mul tip ly eq u at io n ( 1 4 5) b y 4 L
1
X
1
'
an exn m m~m m

h i n t! M O In :n - u
1 56 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

Suc h h oice of units eli mi nates 4 in a nu mber of for

a c 71
'

mulae b ut i ntroduces it in others It is nevertheless th e most .

c onvenient assu m ti on in t h e modern th eory wh e re t he

p ,

energy is l oc ated in t h e s ace between t h e ac ti ng matter and

p ,

in whic h ac ti on at a dis tance no l onger h olds rs t pl ace Th e .

p o ten ti al at a di s t an c e f ro m a m assrm f or ex amp l e b ec o m e s , ,

Th e O perati on oi formi ng t h e Pom

1 7
ins tead of
4 : : ? nt ial '
7

or po t V woul d in th is y s tem consis t in formi ng t h e integral

, s ,

p 0 t p
=
fff ( 1 7 7 )

and th e theorem of H el mh ol tz would become in this notati on

W V pot (v w)
o
p ot (V x W) , ( 78)
1

72 . Energ y of a Sy stem in Terms of Potential . Con

s i der two p articles of matter ac ting ac cord ng i to t he inverse

O
. 0
O o
O O
I
O
. 0
0
FIG . 60A .

s qu are l aw ,m m, andti vel y sep a

,
rated b y a
res pec d i s tance ,

d b ri ng t h e mass m from i n nity to its pos i t ion

rm In o. er t o r ,

an amou nt of work ( 566)

99

must be ex pended on th e mas s m, if th e mas ses repel or by ,

m, if th ey attract . For de niteness ass u me th e mat ter to be

 1 58 VECTOR AN L SIS A Y .

At a s ur acef
ist ri bution th ere is a dis continuity or ch ange
d
in t he normal c omponent of t h e force due to the su rf ace dis
trib ut ion gi ven b y t he well known ex p ress i on
,
-

F ,, 4 nV o
V .

By dra wi ng a surface completely surrounding the surface dis

t rib ut ions we may ap ply Green s T heorem t o t h e wh ole of

sp ac e ou ts i de of th ese su rfaces Re membering th at from t he

.

l as t equ ati on

a =
l
n V
-
V and th at p
i V V,
'

4 7: 4 7:

t he two n i teg rals whi h c are now

= J
fa ff
l
.
V V ds V V V dv '

8 7: ,3 8 7: Q

bec ome b y Green s Th eorem ( 1 58 )

W 8 7:
1
8 7:
F dc
.
( 1 3 1 )

If t h e mediu m is any oth er th an vacuo t h e element in the ,

i ntegral F dv must be mul ti pli ed b y a fac tor 5 c h arac teristi c

,
2

of t h e medi u m Th e energy of t h e di s tri b u ti on is in this c ase

.

W fj; eF

dv .
( 1 82 )

Th is may al so b e wr itten as

wh ere

is a vec to r c al led the Indu cti on .

 VECTOR AN L SIS A Y . 1 59

74 . Exp ressions f or Surf ac e and Vol ume Densities of a Dis

trib ution in Terms tensity of Polariz ation Starting
of th e In .

ag ain ( 1 80 ) with t h e energy of a s urf ace and vol u me dis tribu

tion of dens ities and p respec ti vely

a , ,

W ff v l
2 S
a ds + 1
2 fff vol
Vp dv .

Let us ass u me th at this energy may be written also as

W gf f f
= IH dv
- =
%f f f IV V dv,
-

where Iis c al led the i ntensity of polari ation H is th e eld z ,

s t rength and V is t h e p otenti al

, orres p o ndi ng to H T h en c .

S i nc e
v IV V VV l - o
,

th e n i tegral may be transformed i nto

w =
f f v u val
VV l dv o
.

$
forming the rst i ntegral by th e divergence theoremand
T rans
comp aring this with t h e exp ress ion f or th e ene gy in terms of r

and p ,

W =
[ t a
r umas 3
2 f] VV l dv, o

we see th at th e polariz ation Iproduces a surf ace dens ity

a ml ( 85)
1
and a vol u me density
p V I -
.

Conversel y ,
mi ng a distri b ution to cons is t of a surface
as s u

d ens ity a and a vol u me dens ity p it is eas y t o s h ow b y rea

,

soni ng b ac kw ards th at th ere is a quantity I el ated to r a and

p
b y th e equ ati ons
a ml and p V l o

h th at th e energy of the distri b uti on may

s uc be rep resen edt
by th e i ntegral th oug h ou t t h e vol u me
r ,

W do .
 1 60 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

Eq ua ions t of th e El ec tra -
Mag netic Field .

75 . Maxwel l
s Eq uations i ment Faraday sh owed
. By ex per

th at when th e mag neti c ux th roug h a li near circuit is varied

there is i ndu ed in t he ci rcuit an electro motive force If
c -
.

t h e c i rcuit is a losed one thi s indu ed elec t ro moti ve fo ce

c c -
r

p r od u c es a c u rren t in it H e al s o s h ow. ed th at this el ec tro

moti ve forc e is equal to t h e negative ate of c h ange of t he r

magneti c ux Th e p sit ive di ec ti on of rotati on in a c i

. o r r

c u it is connec ted w ith t h e p os iti ve d i rec ti on of u x th rou gh

it acco di ng to th e adjoi ning di agram whi c h sy mb ol i z es t he

,
r

so c alled c ork
-
ew ru le-
sc r If t h e a o w s h ows di rec ti on of
. rr

i ncrease of magnetic ux t h e a ow head in circ uit sh ows ,

rr -

t h e direc ti on op p os ite t o t h e i ndu ed c u rent Th e gure as c r .

d rawn s h o ws t h e di ec ti on of t h e magneti c ux due t o the

r

c u r ent in t h e circ uit B y Len s l aw s u c h a magneti c ux

r . z

would i ndu ce a urrent p po ite t o this ; hence the negative

c o s

s i gn in eq u ati on 1 87 b elow Si nc e elec .

t icity tend t o w f o m p l ac es of hi gh
r s o r

to p l ac es of l ow p otenti al we may con

s i der thi s elec tro moti ve forc e as some -

thi ng in t h e nature of an elect os tatic r

eld w hi c h is i nduced in t he sp ace b y

t h e v aryi ng ux T h at is t h e elec tro .
,

m oti ve f c e is i ndu ced in t h e s p ac e

F m 61 . .
or

even w h en u noc c up i ed by a c ondu c tor .

In a c ondu c t or this elec t o moti ve force p rodu ces a c u rrent

r -

and in a no n condu c tor tends t o p od u ce a c urrent

-
To r .

ob t ai n t h e t ot al ele t o moti ve for e a ou nd any c i c uit we

c r -
c r r ,

eval u at e t h e l i ne i nteg al of th is elec tros t ati c el d F al ong

-
r

th at circuit Then t h e i nduced e m f may be w ritten

. . . .

J
F dr
o o
u :18 ,

by S to k es T heo rem B u t F at ad a g s
'
ex p ef x mexxt sh ow s mt e .
1 62 VECTOR AN L SIS A Y .

of a c u rren q t
th e e is p o du
r c ed a so c a
r l l ed d is p l ac e men t -

motion or c urrent q of elec t ri c ity whi c h on the release of the

,

i nduci ng elec tro moti ve force springs bac k and takes up its
-

ori ginal pos itio n H e ass u mes th at this current d i sp lacement

.
-

p rod u c es t h e s am e m a g neti c e e t as w ou l d b e p r od u cced b y a

c urrent of dens ity

1 69
'

q 1 89
4 7: 6t

where 9 "
5 F

and e is a cons an t t of th e medium called elec tri c induc tivity

at every poi nt of t h e el d We therefore in considering a
.
,

diel e tri c i nt rodu ce this di pl acement c urrent density ins tead

c ,
s

of q gi ving
.

355
v .

( 1 90)
6t

T his ass u mp ti on h as been co mpletely veried by t h e experi

ments of Rowl and in Amer c a i .
* If t h e d elec i tri c is also con
duc ti ng we t i
re a n t he te m in q givi ng
r ,

V xH = 4 7t q +
g o

Th e term
l a5 "

q + ( 1 9 1 )
4 7: 3t

is c alled t h e total c urrent and b e ng i equ al to a c u rl is sole

noid al , and h as no d ivergenc e, i . e .

1
= 0 .

4 7:

T his t th e efo e move in closed c i rcuits or p at h s It

c u rren r r s .

is bec au e of thi s eq u ation th at elec tric ity is s ai d to ac t l i ke

s

an in o mp ess ib l e u i d
c r (S ee A cc
. ord i ng to t h e El ec

t on Th eory its c ompressibil ity is at m s t ne p a t in a million

r o o r .

S in c e rep eat ed al s o b y (Brend en an d Yen d et \n m

 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 63

The co mplete sys tem of tions for media at res t holding

equ a

in an ins ul ati ng di elec tri c are th erefore

69
'

t u rn
at
a: m= V F. ( 1 92 )
m

gt
in co mbination with
{F r-
6F and JC = p II
.

c and ,u are th e ti
inductivities respec
elec r c and magneti c
tively and are de ned by th ese equ ati ons
,
They are con .

s t ants f o a gi ven h omogeneous isotrOpic med i u m th at is

r , ,

f or non cry st al l ine medi a

- "
.
I

76
. Eq uation of Propagation of El ectra -
Mag netic W aves .

Let us assu th at there are no permanent magnets in the

me
s p ace cons i dered or in oth e w ords th at th ere is no i ntri ns i c
, ,
r ,

magneti ation sy mb oli c ally this is ex pressed by writing

z ,

V H div l l 0

o
.

Take th e c url of t he rs t of these equations

J 9

V v x sr V (V x Hx
) V H '
V (V H-
)
.

dl 6t

Ch angi ng from 9 F and from H to ac and membering

'

to re

th at V H -
0,
2V x F= V UC .

6t

Dierentiating with

respec t to t h e ti me ,
we ob a t in
6 '
v . v 7 _
63
v4 2

and also ( 193 )

a

2

2
JC V 30 .

ar
 1 64 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

i milar manner we could how th at F

In a s s ,
H and JC and
their cu l also satis fy the equ ation
rs

( 1 94 )

T his tion f or wave m ti on one of th e

is t he di erent ial eq u a o ,

fundament al partial diff erenti al equations of mathematic al

,

p hy s i s It c
c an b e.s h ow n th at t h e vel oc ity of a
p p g
ro ati o n

is eq ual to a and th erefore f r an elec tro magneti c pulse

,
o -

equ al t o Thi s turn out to be identi c al with t h e s

V eg
vel o c ity of i ht
lg in vac u o , as it sh ould be if the ether

is t he mmon med i u m f o r t h e p rop ag a o n of ti ti

el ec r c al

W
co

w aves as w el l as of l g i ht
e no w b el eve in. i fac t th at
,

l i g ht waves ti
and el ec r c al w aves are den c al i ti .

77 . Poy nting
s Th eorem . Rad iant Vec tor . Th e energy

of th e elec tri c eld is gi ven by ( 3 ) as

1 8
1
w e if :
8 7:

and of t h e magne tic eld ,

si mil arly by ,

l
JC H dv
-

8 7r

Acc ordi ng to Joule t h e energy d ue to a c urren t of density q in

t h e elec tri c eld F is

W ] q F d
-
v .

Let us nd th e var a i ti on of t h e s u m of these th ree with th e

ti me ,
ass u mi ng 5 an d ,1 not to v ar ; y then
a 0
O
F 65
5 F O
e F 2
2 5 .
F 2F 2 F (V H. x 4 7: q ),
at at 6 at
a 6 6H 63C
3641 H =2 "
3 -
H =2H 2 H (V F - x

at at at at
H ea vis ide int roduces ct itiou s magnet ic current dens ity
a in
o rd er to p md uce a sy mmet ry i n th e eq u at mns T o e \eat n . mm
1 66 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

To nd the var a i ti on 6w in the solid angle at a point due

, ,

to a s mall di spl acement ah of t h e poi nt noti c e th at it will be

,

t h e s ame th at will t ake pl ac e s up pos i ng t he c irc uit to move

,

a dis t anc e a h in t he opposite d irec ti on o r oh t h e point ,

remaini ng xed . Thi s moti on will c ause every element d r of

t he c i rc uit to des c ri be a s mall area d r ah wh ose c omponent
x

F ro . 61 A .

t
as a vec or al ong r d v i i ded by is the element of soli d angle
J
7

d (dw ) at t h e point due to it

,
.Th e tot al c h ange in sol i d angle
due to t h e mo tion of t h e wh ole c i c uit will b e t he integral
r ,

of this ex p ress i on arou nd t h e contou r th us , ,

" '
7 r r

wh ose i ntegral around the ci rc u it after di vi di ng by

, tilt , is

hp
!
8

drxV
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 67

that dr
Q
f
so
.

g l
"4 I = l h1 .
V - x .
( 1 96)
an T
o

S ince th is is true for any di rec ti on h , , we may write th at th e

element of magneti c i ntensity dH , at a p o i nt , d ue t o t he

el ement dr of t h e c i rc u it , is

( if ! 1 x dr = J W "
( 1 9 7 )

h expression is determi ned to any fun ti n of r pres whi ch

T is c o ,

w h en i ntegrated around t he c i c u it vani s h es So th at to

r ,
.

this extent it is arb itrary Th e equation hows th at the force

. s

d ue t o an element is perpend i c ula to t h e element and to the r

radi us vec to r T he rad i us r bei ng drawn f om th e p oi nt to

. r

t h e circ uit and t h e c u rrent bei ng p ositi ve in th e di rec ti n of

,
o

d r t he order o f t h e fa t s i t aken so as to gi ve t h e ri ght

,
c or s

d i rec ti on to H T his is t h e fami l i a ex p ress io n f o r th e mag

. r

neti c i ntens ity at 0 due to d r .

Idr s in 0
dH z
J to
. el e ment and to r .

79 . Mech anical F orc e on t The

an Elemen t of Circ ui .

magnetic i ntens ity dH ab ve i t he fo e w ith whi h a u nit

, o ,
s rc c

p o s iti ve po l e p l aced at t h e p oi nt w o u l d b e ac ted u p n in t h e o

eld due to t he u rent I in dr B y t h e p in iple of equal

c r . r c

ac ti on and reac ti on t h e el ement o f i uit would b e ac ted c rc

u p on b y this amou nt b u t in t h e O pp site di rec ti on Th e o .

force on the element dr due to u nit p le at th e ori gin is there o

fore
r
dF I( 11* Idr tb x .
( 8)
1 9

So th at the force on an element of u rrent is proporti onal to c

the c urrent st rength I to t h e length f t h e element ls w o o ( , h .

t o th e s treng th of th e eld at th e ei ement Th e \aeh ox o\

 1 68 VEC TOR AN ALYSIS .

p p
ro o r tional ity is the si ne of t he angle between dr and 1b and
t h e force is at i g ht angles to th ei p l ane
r r .

H en e t h e force on t he element ary cu rrent Idr in a eld

c

due to anoth er el ement ary c urrent I d! at 0 wh ose el d at "

"

t h e element dr is b y ( 1 9 7 ) and ( 1 98 )

dr rI
9
2
r

w h ere the orde of the vector p roduc t is reversed to t ake into

r

ac c ount t h e c h ange f di rec ti on in r or o ,

( FF :
( 1 99 )

Wm e ay resol ve this expression i mmedi ately into co mpo

t
neu s al ong t h e r adi us ve to r r and along t h e element (i f by
c

an ex p ans o n of i the triple vec tor p rodu c t givi ng ,

=
dF = dr dr

r, cos (dra m aw cos (drr) (200 )

The X co mp onent is

l z
g

(PF,

dr dr cos (r23 ) c os

( d ) d )

co s r x cos ( r r etc .

T hese are w ell known re ult s -

s .

80 . Th eorem on th e Line In teg ral oi t h e Normal Compo

nent of tor Arou nd a Closed Circu it B y means of
a Vec .

S to kes T h eo em t h e fol l owing useful t an f rmati on anal o

r r s o

go u st o it may b e p o ve d : r

q
9
dr [ ( q)
V n-
v (q o
u )] as .
(20 1 )

q is any t f tion of r and n is the unit normal to t h e

vec or u nc ,

t f su fa e dS In this c ase t he li ne i ntegral of t he

el emen o r c .

normal component of the vec tor q al ng a c losed circ uit is o

tak en, ins tead of th e more u sna\ t angenti al eo moenent .

1 70 VECT O R AN A LYS IS .

B ut ( 1 1 7 )
( ) ) = )q
q (q (
0 n n - -
c -V .

T he di erentiation re ers f to q al one, as in t he above integral

the properties of the reg ion are i ndependent of th e sur f ace

considered , and we may subs titute (0 q ) (q o

u ) f or t he sec ond

term in t he n i tegral hence , ,

9 '
[a
q q
n nd8 :

and nally si nce c ,

is an arbi trary vector,

H t
: it :t uv s
l v (q (202 )

whi c h sign to t ake depends upon the direc ti on of integra

,

tion around the contour This t heorem is ori ginal l y due to .

Tait and to Mc Aulay w h o gave it in a mu c h more general,

form incl uding S tokes and othe th eorems as sp ecial cases

,

r ,
.

Exp ress ion tor th e Field at any Point in Space D ue to

Wm
81 .
a Current . this theorem to trans form th e inte
e ay use

g ral g,
i vi ng t h e mag neti c forc e H at any p o i nt in s p ac e due

to a c u rrent of elec t i city in a c losed circ uit r .

If th e magneti c p otenti al i 0 Ithe c urrent in th e c ircuit s , ,

and w t h e sol i d angl e sub tended b y t h e c irc uit at t h e p oint ,

we h ave b y de nition
, ,

IV an as

I
,

the f
s ur ac ei ntegral b ei ng taken over any surface with the
circ uit f or b ounding edge b u t not p ass i ng th roug h t h e p oint , .

Now V nV l-
d8

Employi ng the ab ove th eorem (202 ) and re membering that

 VECTOR A NALYSIS . 1 71

H = I
r

v D
l
r
x dr

= i I 1
3
lu v
?
whi c h res ult is in ment with
Wm
agree See also
e ay th us write
dH IdrxV -

i
: b,

in Cartes i an
1
d =
3

2 0 "
dz! (3! yr ) etc .

w h ere r y ,, ,, arei tth e p oi nt

c oord na es of a
in t h e c irc u it ,

:17 y 2 th ose of
, ,
th e point P so th at th e s mall magneti c eld
,

d H due to an element dr is determi ned to a func ti on (I ) p e s r

s u c h th at wh en i ntegrated arou nd a cl osed c i rc uit t h e res ul t

v anis h es So to a cert ai n ex tent thi s resol uti on of t h e el d

.

is arti ci al and may or may not be th e correc t one b ut in

, ,

any c as e this as well as any oth er p oss i b le resol u ti on wi ll

g iv e t h e c orrec t v al u e f o r H ab ve wh en i nteg rate

d a r o u ndo

a closed ci cuit rwe h ave b u t very sc anty knowledge of th e

elds due to unclosed c irc uits .

82 . Mutual ts Inductance Neu

Energ y of T wo Circ ui . .

mann s Integ ral Consi der t wo ci cui ts c arryi ng currents I

. r

and I Th e mec h ani c al force on one of th em due to th e

eld of the other is the i nteg al of equati on (1 99 ) taken once
r

around eac h circuit Si nce .

we may write
F II
"
r
'
. l x dr
"

v arq
-
at "
or m
1 72 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

Let it be now dis pla ed in any arb itrary manner

i
o ne c rc u c ,

s o th at any poi nt n it is moved a di s t ance

o Th e work
done in this di s pl acement i s

Fo r
(euav-

F IG 63 . .

Integ rati ng th e sec o nd te m b yr p ar s t and re membering

th at d or 8 dr,

J
[ o
V
1 I

the n i tegrated p orti on vanis hes f o r a cl osed c rc u i it hence

,

(3 w

F ee dr
(

-
dr ) a + ea r "
)

As th e assu med moti on of t he i

c rc u it is arb itrary we may
then nd the f o rce in any d i rec ti on by ndi ng the ch ange in
77
1 1
7
 1 74 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

Wm e ay now trans form the magneti c energ y in terms of

m
the eld H ,

= 4 H dv
2 r e H H dv,
8 8x w

into
1
11 .
v dv .
(206)
8 7:

Integ ration Th eorem . In general ( 1 30 ) we h ave where

,

H and Q are any t wo vec to rs ,

V -
(H X
Q) Q v -
H v - x
c .

th e minus s i gn bel ong ing to th e erm in t whic h th e c yclical

order h as been h anged Integrati ng
c . over al l sp ace and

i
u s ng th e di vergence th eorem S bei ng t he bo undi ng
f
s u r ace,

_
ffL
v v

V -
(H Q ) dv
x =
j jil ao
(Q o H d

f j (n ou n- x
s .

Sub stituting in this equ ation and rememb eri ng th at

th e surf ace i nteg ral vani s h es at i n nity , bec ause th ere t h e
magneti c force vani shes , and also th at V H 4 7: q th ere x

re mai ns
Ef
L
II] Q V x H dv
f -

8 7: a,

1
Q -
q dv .

Now repl ac ng i Q b y its val ue, we h ave nall y

W m :
1
dv as .
(207 )

Th is sex t up l e i ntegral th e wh o\e oi me tmm

cov ers so .
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 75

Let the onl y portions of sp ace h aving any current density

b e t wo closed circuits Th e wire forming the circ ui ts may
.

h ave a s mall b ut nite cross -

sec tion .

" "
Pl ace q dv a Id r

q d
'
v

5 dr ,

where I and I are called the currents in the two circuits ,

res pec ti vel y Th e i ntegrals th en redu ce to a doub le l i ne

.

integral eac h integral to be t aken once around eac h of th e

c irc uits so th at
,

W
:
II

r
O 9

Th is y identi cal with Neumann s Integral

exp ression is reall

T h e fac tor k is due to th e fac t th at b y th e conven

tion in (207) th e integrals cover each of th e circui ts twi ce
and h ence w ou ld gi ve twi ce th e val ue of

84 . Mutual and Sel f Energ ies

-
of T wo Circuits . Each inte
g ral b eingtaken over both c ircui ts , ( 08)
2 may b e b ro ken up

into f our p arts ,

Th e third p arts
second and are ev i dentl y equal , so th at we
may write f or their sum
"
r

l 3

where here , eac h integral is taken around

circ ui t once .
1 76 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

If we c all i t
th e n egral s

L1 L2
1 1 r z r
r

dr dr
M, z
o

7
r
we may write f or th e magneti c energy of the el d due to both
c urrents

Wm :
L 1
i 1 1 +
z
M1 21 1 1 2 + L
l 2
1 3
3
'

tegral s L r L and M are c all ed th e sel f indu c tances

Th e in ,
o , ,3
-

and mu t ual i nduc t anc e of th e c irc u i ts res pec ti vel y

-
.

S ES AN D PRO B LEMS
EX ERC I .

1 If th e line integ ral of th e f orces in any eld around a closed

.

contour is zero f or any su c h

cont our, t he f orces in t he eld f orm a

cons ervat ive sy stem .

2 . Sh
t hat t he surf ace integ ral of a scalar poin f unct ion V
ow t -

t aken over any closed surf ace is equal t o t h e volume integral Of its
g rad (V V) t aken t h roug h ou t t h e vol ume of t at s urf ace ; t at is ,
h h

V V dv .

8 S ow
. h a th t
th e line integ ral of a scalar p oint f unct ion, V, -

t
around a cl osed con our is equal t o the sur ac e in egral of the f t
vect or p roduc t of t he normal by it s gradient aken over any cap t
to the contour; th t
a is , p rove

f
E
)
V dr n V V dS
x
.

4 . t eorem, let q
Using t he divergence h
r, , and prove hat the t
potent ial of a b od y may b e rep resented b y t h e su rf ace inte ral
g

n T1

p dS
SS Yrv v il .
 CH APTER VII .

APPLICATIONS TO DYNAMICS , MECH ANICS , AND

H YDRO DYNAMICS .

Equations of Motion of a Rig id B ody .

85 . Eq uations f or Trans lation . D Al emh ert

s Princ ipl e,
upon whi c h Ia g rang e founded the whole s ubjec t of anal yti c al
mech anics may be written
,

where 6: is any p oss ib le arb itrary or vi rtual di sp l acement

comp ati b l e with t h e c o ns t rai nts i mp osed upon th e sy stem,

and where the 2 su ms f or all th e p ar cl es ti .

In order to ded uce ti tion of transl ation

th e equ a ons of mo
assu me t h e virt u al di spl ac ement to b e th e sam e f or all p oi nts

of t h e sy s tem as thi s is t h e de niti on of pure t ransl atory

,

moti on It th en foll ow s i n e we may now take the dr from

. s, c

under 2 si gn th at ,

d

r
61
2 0,
5

and since Or is arb it rary th at

,

0, (2 1 1 )

which are t h e ord nari y equati ons :

(
m
g
; 0 .

0 .

= 0

A
See papers by Ziwet and Field in merican Mathematical Month
.

ly , 1 91 4 , p p 1 05 1 1 3 and b y Rees same journal 1 923 , pp 290 296 f or .
-
 VECTOR ANAL SIS Y . 1 79

Motion of Center Let r b e t he vec tor to t he

of Mass .

c enter of mass or c ent roi d of th e s ystem; then, b y the de

nition of th is p oint f or whi c h (20 )

r
z m z mr ,

we h ave by di erentiation

d'
d

2
r r
m= 2 m
7 a
r
d

so th at nall y equation (2 1 1 ) may be written

d? '

7
d 2 m 2 F, (2 1 2 )

or, in words motion of transl ation of th e centroi d of a

, th e
s vstem of bodi es moves p rec isely as if all t h e forc es of th e

sy s tem were appl ied to th e tot al mass concentrated at th at

p o int .This r ed u c es t h e p rob lem of t h e t rans l ato ry moti on

O f th e system to th at of th e moti on of a single p oi nt An .

interes ti ng ex ample of th is p roperty is seen in th e case of the

moti on of a s hell whi c h explodes whil e desc ri bing its p ath
in sp ace . As th e resul tant of th e ac tions and th e reac tions
whic h are produced when th e s hell explodes is zero ,
th e p ath
of th e c enter of mas s o f th e frag ments is th e i denti c al p arabol a

th e center of mass of th e s h ell w ould h ave des c ri bed h ad

it not exploded In oth er words the p ath of the center
.
,

of mass remai ns unc h anged by t h e ex pl osi on T h e center of .

mass of a th rown s ti c k des c ribes a s moo th p arab ol a as it ,

whi rls th rough th e air .

Th e k inetic energ y of transl ation of the b ody is evi dently

given by
l l
m
T =
2 (2 1 3 )

where q is th e vel oc ity of the center O f mass of the system ,

where M 2 m is its to tal mass and bec ause all pointe i t h e e

sy s te m have the same vel oc ity .

1 80 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

86 . Equations f or Ro a ion To dedu ce th e tt . tions

eq u a of

moti t t
on f or ro a io n, let ba be an elemen ar ro t y tati on ,
th en

(i f . dccx l 3 ,

where (i f . is an arb it rar y

itesi mal motion due
p o ss i b le in n
to t h e ro tat ion f any p a ti le m f t he sys tem about so me
O r c . o

i no
ax s , . Su bs tit ut ing thi in d Alembert s equ ati on we
s

ob t ai n

m bmr R am
2 2

o t
,

and with ob viou s t ransformations

Wh e s al l now as su me th at t h e p ar ti cles of th e system

t t
ro a e ab ou t the ame ax is o th at 600s ,
s sh all be t he same f or
al l t h e p arti cl es and may b e d i vi ded ut o , and re membering
th at (34 )
dr " dr
E O,
a ;
we Ob a n t i E mh
gg =
g t
~

2 m r x

g =
2 rx l i
(2 1 4 )

f or t h e equ ati on O f motio n O f rota tion O f a s ys tem about an

ax i s . T h e moti on of t m is of course a spec i al

a rig id s y s e

c ase O f thi s . T hi s equ at io n ex p ands i nto t h e famil i ar Ca r

tesian ones ,

dl ]
)
(1 dz ZY)
d 2 m
( y
dt
z
dt E 7

d dzc
m
t dl
3
2 ( 2X xZ )
, ( 1 5)
2

2?
52 4 5 7 7

abo u t th e three rect angul a r ax es , b y t he ordinar y rules .

M 2 I?
 1 82 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

whi c h if the total mass M of the system were plac ed its

, ,

moment of i nert i a would remai n unc h anged .

Th e total ki neti c energy of a ri gid sys tem moving in any

manner may th en be written

r= Ma (22 1 )
M ,
th e mass of t h e b od y is an absolu te cons tant but as
, ,
*

s t ated ab ove varies with t h e d irec tion

,

of t h e ax is ab ou t whi c h t h e sys te m

rotates and h ence th e treat ment of

,

rot ati on is essenti ally more co mp li c ated

th an th at of pure t ansl ation

We sh all treat of the motion of
r .

rot ati on more in det ail not onl y f or its ,

intrins i c i nteres t but also bec ause it

,

i nt oduces naturally th e Li near Vec tor

r

Fu nc ti on and so me of its elementary

p p
r o erti es .

8 7 Linea r Vector F unction.

.
-
Instan
taneous A xis . Cons der i a r i gi d body
of mass M t ting in any manner
ro a

ab ou t a x ed p oi nt This p re c ludes
.

any t ans l atory moti on of th e b ody

r

whi c h is now one of pure rotation at

any i ns t ant ab ou t so me ax is necess aril y
F m 64 a i n th u h thi xed int T h i
p ss g o g r s po s .

In th e Elec t ron Th eo ry of Matter t h e inert ia of a p a rt ic le, at least

in p art , is accou nted f o r by th e elec t rical ch arge wh ich we know th e
p art ic le c a rries Th
. e e
r s is tance of an elec t rical c h a rge to acc el erat io n
is not cons tant b ut is a f unc t ion of th e veloc ity , and th eo re tically becoma
in nite wh en its veloc ity app roac h es ligh t The appare nt inertia
th at of .

of su c h a part ic le is th er
e f ore not co nstant B ut f or any vel oc it ies with
.

wh ich we are likely to deal in mec h anical sy s tems th es e variations in

inert ia a re inap p rec iableTh e o rd inary eq uat ions of mech anics are then
.

rs t app ro ximations only , h ut f or ord inary veloc ities , up to 1 0,(Xl0 km .

P9 ! s . eme y
ec say , a re ext r l cl ose t o th e t ruth .
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 88

axis , whi ch may vary continuously in direc tion is c all ed the ,

Ins t antaneou s Axi s of rot ati on Let th e angul ar veloc ity .

ab ou t this ax is at any i ns t ant be repres ented b y a vec tor

of leng th a f (t) in th e di rec ti on of it and in th e c onven

t ional sen e i s th at of t h e motion of progress ion and direc
s ,
. .
,

tion of rot ation of a corks c rew .

As the velocity of any poi nt r is

2 m ( rx o x r) =
2 m(mr '
1 n r) ;
o
(222 )

t h us H is t f tion li nea in m (to say

a vec or unc -
r , .

T his p art i c ul ar func tion (to h as a number of i mport ant

p p
ro ert ies whi c h a re ev i dent u p o n ins pec ti on If 1 and 0 .
' '

are any t wo vec tors t h e follo wi ng equ ati ons h ol d :

,

(a)
a cons t. 4m1
'

a b b
( )
(223 )
( l
0

and 1 4
)0 (d )
'
5
0 5

In p art c u i
l ar wh en a li near vec to r -
funct i on h as th e p rop
erty rep resen ed t b y (223) (d) it is s aid t o be Sel f Conjug ate
-
.

Form t h e s c al ar p rodu c t of H and o .

o -
H 00- ) at4 2 m co

2 m (m u
m( -
our ) 2 m((0e

2 T
 1 84 VECTO R A NALYSIS .

Now, i
s nce ( he is l near ini as, the sc al ar p rod u c t b
(tr- ( ar is a

quadrati c f s cal ar -
h en u nction
ce of a) , and rep resen s t when
equ ated t o a cons t ant a q u adri c s urf ace ,
.

88 . Motion under No F orces . Invariab l e Plane. Ass u ming

no appl ed i force s,

d 0
H

,
(

so th at H c ons t vec tor .

,

or in words u nder no appl i ed forc es t h e moment of mo men

, ,

t u m of a rig id sy s tem remai ns c ons t ant in magni t ude and

d ire c tion It remains pe pendi cul ar to the pl ane c alled
. r ,

Invari ab le Pl ane w h ose equ ation is ,

r H c ons t -
.

Al so since th e ene gy ( ki neti c) of t h e sys temis conserved it

,
r ,

foll ows th at th e moment of i ne ti a about any direc tion to r

is inversel y p opo ti onal to t h e s qu are of t h e rad i us vec t or in

r r

t h e q uadri c am ber con s t b ec au se .

,

so th at
I
2 T c o ns t
(225)
.

T his tion also s ay th at with a given amount

eq u a s of

energy t h e b ody rot ates t h e f as ter t h e s mall er I is ; i e . . .

,

1
) cc
(I
~/ I.

Poinsot El l ipso id . Si nce

idently no ni te body h as an ev

i n nite or a e o moment O f ine tia ab out any axis the

z r r ,

q u ad ri c s u rf ac e amber c o ns t m u s t b e o ne th e rad i u s v ec t o
.r of
whi ch h as a ni t e mi nimum and maxi mum val ue; th at is it ,

must be an el lip soid T h is ellip soid is c alled th e Momental

.

or Poinsot Elli ps oid Let us c onsi der th is su rf ace more in

.

i s s m m orm

d etail and inc dent all y sh ow i t ex e n x on xn t i {

p
-
s .
 1 86 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

K no wi ng these i t ( A B C D E F ) the
six c oef c en s , , , , , ,

func tion duo is completely dete mi ned and f or this reason r ,

they are someti mes c alled th e coordinates of t h e self conju -

g ate l i near vec tor f u n c ti on -

.

Consi der now t h e ell i psoid (224 )

( ) (b r
o 2 T c ons t 1 -
.

o - lm m ,

A w, or, F
wzurF 0 2
:
B W 3 0
asurE we wz p l ' '
07
whi c h may al so be wr itten
b
(tr- ( 0 2 w,w, D 2 wscuIE 201740 , F .

It may ily seen th at in o der th at 1

be eas it is r
'

necess ary th at t he c oeffic ients D E F sh ould oc c ur in p ai rs as , ,

ab ove If howeve th ey do not oc cur in pai rs there will

. r ,

be nine o efc ients in (229 ) all di ff erent

c In this case t h e .

func tion is not s aid to be sel f conjug ate; b ut it is s till a -

li nea vec tor func ti on

r In thi s l as t c ase 1 450 is not eq ual
-
.
'

to (N I If we w rite 1 410 c br is s aid to be t h e con

H

-
.
,

j g
u ate of b and dr t h e co nj g
,
u ate o f 4
V
.

Princ ipal Moments of Inertia Princ ipal Axes Th e f unc . .

ti on mo ther as is seen by it s exp ansion is h omog eneou s in an

, , ,

and th e elli p soi d it rep resents wh en eq u at ed to a p ositi ve c on

s t ant 2 T is
,
efe ed to an o i gi n at its center
,
r rr We may r .

now refer t h e ell i psoid to its th ee p incipal axes its eq uation r r .

th en becoming as is well known , ,

em; cons t (2 30 ) .

1 1 1
T h e axes h ave length s p rop or i onalt o

to 7 and
t /i /i
x V?
The c oe c ient s A, B , and C, in th e ab ove eq u a tion c al l ed

th e p r nc p al momen s of ner a, are th e momen s of ner a

i i t i ti t i ti
of th e b ody ab out th ese th ree p rin cip al axes and in g eneral

di er f rom t h e v alues th ey h ad netoro , ont th ey are seam en

 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 87

the sa me manner with t to the new axes Th e prod

res pec .

u c ts of i nerti a h ave all vani s h ed There are th us th ree .

di rec tions in any ri gi d body f or whi c h t h e produc ts of i nert i a

when referred to them vanis h .

Referred to these axes s ince ,

md) mE Aw} o
Em Cw}
, ,

(I
)00 th en becomes mE Zu ni Da nk .

and H K o hl Ch it .
(23 1 )
SO th at the components of H are

H z Aw
H v Ema :

H ; D0) .
Loo ki ng upon 4 ) as an opera or, t we see from equation
(23 1 ) that when it is applied to any vec tor 00
ar==w, l w,j w, k ,

thus it a) H ard Bw j Cw k , , ,

it mul tiplies the co mponents of or by the quantities I B and , ,

C res pec tively

,
Applyi ng 4) ag ai n to
. we s h ould ob tain
from
d uo Zu ni i Uw sk s '

l '

w m
a
as
3
K u ai l F w d ' '

i k
8 9

and so on . th at operator which when applied

De ni ng b "
as

t o b annuls its e ec t must th en evidently di vide the com

,

p o nente of an y v ec t or b y A B a nd C res pec ti vel y

, so th a
,t , ,

I
() m :
K
{ ho l Um,k }
l 1 w +
g w3j +
awgk

( a, i w,k , (233 )
 1 88 VECTOR AN LYSI
S A .

Ap p l yi ng to th is w e ob t ain
W at 5
4W ) 9 '
1+ i

i i -
k .

and so on

Wh
.

Lemma . e s h ow th at (to is perpendicular from

all now s

t h e o i g i n to t h e t angent p l ane at o and th at its mag nitude

r ,

is i nve sely p oportional to t he d is t ance from t h e ori gi n to

r r

this tangent plane o in other words th at Giro )

,
r, is the ,
"

e
p p ren d i c u l a v
rec to f o m t h e o r
ri gri n to t h e t angent p l an e at ,

o of t h e q u ad i c r

o -( o b 1 .

Cons i der t h e q u adric

o -t o b cons t .

Di ff erenti ate this func tion ,

c o ns ide ing or as a variab le

do o
b
o o t -
bdo 2 dab (to -
0,
i
us ng c and d o f eq u a tions

F ro . 65 .

H ence o is perpend c ul ar to do i . B ut do is as mall vec tor in

f t it
t h e su r ac e at t h e ex rem y O f o and th erefore li es in t he

t angent plane so th at th is pe pendic ula to this plane If

,
o r r .

0 is t h e ru nni ng c oo dinate of t he p l ane its equ ati on is (64 )

'
r

(w ho co ns t .
,

Do no t conf ound #

i) t
th e eci h m i W en t .
I
th e rec ip ro c al O f
 1 90 VECTOR AN ALYSIS .

T his l ast equa tion is by ( 6)

22 and (227) eq uival ent to
(A l )w 1 F a) , E w3 = 0,
F ol (B l )o , D ara (a)
E a) ; D u) ; + (C
T he ition that th ese equati ons shall be compatible
cond

f or val ues of w a n oth er th an z ero is that th e deter

t, , ,

minant of the coe cients sh all vanis h i e , . .

,

A it F E
F B m D =0 . b
( )
E D C
T his is a cub c i in i , way s h aveand may be s h ow n t o al

th ree real roots Eac h O f th ese th ee value f o 71 i nse ted

. r s r r

i nto eq uations (a) wi l l all ow f o their solution ob t aini ng r ,

f om eac h of them values f o w w and w and h ence a

r r ,, , ,

di rec tion for eac h i .

T h ere a e th en al w ay s at leas t th ree p i nc i p al axes to a

r r

c ent ral q u adri c s u rf ace .

Th e Princ ipal A xes Intersec t Normall y Le t i be .

,

th e oot s of th e d et erminant s] cu bi c (b ) and o o

r o the , ,, ,, ;

c orresp ondi ng axes .

Th en dr
o l o , , ,

and t
( o, 1 , o, .

Mul ti p l yi ng th e rs t by o, and th e s econd by o, and

t
s u b s rac ti ng there
,
t
res ul s , u s ng i (22 3 ) (d),
4
( 1 A2 ) = 0:

w hi c h means th at if A is not equal to ,then th e two

p ri n c i p al a x e s o a nd o , are e
p p
r endi c u l ar t,o eac h o th er ;
si mil a l y if
r i 7 1 and r .2 1 2
, , , ,

we co ul d S h ow th at t h e th ree p i nc i p al axes are mut u all y r

e
p p r e n d i c u l ar t o eac h o th e r .

If t wo root s of t h e c u b i are eq u al t h e p osition of t he c ,

c orresp o nd ing axes bec omes i ndetermi nate and it may b e ,

m th a t i ctd ar t o th e detenti on g
'

511 0 u all radii end v en by

p p
er
 VECTO R ANALYSIS . 1 91

t i
th e h rd t are p rincip al ax es of the s ame length The
roo .

s urface is then one of revol ution ab ou t t h e dete mi nate r

axis . If all th ree oo ts are eq ual th e s u rface is a s p here

r , ,

and any ax i s is a p ri nc i p al ax i s It may al so be sh o wn .

th at the th ree roots of the c ub i c a e eq ual to the s qu ares of r

t h e rec ip roc al s of t h e length s of t h e semi axes t h e Cartesi an -

eq u ation then b ei ng

l kw
,o

,

7l
c ons
,
t o
s , .

Co mparing w ith (230) we see th at t h e root s of t h e deter

minant al c ub i c are p rop ortio nal to t h e p ri n i p al moments c

o f inerti a )1 )1
,
1 5 .
,

71 B C
89 . Geometrical R ep resen a ion tt of th e Motion . Invariab le
Pl ane . i mpressed fo ces act upon
If no r the ro a t ti ng b od y
t h e equati on of motion (2 1 8 ) beco mes

t h e solu tion of whic h is

H o c ons t . vec or,t (23 5)
h ence H I or
to is t tt i m
a vec or cons an
n agn i t u de an d d irec ti on
t h rough ou t th e moti on so th at t h e t angent p l ane of t h e
,

ell i psoi d to w hi c h it is al w ay s perp endi ul a mus t remain c r

xed in s p ace and is f o thi s eason c al led t h e Invari ab le

r r

Pl ane Th e poi nt w he e thi s p l ane is to u c h ed b y t h e ell ip

. r

soid is on t h e ex tremity of t h e i ns t ant aneo us ax i s or pole so ,

t h at t h e ell i psoi d is al w ay s oll i ng w ith out sl i di ng on thi s

r

p l a ne In.o th er w ords h avi ng cons t uc ted t h e ell i p soi d of

,
r

inert i a and h avi ng determined t h e position of t h e i nv ari ab le

,

t angent pl ane in s p ace t h e motion of t h e b ody is t h e s ame as

,

if it were ri gidly attac hed to thi s elli psoid w hi c h is roll ing

without sl iding on th e invari able plane .

This geometri c al cond ition in additi on to th e fact th at

,

t h e angul ar veloc ity of rot ati on is p rop ortional to th e radi us

vector to t h e p oi nt of cont act of th e ell ipsoi d en t p\er n o\

comp l etely determines t h e motion .

 1 92 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

It is eas y to see, iways p asses

S nce th e radi us vector al

th rough a xed point t he orig in th at it must desc ribe a cone

, ,

in sp ac e th e vec tor H being its axis x ed in sp ace

, F or .

this reason H is c al led th e Invariab l e Line

, , .

It also des cri bes a cone in th e ell ipsoi d Th e vec tor H .

des cri bes a c one in t h e ell ip soid bec ause th e ell i psoid moves
rel ati vel y t o it This desc ip ti on of t h e moti on is due to
. r

Poinsot .

FIG . 66 .

90 . Polh od e and H erp ol h od e Curves . If the de

sc r ib ed i t
b y t h e po n of c on ac t t o f th e and inva el li p soi d

riab le
p t i
l ane be de erm ned on them f or instance by pl ac i ng ,

c arb on p ape b etween th em as th ey roll on eac h o th er t wo

r ,

c u ves are O b t ained : one on t h e i nva i ab le pl ane c all ed th e

r r ,

H e pol h ode (si nu ous

r and one on th e su rface O f t h e

ell i p oi ds al led t h e Pol h ode (p ath of t h e p ol e)

,
c Th ese curves .

are t h e d i ec ti ng c u rves of t h e cones des c ibed b y t h e rad i us

r r

vec t o o in s p ace and in t h e ell i pso i d

r c all ed res p ec ti vel y ,

H e pol h ode Gone and Polh ode Cone

r .

Permanent A xes It is eas y t o see th at in th ree cases H and

.

o c oi nc i de in di re ti o n i e w h en o is p e pendi c ul ar to t h e
c ,
. .
,
r

t angent pl ane ; in th i ase wh en b oth H and o coi ncide in

s c

Th e a bove name is a misconcept ion , becaus e as a matter of fac t th e

H erp olh od e can be p roved to h ave no point oi inh ec ti on , mo in m

"
0 s inno us .
 1 94 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

a homogeneous equation of th e second degree and hence a ,

cone w ith ve tex at t h e ori gi n Its equ ati on in Cartesian

r .

coOrdinates may b e i mmedi atel y written do wn by (23 1 ) and

(23 2 ) as

2 : B
k 0 3
3
0,
p
or (233 )

,
p
Th e i nters ections of this c one f or d ierent val ues
'

of p wit
h the
ell ip s oid o -
d
r
o k,

g i v e t h e p ol h o de u v e s w hi
c hr are th er
,
efo re twi s t ed cc urv e s , ,

of t h e fo urt h degree lyi ng on th e moment al or Poins ot

,

elli p soi d .

Si nce t h e h erp o l h ode is t aced out b y t he points of cont ac t

r

of an ell i p soid ro t ati ng o n it s c enter with an i nvari ab le t an

g e nt p l an e th e se
, c u rv es m us t lie b etw ee n t wo c o nc en t ri c

c i rc les on t h e p l ane th ei c enters b ei ng at t h e i ntersec ti on of

,
r

t h e i nva iab le l i ne H with th at pl ane and to u c hing th em

r ,

al ternately .

Moving Axes and R elative Motion .

91 . Th eorem oi Co riol is ften convenient in dynam . It is o

ic s to use ax es whi c h th em el ves move in sp ace and to wh i c h s

t h e motion O f t h e b ody u nde c onsi deration are referre

s d r .

In orde to dete mi ne at any ti me t h e positi on of t he mov

r r

ing ax es one meth od is to refe th em to axes whi c h remai n at

,
r

res t th roug h ou t t h e motion Ac o di ng to thi s devi ce the . c r

xed axes a e left b ehi nd by t he movi ng ones H owever it

r .
,

is fou nd t o be more advant ageous to refer t he moving ax es at

al l ti mes to x ed ax es i nst ant aneou sly coi nci di ng with th em .

No gene al ity is los t by referri ng th e motion of a bod y to

r

movi ng ax es w hi c h si mp ly turn ab out a xed point in sp ace ,

as any motion of transl at ion of t h e movi ng axes with refer

en ce to x ed ones m ay b e co mmi m S S - 0 \ s
trims m
 VECTOR AN ALYSIS . 1 95

ever y point of the body considered a motion equal and oppo

s ite t o th at of th ese movin ax es T hi nd iti on th en does
g s c o.
, ,

not l i mit th e general ity of th e c h oi ce of movi ng axes .

Conside any vec to r 0 P r drawn from a xed ori gin 0

'
r

and f or de niteness let it b e t h e vec tor to a poi nt P in a

moving body W . e sh all now c onsi der th e motion of t h e

FIG . 67 .

p oi t
n P in two w ay s Refer it to t wo di erent
.
'

t ially coi nc ident , one revolvi ng ab ou t t he axis 0 1 with an

angul ar veloc ity o , th e oth er remai ni ng at res t (or x ed ) .

Let PR be th e motion seen in a ti me dl by an ob server

remaini ng in the xed sp ac e, or, in oth er w ords , t h e absolu te

motion in sp ace Deno e

. is t th vec o r t PR as th e s ub

ip t
s cr ti f
deno ng its re erence to xed space Cons ider now .

t h e po int P as remai ni ng at res t with reference to th e mov

ing sp ace; it wi ll th erefo e move rel ati vely to xed sp ace
r

with th e velocity of th e movi ng sp ace alone and will des cribe

t h e p ath
PQ o dt x r o u r dl ,

d! is
as an th e ang le des c ribed b y N P in time (it .
1 96 VECTOR AN ALYSIS .

B ut as ti
t he p ar cle P b y its own mo on ac uall y reac hes ti t
t h e po i t t t t
n R, t he vec or Q B mus rep resen t he p a th of th e
p a rti cl e as Seen b y an O b serv er mo v i ng w ith t h e mov i ng p
s ace ;
in oth er words Q7? d rm t h e s u b scri p t denoting its refer
, ,

ence to moving s p ace . F rom t h e gure

d ry. drm o s r dl .

Divi di ng through b y dl we ob t ai n t he ver y i mport ant equ a

tion
o x r. (239 )

Letti ng 0 P r represen t any di rec ted quantity su c h as

force, velocity , mo ment of a cou ple, or angul ar momentu m,

et c .
, eq u a tion (23 9 ) s hows h o w to f
re er them to a moving
s p ace .

T he t way s represents t he vec tor at the begi nning

vec or r al

o f t he mo tion and referred to eith er s p ace as i niti all y th ey are ,

both coi nc ident If r rep resent a dis pl acement and q the

.

vel oc ity O f th e p oi nt P ,

dr
in" .

The tion f a b ody wh ose motion is known rel a

accelera o

t ively to movi ng sp ace and t he motion o f movi ng sp ace

,

kno wn rel ati vely to xed sp ace may be O b t ained b y a second ,

appl i c ati on O f thi s eq u ati n o .

Rep l ace r b y qI th us . ,
 1 98 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

T he te m r 2o x is c alled t h e Compound Centripetal

Wm then conside th e m vi ng axes to be at res t if to

_
e ay r o

th e actual forc es ap pl ied to t h e b ody c titi ous ones be added

c ap ab l e f p oduci ng ac celei ations eq ual and oppos ite to t h e
o r

ac c elerati on of movi ng s p ace and to t he comp ound centri pet al

ac c el erati on This is th e theorem of Coriol is

. .

92 . T rans f orma ion t of th e Eq uation of Motion Centri .

f ug al Cou p l e . tion
Let us u til i ze eq u a (2 39 ) to refer t h e

moti n of a igid b ody to a sp ace movi ng with it o in other

o r ,
r,

words to axes in the body The equation of moti on of a

, .

ri gi d b od y ab out a p oi nt referred t o xed s p ace is (2 1 8)

dH
M .

dt

If there are no i mpressed forces M ,

0 and

(1H
0
dt

t t
s a es th at H the moment of momentum remai ns cons tant
, ,

in magnitu de and direc tion in th e xed sp ace h owever ,

pec ul i a t h e m
roti o n o f t h e b od y may seem t o b e .

Employi ng now th e equ ati n f Cori ol i s we s ub s ti tu te f o r o o ,

nt f or movi ng s p ace ob t ai ni ng as th e eq u a ,

tion of motion of a rigi d body ab ou t a xed point referred to

a sp ac e movi ng with th e b ody

o xH M .
(243 )

If there are no applied f orces , M 0, and (243 ) b ec o mes

Rm .
(2 4 4 )

o is c al l ed t h e Centrif u gal Coupl e and , as is ev i dent by

9 f orm, is p erp endi c ul ar to b oth or and . Th e sh ows eo n

s
 VEC TO R ANALYSIS . 1 99

t ion then s t ates th at t he h ange of th e angul ar momen

rate of c

t u m H i n the body is eq u al to t h e centrifug al c oup le o If ,

.

t h e c h ange in H is al w ay s normal to itsel f th en H is never ,

increas ed or decreas ed in length b ut onl y c h anges in dirc e

ti on at a rate p rop rt ional to H o Th us H des c i bes a cone
o . r

in th e b ody al though it remai n x ed in x ed s p ace

,
s .

If H and onever bec ome p arall el th en o vanis h es and i n ,

th e body too we h ave

= 0,

o r, in ther words the body mu t c nti nue to otate forever

o ,
s o r

ab ou t t h e I nvari ab l e Line H in x ed s p ace ; it is th en an

i nvari able line in the b ody al so W e h ave seen th at th ere
.

are at l eas t th ree s u c h di ec tions c al led permanent ax es or

r , ,

p r i nc i p al ax es f r whi ,
c h t h
o e ab o ve co nd iti o n is f u l l l ed A .

s y mmetri c al b ody s upp orted at its c ente f mass and ot at r o r

ing ab out its ax is O f sy mmet y will gi ve th is ki nd of moti on

r .

Gyroscope Th e p operty th at a rot ating b dy possesses

. r o

o f ro t ati ng p ermanentl y ab ou t a p i nc i p al ax is w as u til iz ed

When a symmet ical top is

r

b y F ou c aul t in t h e gy roscope . r

rap idl y s p i nni ng in g i mb als it keep s it ax is p oi nti ng in t h e

,
s

s ame d irec ti on (invariab le l ine) in sp ace so th at if t h e top is ,

c arried around b y t h e ea t h s motion t h e ax i s of t h e top

r ,

remai ni ng x ed in x ed p ac e wi ll des c i b e a c one with refer

s r

ence to t h e ea th (or movi ng s p ac e)

r B y O b serv ati ons on .

s uc h an i ns t ru ment not only c an t h e ot ati on o f t h e eart h r

be p roved b u t t h e l atitu de of t h e l oc ality at w hi c h th e ex peri

ment is pe formed may be dete mi ned
r r .

93 . Eu l er s Eq uat ions

. th ree compo
If w, , or
, be the
neu ts o f onal ng t he p ri nc ip al axes o f a ri gi d bo dy at a p oint
o
,

and if A B C b e t h e p rin ip al mo ments of inerti a about

, , c

t h ose same ax es we may w ite (23 1 )

,
r

Cwk
-

H
200 VECTO R ANAL SIS Y .

T here are no products of ine tia entering i nto this equation r ,

as f or th e p ri nc i p al ax es th ey vanis h

Sub tit u ti ng this val ue f or H in (24 3 ) there resul t the

s

three equations

a
n
I -1
+ (U Mn

M2 ;

(7
% ( H M, .

These are y i
tions of Euler f o the motion of
th e d nam c al eq u a r

a rigid bo dy ab ou t a x ed poi nt refe red to ax es moving with, r

th e b od y . Of course

w + m x = M
dl

is t h e i
c orres pond ng vec or equa t tion .

94 . Analytica l Solu ion t of Eu l er s Eq uations f or

Motion
u nd er NO Imp ressed F orces . For c onven ence i we rewr i te
th e foll owing :

a) :
( a, i u) , j w, k .
( )
a

H t i s i Omsk 4m .

Th en I
() a) = 91 i + j -
k .
(c)
B C

d :1
.

(d)
Mm mo h
c a .
(c)
Euler s eq u ati on f or this

c ase is

dH =
m or
d;
(240 )
dt
 202 VECTOR AN L SIS A Y .

mm th
o th ree equations (24 7
ese ( 24 9 ) it is p ossib l e to

nd n f o all ti me and hence all ab ou t the motion

o r Su ppose .

it is desired to expand these th ree i ntegrals i nto Cartesian

form; we h ave i mmedi ately f or (24 7 and (248)

MI
N: 2 T=Z w,

B w,

Cw, (250 )
3
and H (251 )

Th e third is more compli c ated , b ut eas y ,

i m
t
= c>
a n
l wh o

By i
sol v ng eq ua tions (250) and (251 ) co mb ined w th i
2 s
9 wa )

for col , w, and a n, and s ubs tit uting in we nd

wh ere t he As are functions of X H C T and H an equa

, , , ,

tion for w in terms of thes e cons tants whose general solu tion
i nvolves ellip ti c function s .
*

95 H amil ton s Pri nci p l e

. Starti ng agai n wit h d Alem

.

bert s eq u ation

,

)
F ar
o
o, (253)
t h e 6r s b e ng

i
i ti ons con is tent with the constraints
any var a s

imposed upon t he system or wh at is the same thing satis fy , , ,

See by Prof essor Greenh ill , in f ourt eenth

article vol u me of the
Oua erly J ournal , p p 1 82 and 265, \S lb

.
.
 VECT OR ANALYSIS .
203

c ert ai n equ a ti ons of condi ti on

, we may transf orm it in th e
foll owi ng manner:
g
dr ddr
o at :

l
(
dt dt
3 6
2

T rea t eac h te m of r (2 53 ) in this way ; d Alembert s equation

then bec omes

1 m
:1 t
= d
2 +
2 F 6r -

= 6T
Z F dr,
-

where i neti c energy due to the velocities of the

T is th e k
masses of t h e system As t he rs t term is an ex ac t deriva
.

tive let us i ntegrate with res pec t to the ti me from t t to

, ,

t = tm

2 m =
f
11
aT + 2 F a dt
-
.

If th e p ositi ons of th e sys tem are gi ven at th e times t, and t, ,

th en th e 8r s are z ero f or those times , and th e l eft h and terms

-

van sih ,
l eavi ng

I 8T + 2 R5 a - o, (254 )

Th is equ a tion is t ue wh atever the system of forces is th at

r

ac ts ; if h owever t h e sy s te m i a c nse vati ve one th e wo k

, ,
s o r , r

d one (b y de niti on) in going f m any poi nt to any oth e ro r

p o i nt a g ai n s t th ese f es is indepen d
orcen t o f t h e p ath c h osen ,

and is theref re a fu nc ti on solely of t h e initi al and nal points

o

o f t h e p at h In thi s c ase th en th ere mus t be a sc al ar point

Wsay ) such th at knowing its value everywhere
.
, ,

fu nc tion , ,

w e c an c al c ul ate t h e work done in g oi ng from any poi nt to

any other by any p ath s i mpl y b y know i ng t h e v al u es at
. W
fo r th ose p oi n ts (C on s u
.l t In o th e r w or d s \h e w k
,
. or
204 VECTOR AN ALYSIS .

EgF dr in going from positi 1 to pos ition 2 is t he di er

W
-
on

ence in val ue of t h e func ti on at pos iti ons 1 and 2 or

(W W W
,

z iF e r ) , , 6

In th e c ase o f tive fo then 2 F ar may be

Wd(
cons erv a rc es , ,
e

rep l aced by 6 an 2 54 ) b eco mes

f
"
a ( T ( 55)
2

T his is H mil ton s

func tion T W
a

Princ ip l e .

Lag rang ian F unc ion t . Th e is c al led t h e

Lagrang i an F unc ti n o ,
and is o ften written L s o th at H amil ,

to n s i ntegral b ecomes

a L di o .
( 256)

96 . Ext ension of th e Concep ion t of Vector to More th an

Th ree Dimens ions tain p cesses occu in mathemati c al
. Cer ro r

p hy s i s i n w h i
cc h m o e th an th ree in d ep e n d e n
rt v ari ab l e s a re

conc erned In u h c as es as thi s t he vec tor not ati on is s till

. s c

ap p lic ab le to t h e manip ul ation of these quantiti es If .

q q q
,, ,,
b e th
a
ese i nd ep end en t q u an titi es w e c o n ce i v e o f ,

a vec tor q ,

q :
i
91 n i
93 n

wh ere i i i a e i ndep endent u nit vec tors

,, ,, ,
B y an r .

ex tens ion f t h e i dea o f a vec to

o we are to c onsi der q as a r,

vec to ex i ting in mo e th an th ree di mens i ons as many as

r s r ,

th ere are q s An ex ample will s how th at we are not going

.

very f ar b ey ond t h e manip ul ati on of ordinary vec to rs .

D e nitions Cons i de t h e general i z ed vec tor in n di men

. r -

si ons ,

1 :
i
Qu t + qn in
( 257 )
3
In analogy to V -

l + -
k
By 32

V B (258)
20 6 VEC TOR ANALYS IS .

The k nei ti c energy func tion T bec omes

1
m 1 m
2 2 V ail )
2
)
r
. . ,
(263
2

ever y term of t he su m be ng l near and i i h omogeneous in q

.

The sq u are is a h omogeneous q u adrati c fu nc ti o n o f t h e

q ;
s

o ften written
a
T i a

:
a
'

l '

Per orm ng th e var a

f i i tion with respec t to q and q indi cated

b y H amil to n s integral

and us ing L a T Wwe have ,

since

6L dq v uL -
aq '

f 1
d
( q V nL -
dt o .

B ut bec ause
dq d . 4 .
aq,
dt dt

th e seco nd term be omes c

f 1
aq dt,

whi ch may b e i nt eg rated by p art s, with resp ec t to th e time ,

int o

of which th e st te m vanishes as q is x ed at the li mits and

r r ,

h ence su ers no variation there leavi ng al together ,

aq a
( gi vn L
z dt = 0

.

B ut as oq is arb it rar y it follows th at

,

d
o ,. L
'
wa s (255)
Et
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 207

T hi s is a vec o r t in n -
d i mensional sp ac e, wh ose co mponents
mus t all be z ero , f or ex a mple :

691

l
g
f
0, et c .

T h ese Motion
then f o any sys tem the func ti ons T and W
are Lag rang e s General iz ed Eq uations

of .

If r are kno wn ,

and it is p oss i b le to ex p ress th em in terms of n i ndependent -

p a a rm e t er s q q ,, q th e se n eq u ati o ns ,(2 66 ) m a ke it
p oss i b l e t o dete rmi ne t h e v al ue s of th es e p a ra me te rs f or all
time ; th us th e p ath of th e p oint
=
1 i
91 1 + i
92 2 qnin
" '

is determi ned , d i mens i onal sp ace

in n -
.

De ning t h e operato r
V
V ( ) 5 VJ lv
"

all dynami cs is i ncluded under th e Remark ab le F ormula

VL o .
( 67 )
2

H y drod ynamics

tal Equations W
.

98 . F undamen e s h all now deri ve t he .

fu ndament al eq uati ons of hy d rody nami cs f or a fri c ti onl ess

u i d and so me o f th ei r mos t i mp o rt ant c onseq uences b y

means of t he p revi ous p i nciples The direc tness of att ac k r .

and ab sence of art i c ial ity is es pec i all y noti ceab le in this

ap pl i c ati on of t h e vec tor meth od .

Let p rep esent th e dens ity of t h e ui d ; we sh all ass u me

r

t h at it is a func ti on of t h e p es ure p al one so th at r s ,

(2 68 )
t t Let q (u 1) w) b e th e v eko elxw at \ me

Eq uation of Co n inu i y . .

ui d and F X YZ be the forc e p er u nit mass ac m v

,
on.
\N b
 208 VEC TO R AN ALYSIS .

u di . Cons der i a xed s u r ace f S in t h e u d i . B y x ed is

meant th at th e imagi ned u face ret ai ns its pos ition in s p ace
s r

irres pec ti ve of th e moti n of t he ui d itsel f Th e rate of

o .

increas e of matte in it is meas u ed by the su face inte gral

r r r

of t h e u x of t h e ui d th oug h t h e s urf ac e t aken along t h e

i nwa d d awn normal

r r No u id is s up posed t o be c reated
.

no de t ro yed i nside of t h e s u rf ace

r s As we use generall y t h e .

ou t w ard drawn no mal n in ou r fo mul a r n will rep res ent r ,

th e i nw a d d aw n n mal so th at we may th en wri te using

r r or ,

t he di ve gence th eorem
r

am
at s

3
at ff s
p dv
If s
93 dv
at
.

bec ause m pd v .

As this tion h olds wh atever su rface is taken

rel a we may
eq u ate t he integrands t o eac h oth er ,

V pq -
o .
(269 )

In Car tes i an this is

a 6
a a
4 pu + pv +
-- - -

(ax a3/ a

T his eq u ati on is alled th e equati on of continui ty It st ates

c .

th at matter is neither created nor destroyed at any p oint in

th e u i d .

It is convenient h ere to empl oy a s pec i al not ati on to be

used wh en we f l l ow t he ui d in its moti on as di s ti nc t fro m
o

c on i d e ing t h e ui d as it p a ses by a x ed reg i on in s p ace

s r s .

F or ex ample t h e rate c h ange of dens ity of a de nite portion of

,

th e uid as it is f oll ow ed i n it s mot ion sy mboli zed by th e ,

21 0 VECTOR AN L SIS A Y .

made up of the me s mall

sa p or ti ons of the i u d with whic h
it s tarted . For suc h a s ur ace,f ev i dently t h e mass is
cons t ant or ,

'
Dt Dt Dt Dt
Dv e x
..

so th at V q by
-
(2 73 )

Wm e then interpret V q as the frac tional decrease of

ay -

density per unit of ti me o as t he rate of i nc reas e of vol ume

,
r

p er u nit vo l u me o r as t h e ti
,
me ate of dil at ati o n a di vergen ce r , .

Eq u ati on (272 ) foll ows also from (273 ) if p is cons t ant .

Eul er s Eq uati ons of Moti on of a Fl uid Cons ider th e

.

forc es acti ng upon a denite mass of the uid enclosed in

th e s urf ac e S .

Let F per unit mass or p F per unit volume be t h e ext ernal

force function and let p be the p ressure func tion ac ting
,

normal l y over th e encl os ing s urf ac e and along th e i nwardly

drawn normal B y N ewton s l aw t h e rate of increas e of


.

momentum ( 2 p q dv) of th e ui d is eq ual to the ap pl ied

forces F ac ting direc tly on th e mass of the ui d and to the
forces (2 p dS ) res ul ting from th e p ressures ac ting on the

W f f Lm
s urround i ng s u rf ac e or ,

3f f L v= d
r
f p n dS '

or
fffg ( - -

t
p q dv) =
ff (p F

N ow
D _ _
Q g D (p dv)

and t term vanis hes as the ma s remains cons tant

t h e l as s

th ough out th e motion so th at th e integral b ecomes

r ,

f f f (ii ) f f
1 l
p dv = (P F -
V p ) dv .
(2 74 )
. 1
5 f s f ormat ion o f las t term b y diver
S ee no te to 5 ,p
52 2 2 ,
or t ran.
 VECTO R AN A LYSIS . 21 1

As t rue for any vol ume wh atever

this is , th e integrands
a e eq ual and we h ave us ing
r ,

9 3 29 V P
to
m p + M] v 9 9F 275
- . -
.

at
T his is Euler s

eq ua tion of motion whi ch ,
in connection
w ith (269) and forms the b asis of theoretical
h y drodynami cs .

99 . Transf ormati on of th e Eq u ation of Moti on . If we

di vi de (275) b y p and e mp loy t h e den i tity ( 9)
1 2
PV II
I

th e i
s ubs c r p ts indic ating p rec isely on wh at the V ac ts , or

V
q q
-
q

we may trans form th is eq ua ti on into

aq Vp l
x
( Q)
V x F Vq
( 6)
27
2
.

p
If t h e externall y ap p l ed i forces h ave a p otenti al V f or , ,

ins tance forces due to g rav ity or a ny o th er c ons erv ati ve

s y s tem of forces th en
F ,
VV .

If th e p ress ure p at any p o int dep ends onl y up on th e

dens ity p , we may dene a q uantity P suc h th at
VP
V P, or P
p
ao th at our equ a tion becomes
g q c url q = V
ag x V+ (277 )
VU ,

where U
Referring b ac k to equati on ( 1 26) wh ere it was sh own th at
c url q 2 a) ,

wh ere mis the vorti city or angular velocity of rotation of the

uid at th e poi nt c onsi dered (277 ) b ecomes ,

2q x
ao V + P - i
r q
at z
21 2 VH D
TOR ANALYSIS .

1 00 . Stead y Motion . De ni ion t . S teady motion is one in

w hi c h F, q , p , and p are i ndependent of th e time If s uc h . is
th e c ase and a) 0, th at is if th e motion is non vorti cal
,
-

i t
or n egra ting V P Qq

c ons t .

If p is c onst ant ,

P B.
P

and if th ere are no applied fo rces ,

F 0
and hence V c ons t .
,

so th at
2
2 g c ons t .

p 2

In th er wo ds where th e pressure is great the veloc ity

o r ,

mu st be s mall and where th e velocity is great the p ress ure is

,

s mal l . Fo ex ample in a c ons t i c ted pi pe t he p ress ure is

r ,
r

leas t at t h e c ons tric ti on wh ere t h e vel oc ity of t h e inc om

p ress i b le u i d nec ess a il y is t h e greates t Ai
rr p u mp s and .

wate meters are construc ted on this p i nci ple

r r .

1 01 . Vortex Motion . Th eorem of H elmh ol t z. Take th e

c u rl , or app ly V t x o

33

+ 2 co qx = V V+ P + f
S
at 2
giv ni
g
c u rl 2V x
(q ) 0, as cu rl grad a 0

or
gt
(c u rl q) 2 (V q -
q V m
-
q m mV q ) -
0 .

Rememberi ng th at
c url 2 th at V o = kV N AQ = h
q to; o
,
21 4 VECTOR AN ALYSIS .

ti on th
i
1 02 . Circulation . Th e c ircu l a along any p a in a

u d is de ned as th e l ne n i
i tegral of the veloc ity along that
-

p a th . If d
ug deno te th e c i c ul ati on along t h e p ath AB by
r ,

de nition

L
B
= q d r-
.
(28 1 )

If t he p ath is a closed one we may exp ress the circul ation ,

around it as a surface integral over any c ap bounded by it ,

by means of Sto kes Theorem f or

,

f
0
q -
dr -
q dS = 2
ff n d8 ,
o

where
2 m q by

Rough ly i ng th is equation s ays if there is a pre

s peak ,

ponderanc e o f mo ti on o f a l i q ui d in one direc ti on or t h e ot h er

F ro . 68 .

around any c l osed p a th th at ,

t h e l qu d i i i nside of t he closed
p a th mus t be ro a t ting .

Co ns ider a tub e made up oi t ne Y

xnes of t h e vec tor 0 , and
ons ider a p ort io n of it b ou nded
cv two ones 35 mo .
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 21 5

Appl y th e di vergence th eorem to this closed surface S,

and sides Remembering th at no is solenoidal , we h ave
.

As t he s i des t t
thing to the surf ace integral
con rib u e no

th ere mus t be as muc h ux of an inward at S as there is out

ward at or th e ux is cons tant through out t he t ube If .

FIG 69
. .

this tub e be ch osen very s mal l it rs called a vortex l ament ,

and if th e sec ti on of s uc h a l ament b e denoted b y s t h e

ab ove resul t ex presses t h e fac t th at

s n d) c ons t o
(282 ) .
,

wh ere n is t h e normal t o t he c ross sec -

tion This p roduc t is
.

c all ed the t
th of the l ament
s reng . It sh ows th at if a is
nite o in oth er words if there does exist any vorti c ity 5
,
r, , ,

c anno t vanis h h enc e a l ament c annot end anywh ere i n th e

ui d.
,

S uc h l aments must th en eith e form closed c urves or r

end in th e su face of t h e l iq ui d or at i n nity Al l vorti ces

r .
,

th en form clos ed curves in th e ui d o else end in the surface r

m
, .

T hi s al so fol l ows from t h e f ac t th at V n n \

t at e g a - c xe o .

s olenoi dal vec tor .

21 6

1 03 . Vel oc ity Potential -

. If a is zero ever ywhere , th e c ir
c ulation around any closed c urve is zero hence the circula ,

ti on from any point A to any other point B is independent

of th e p ath In this c ase q dr is a perf ec t dierential ; th at
.
-

is it is of t h e form
,

d q
r-
dd dr vd, o

so th at q V sb .
(233 )
The veloc ity q is th us derivab le from the function (6 in th e
same way (ex cep t f or si gn) th at t h e force is deri vab le fro m ,

t h e ordinary p otenti al Ac cordingl y 95is c alled th e Veloc it y

.

Potenti al and is a sc al ar point func ti on of th e sp ace oc cupied

,
-

b y t he u i d All t he res ul ts of t he theory of po tenti al are

.

th erefore directly appli cab le to the function

Prod uct ion of a Vortex Imp ossib l e in a F rict ionl ess Fl u id .

Let us nd t h e i ti ti i t
me ra e of var a on of t he c rcul at ion
-

al ong any p ath ass u mi ng a v el oc ity po tenti al to ex is t Th is

-
.
,

p a th is made u p o f c ert ai n el emen ts of t h e u i d whi c h ar e

to be foll owed in thei r m ti n h owever dis torted t he p at h o o ,

may bec ome Dierentiating

'

BL A 2
I f 29
f
R 3
q d r
. = .
dr + q .
dr .

Dt Dt A A Dt A D

Since th e veloc ity potential exis ts

-

c u rl q 2 a) 0,

and t he eq ua tion of motion (275) becomes if ,

WE V P)

29
Dt
v W , (284 )

so that o
dt dr V -
W W d ,

D 2 '
dr q d d
q q d
q t

and h enc e 22 W (285)

21 8 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

3 . h
Prove t at a sy stem of f orces act ing al ong and represented
by t he sides of a plane polygon t aken in order is eq uivalen to a t
h
couple w ose moment is rep resented b y t wice t h e ar e a of t h e pol y

g on Ex te.nd t is t o f orces ac t ing alhong a c l os ed pla n e c urv e .

4 . By means of t he t heorem (202)

q
b
f dw
cap
a -
q V (rrn)l
18
-

s h ow h
t at if f orces equal in magnitude act everywhere along the
tangent s t o a plane c ontour, t h at t he moment of t hese f orces ab out
any point is meas ured b y t wice t he area of t he contou r .

5 . If body h as a velocit y of t ranslat ion (Ir and

a rigid an
ang ular vel ocit y of rot atio n a) , t h e vel oc it y (1 at any ins t ant of

a p oint r in t h e body may be repre sented b y

see 22 .

h
S ow t h at if q : and a) are cons t ant s t h e p at of any point in th e h
body is a circul ar h elix desc ribed wit unif orm velocit y , and nd h
it s equat ion .

h h
6 S ow t at t wo eq ual rot ations in opposite direct ions abou
. t
two parall el axes p rodu ce a mot ion p erpendic ular to t he p lane of
th e two axes .

7 The mot ion of a point in a plane being given, ref er it to

.

(a) xed re ctang ular vect ors in th e plane ;

b
( ) rec t ang ular vect ors in t h e p lane,
revol ving unif orml y ab out a
xed p oint .

Trans late into Cartesian in both cases .

8 . h
Prove t at th e cent ral ax is of t wo f orces F , and F, inters ects
th e s h orte st d istance bet ween t h eir lines of ac t ion and divides it in

t he rati o
F 2 (F 2 F] cos a) : F , (F , F, cos

0 being t h e angle bet ween t h eir d irec t ions . Al

so prove hat thet
moment of t he princ ipal cou ple is
cF , F s in 0
2

VF ,
7 5
1 2 + 2 cos 0
9 . Sh ow h
t at

f a dS =
ffl F da

W
0

in H y drod y nami cs does t nxs th

ms mto !

ha t canc l us ion eore -

 VEC TOR ANA LYSIS . 21 9

10 . Express th e f ollowing equat ion in vect or no at ion : t

610 31) an 8w
cos (n ) cos (ny)
ay 32 62 83

do an
31 : 6y

Ans .

an
2 (w1) c
c)
3U l 3E __
_
at 6; p at

8v 8U l 22

6w 6U
m l 22
at 82 p 62

Let q have component s u , v and w, and to hav e co mponent s

0: C and

a
Ans .
q
3
-

t 20 x1] V U l .

12 . Exp ress in vect or not at ion t he f ollowing equat ions h h

w ic
oc cur in t he t h eory of Elas ticity :

3 30
+ d
3

p
1
( A + ) u
+
?
9
a a I
a l

3
0
'

p ( A + p) + +
3?
-

ay ay 3

dw do

dw

(A d +
l
'

5 I

w h ere u , v, w are the co mponent s of a vect or q, w h

ere o is a
scalar variab le, and w h ere l
p, , and p are cons t an s t .

Ans .
p (l [ )
1 V o V
n q

.
220 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

18 . Exp ress t he f ollowing eq uat ions in vec to t

r no at ion :

u u an an 1 2
30
-

l -
u + c + w + +
at ax ay az 3 63 ay ,

x
( H 93

6v do do av 12 30
+ u + v - -
i
-
w
at az 5g az 3 6y

0w 6w 0w 6w do 8w3

)
u

3 a: ?
a

whe re u , u, and w are co mponent s of t h e vec t or q, w he e X

r , Y
,

and Z e co
ar mponent s of t h e vec t or F , w he e r p and o are scalar
variab les , and w h ere v is a scal ar cons ant t .

30
Am .

a:
+ q q
li v
3
e N a. r l .

p
 222 VECT O R ANALYSIS .

is th at it uses di ff erent ki nds of p aren theses to d istinguish

th e two p roduc ts , th
us p revent ng t h e u se of th ese p aren i
th
th eses f or o er p urp oses It is al so q u e cumb ersome and
. it
takes much long er to w rite th an any of th e oth er syst ems ,

b esi des th ere bei ng a li ab i lity of error due t o th e fac t th at all

p arenth eses nec essari ly look somewh at ali ke .

Gibb s on t h e oth e h and p uts th e dis ting uis hi ng p rod uc t

, r ,

ma k between th e t wo vec tors i ns tead of in front or around

r

them .

T h is is essenti all y a sy mmet ri c al notati on and to our ,

mind and to many oth ers th e best The two sy mb ols used .

to i ndi c ate t h e vari ety of p odu c t are t h e dot ( ) and r o

t h e c oss ( )
rx In o de t o avoi d any c onfu si on with the
. r r

o di nary dot and c oss used f o

r ordi nary p roduc ts
r and a r ,

necess ity in any analy s is we h ave ventured to use a s peci al

,

dot and a s peci al c o Th at is th e dot is ab ove the

r ss .
,

writing li ne and t he c s is a s mal l one and when used

ros

is pl aced in t h e s ame p s ition as t h e dot Thus

o .

ab and ru b

are t he s c al ar and vec or t p rod u c s o f t th e vec tors a and b

res pecti vely .

Th ey are eas y t o w ite easily dis ting uis hed and con
r ,

nec ted with th e idea of a p od uc t Th ey do not interfere r .

with p arenth eses neith e do th ey render t h e use of an ordi

, r

nary dot o a c oss ( X ) u ndes i rab le nor amb i g uous in

r r

oth er p arts of t h e w o k T h ey are sy mmetri c all y p laced

r . .

Comparis on of Notations .

A F ew Examples of Formul a in th e four systems of

not ati on wi ll rende t h e foregoi ng cl ear to t h e s t udent
r W e .

s h all gi ve H ami l ton s not ati on t h e b ene t of our bol d faced

-

ty p e and avoi d th e wh ol es al e use of G reek l etters w h i ch

w
ere e mp loy ed b y him t o rep resent vect ors .
 VECTO R ANALYSIS . 223

The formula are in th e order :

r Gi bb s Not ation
.

w H amil to n s Notation
.

w H eavis ide s Notati on

.

e Gans Not ation (Gras s mannian )

. .

l . a or s o .

2 . Ta .

3 . a .

4 .

a b -
ba -
ab c os (ab ) .

Sa b Sba Ta Tb cos ( )
a h .

ab ba ab c os ( )
a b .

h
( )
a la llbl cos (ab) .

a b r a c ab s in ( )
a b .

Vah Vba e Ta T b sin ( ab ) .

Vah Vba e ab S in (a b ) .

4 .
[ ]
ab [ ]
be e la llbl S in (ab) .

1 . a (h
o
c) a b -
a c -
. b xc
a o
b o om
.

2 . Sa (b c) Sa b Sac . SaVbc Sc a .

3 . a (b c) ab ac . aVbc c u .

4 ( ,b
a c) ( )
ab (Nea l) .

1 . a(b c
x
) x
ba c - c a h o
.

2 . VaVbc c Sab b Sac .

3 . VaVbc b ac c ab .

4 . b (ae) c (ab ) .

r -
b x
c r c xa
-
roax b
1 . r a + b
[ s he] [abc ]
Se c Se a S rVab
2 8 + b
Sa Vbc Std /bo Sa Vbc
rVab
+ c
a Vbc a Vbc aVbc

4 . r
be
a mn ea
b (d nc ab
.

(
a l l)
bc (a (albcl)
Th ese ex ampl es are s u f cient to S how t he characteris ti cs

)f i
t h e var ous no a ions t t .
 224 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

No tation of th is B ook .

It see ms to be t h e c onsensus of op in on i th at t
vec ors are

bes t rep resen ed t by i

s ng le le tters p r i nted in so me sor t of

bold f ac ed
-
ty pe . If this is not done, in order to d is ti nguish
a vec or t
f om a sc alar we are obli ged to employ Greek or
r

oth e p e i
r s al al p h ab
c ets and th us d ep ri ve ou rse l ves o f t he

c nveni ence of us ing th at al p h abet if des i red

o and also we ,

a e p revented f o m using any oth e letter as a vec to r

r r r .

Th e Mag nitude of a ve to is rep res ented b y th e same c r

lette as t h e vec to it sel f b ut in o di nary o ita l ic ty pe

r r r r .

A Unit Vector p a allel to any vec to is represented by

r r

th at vec tor with t h e sub scrip t unity Th us the vec tor .

h as a mag nitude a

and a d i rection a, ,

so th at we may w ite a a r

Someti mes th e u b sc i p t e to a vec tor or p art i c ul arly

s r z ro ,

to a vec to ex p res si n will mean th at its magnitude al one is

r
-
o ,

ex p ress ed T h us .

(a b lo
denotes th e mag nitude of a b .

In order to connec t th e Anal ysis o f Vectors with Carte

sian it is necessa y to rel ate
Anal ysis t h e vec to r u to its
th ee components along the th ree Cartesi an axes W
r

r e s h all .

deno te these c omponents by addi ng t h e s ub s c i p ts 1 2 and r , ,

3 to t h e it al i c letter a .

As mut uall y perpendi c ul a axes are b y f ar th e mos t im r

p o rt ant o f a n y th ree u nit,

vec t rs o

i j and k ,

h ave been u ni ve sall y adop ted t o rep resent thei r di re c tions

r
226 VECTOR ANALY SIS .

Th e Vec to r or Cross Produc t of two vec tors is rep resented

b y pl ac i ng a s pec al cross i be ween t them thus :
a b b ar c ab sin ab ( ) .

Th e un it t
vec o r e t perpendi cular to the two
is a vec o r

vec to rs in t h e p roduc t and is taken in s uc h a sense that

as y ou t u rn a i nto b c poi nts in th e di rec ti on a c ork sc rew
,
-

would advance if so rotated .

T hen (a b ) e ,

and ( b )o
nu
ab s in ab ( ) .

A Scalar Point Function is -

rep res en ed t by writing the
func tional sy mbol in itali c . T hus
V = o

means th at V is a scal ar poi nt function of the radius vec -

tor r . Th at is f or every val ue o f r V h as a determi nate

, ,

mag nitude This is equi valent to ne Cartes i an equation

. o .

A Vector Point Function is represented by writing the

-

functional sy mbol in bold faced ty pe Th us -

.

F f (r)

means th at F is a vec or po nt t i -
func ti on of t he i
rad us vec

to r r . Th at i s, f or ever y v al ue o f r, F h as a terminate
de
magnitud e and direc tion . h
T is is eq u valen i t to th ree Car
tes ian eq ua tion s .

A Linea r Vec tor F unction , in p ar ti cular , is rep resen ed t by

i
t he S pec al s y mb ols
0 , l
i l or
x .

t
Veloc i y and Ang ular Velocity are represented b y the sy m
bols res pec vel ti y
q and (o .

Th e Scal ar Potential F unc ion is t re

presen ed t b y th e italics

V or
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 227

Th e Vector Poten ial is t rep resen ed t by th e bold -

faced
V .

El ec tric or Mag netic Intensit ies or F orc es in General are

re presented by
F or H .

Th e Dicrential Vec tor O perator V read

( del ) is i
eq u valent

to

V ( ) 9
. .

+
~

r
32 .

+ k
ax dy
Bes i des obeyi ng t he l aws obeyed by ordi nary vec tors , it
is a dierentiating O perat or, and t he same c are s h ould be
t aken in its use and i nterpretation as s h ould be t aken with
o ther dierentiating O perators .

As Professor Joly p u ts it :

Of course so me l ittle c are is necess ary wh en V is ex

p ress ed in t h e genera l fo m b u t it is p rec isel y o
rf t h e,s ame

ki nd as t he c are requ i red to dis ti ngu is h between

3
a a 6 a
62: ar ) 62: an: 62:
a
and

:c
62:

Del so metimes diff erentia tes partial l y . Generally a s ub

i t attac hed to
scr p it i ndic ates
, t h e var ab le i whi c h it dier
'

entrates T h us
Va a b
.
o

means th at in th e s c al ar p rodu c t the t

vec o r a ab ove is to
be idered va iable
c ons r .

So meti mes t h e same p ocess may be i ndi c ated b y writi ng

r

as a s ub s c i p t t o th e exp e sion t h e q u ant ity whi c h is to

r r s

remai n cons tant d u i ng t h e dierent iatio n

r T h us .

V (a b )b is t h e
o
s ame as V a (a b ) o
.

Ch arles Jas per Joly , Manual of Q uaternions Maemih an , em ,

1 905 Art 57 p 75
, . , . .
228 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

Whi h
c t ti
no a on is p re ferable will depend on whether all
bu t one of the t
vec ors idered are to be cons vari ab le or

whether all but one are const ant res pec tively , .

Someti mes also t he not ati on

b)

V (a o
u a o

is f
use ul , th e ih aving the s ame accent as the V
var ables ,

bei ng alone cons i dered va i ab le du i ng the dierentiat ion

r r .

Gradient (g rad ) o vec to ,

r of greate s t S l ope of a sc al a
r r

func tion V is a vec t no mal to the level surfaces of the

,
or r

function V and is gi ven by the operation of V upon the

function th us :
V V g rad i ent o s l o pe o f V grr a d V .

Th e Diverg enc e of a vec t r fu nc tion F is gi ven by form

o

ing t h e s c al a p od uc t f V w ith th e fu nc tion th us

r r o

V F -
di ve gence of F r div F .

Th e Curl of a vec t func tion F is ob tai ned b y forming

or

the vec to r p od uc t of V w ith t he fu nc ti on :

r

V F x
cu l F rot ation of F ( ot F )
r r .

Th e more i mport ant formul a of vec tor analy sis are col
lec ted bel ow f or reference .
230 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

Th e eq uation of a p lane dete rm ned by the vec ors a i t

and b, and p ass ing th roug h t
t h e erminus of c , is

( 1 5)
Th e p lane th rough the i
orig n and p aral lel to a and b is
8 8 l b .
( 14)
Th e eq uation o f a p lane p ass ng i th rough th e th re e points
a, b, and c is
s t) c .
( 1 6)
Th e cond i tion th at four vec to rs ,
a, b, c , and d, s ho uld end
in t h e sa me pl ane is

( l 7)
Th e vec to r
ma + u h
m+ n ( 1 8)
d ivides t h e l ine j i
o ning t h e po n i ts a and b in t he ratio of

m to n .

Th e t
vec o r to t h e t
cen er of g rav ity of th e mass es m ,
at

po n i t
s a ,
is
2 ma
2m ( 0)
2

If t h e rel a tion
= 0

is to be i ndependent of t he o rigin c hosen then ,

m, m,

Vec tor and Sca lar Prod uc ts .

Prod u cts of Two Vectors .

a o
h ab c os (a b ) b o
a (w)
a rbr azbz asbr
2 2 3
a 02 + a. .

a, -
b, cos b
( )
a .

a, a ,
-
1 .
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 231

If ab 0, then a J b . .
(27)
(a b ) (c -
d) a s a-d b e b d
o
.
(28)
No a tte ntion need be pai d to t he order of t he ac f tors .

a b c ab sin ab ( ) b ar ( )
3 3
c abs al bz l '

l

o rbs ) k (arb2 Gab i)
i k

at an as

b: b: be

e is it vec tor perpendi cular to the plane of a and

a un , b
and poi nti ng in s u c h a sense th at as a is t u rned to wards b
a cork s c rew would ad vance al ong c
-
.

S in (ab ) .

a e r
0 .
(34 )
If a b =
x 0, then b is p arallel to a .

i 2
j
2
k
1 . ii o
j -
k k i o
0 .
( 9)
2
M jj
x
k k x 0 . ij
x k, jx
k i, k ni j
.
(35)
If a

is t he co mponent of a nor mal to b , then
a b a

x
b .
(36)
(a b ) (c x d) axc ax d b x
c b xc .
(38)
3rea t attention must be p aid to the order of th e factors .

Prod ucts o f Th ree Vec tors .

Th e sca lar
a: 2 as

a o (b ) b! b2 b,
0, c2 0,

is eq ual t o t h e vol u me of t h e p arallelop ped i of whi ch a, b,

and c are the th ree dete mi ni ng edges r .

[ s he ] repres ents all arr angements of th et rip\e s cal e: p ro du cts , \h&\

ha ving th e s ame cy clical order of f act ors .
23 2 VECTO R ANALYSIS .

Th e t a (b c )
vec or b a c x x -
c a b .
(55)
Any vec tor 1 may be rep resented
'
in terms of th ree others
by th e fo mul ar

[
r ab c ] [ rbc ] a [ rca ] l
b -

[ rab ] c .
( )
61

Th e plane normal t o a and p ass ng i th roug h t

t h e erm nus i
of b is
a - (r b) 0 .
( )
64

Th e perp end ic ul ar from th e ori gi n to this p l ane is

=
b
p a a -
.
( )
680

Th e p l ane p arallel t o c and ( 1 th rough t he end of b is

( c xd ) (
-
r b) 0 .
(70)
Th e p lane th rou gh t he th ree p o n s ,
a i t
, b, and c is

(
r a ) o
(s b ) (b x c ) 0, ( 67 )
ar -
(
r a ) 0, where (su b b c 5 x an ) .

Th e perpend ic ular f om the o i gi n to this pl ane is

r r

p t -
a (68b)
Th e l ine th rough t h e end of b and p aral l el to a is

ax r ( b) 0 .
( )
69

Th e tion of th e
eq ua s p h ere ( or c ircle ) of a

center at t h e ori gi n is
2 a
n ( )
7 1
'
r

If th e or i gin is at t h e po n c , i t it becomes

r 2 r- c = a
(
2
c ons t .
( )
72

If t h e or i gin l ies on the c i rc u mference,

r

2M ! 0 . 7
( )
3
234 VECTO R AN ALYSIS .

V (a b ) -
V a (a b )
V o(a b )
( 1 1 0)

(
31 '
V )V
dV
'
_ 6V
8:
6V
sr
6V

( 1 1 2 )
5; ;
' '

ay

(
31
V )F ( 3)
1 1

( 1
8
V )F ( a
e -
V i
)( .F F
1 . + k F0. ( 1 1 6)
a o
(h V-
F F ) b ( 1 1 7 )
6F F
z
6 6F
V F ( 11 V F (e scal ar) ( )
3:
-
+ 1 1 9
E
.

ay

Th e D iverg enc e T h eorem,

9 "q =
ff a ? "dv ( 1 2 1 )

where q is any vec tor fu nction and n is t he t

ex ernall y
draw n u nit n mal t dS or o .

i j k
6 6 6
V F x c u rl F
ax ay 62

F , F , F, ( 1 25)
6F _
6F2 6F __
6Fa
I
( ) + j k
. .

6y az 62 32: 62:

V x
(mr) x 2 m if m
,
cons t . vec or t .
( 1 26)

General D iff erentiat ing F o rmu l a f or del .

= Vu
V (
u + 22 ) + V v,
V -
(u v) V u o
V v, -
( 1 27)
V x
(u v) q v .

V ( )
nu vV u q ,

V -
(
uv ) Vu v -
u V v, -
( 1 28 )
V (uV \
x V LK V
I
 VECTOR A A Y N L SIS .
235

V (u v) - r v a u
(v ) v Vu o v x
(q ) .
( 1 29 )
V v q
-
u -
v , ( 30 )
1

uV v -
v Vu - vV u o
u -V v .
( 13 1 )

a r ( dr ) W) V .(dr q ) + (q -
) dr
x
( 1 3 5)
V (a o
r ) a, a cons t . vec or. t
(mV , ) r-= 0 , ( 1 1 8)
V -
r 3, ( 1 23 )

V - r, g .

a -
V

3a b
( t
r

g
o

a and b
o

b V a V c ons VGCtO l B
'
. . . .

Wm me
T ay lor s Th eore

m .

f( r e ) ( 1 4 1 )
Stok es Th eorem

.

f
9
a d: ( 36)
1

V VV - a V V
div grad V del s quare V (a scal ar )
6V 3
aV
aV

, ,
62 , ( 147)
6x By

V '
is c alled t h e Lap l ac an i opera or t .

V F
V
( i k F, i V F, +

6 3
F aF
aF
23 6 VEC TO R ANALYSIS .

V VVx
c url g rad V a 0,
V V F
- x
div c u rl F O,
v (v F) x x
curl

F V (V F ) -
F (V V ) -
( 45)
1
g rad div F V F, '

V
r
"
m(m D ru
"
, ( 1 48)
v a 1 o .

Gauss
Integ ral .

f

l l
'

I '

dS = 4 n or - =O
( )
1 50
F
i
ac c ord ng as th e or i gi n is taken ins ide or ou side oft the
c l osed s u r ace f S .

Lup lac e s Eq uation

.

V V
0 .
( 1 57 )
Poiss on
s Equa ion t . Ac c ord ng to i s ys tem of un it s ch osen,

it is
V V
4 up or V V
p
.
( 1 56)
Its solu ti on is
V=
f f f l or (1 67)

If V sa tis es the equati ons

V V
0
and r- V V n V,

it is a sph erical h armonic of degree n .

Green

s Th eorems .

f n .
UV w
V =
ff ol
UV Vdv

( 1 58)
n -
( UV V
238 VECTO R AN ALYSIS .

If 1

t hen 4 is sai d to be self conjugate -

.

If
to ( a, i w,j w,k
m
W
and 4 Aw, i B u ,j Cw,k , (232)
then MM)
( 5 e) A w, i
B w,j
C w, k ,

and 4 W0 A w, i "
B "
u, j
If 0 , (233)
then I
<Fm
A "
w, i B
w,j

C w,k .

Coriol is
Eq uat ion . t A in xed s p ace when
vec o r a ,

f
re erred to a movi ng sp ace whi c h h as an angular velocity
O f ro a t tion at , s ati s es t h e follo wi ng rel ati on :

0N ] .
(239)

D Al emb ert

s Eq uation .

d
r
2 m ( )
20 1
d"

Eul er s Eq ua ion

t of Motion of a R ig id ab out a

Fixed Poin t .

d"
mH x M .
(243)
dt

H amil ton s
Princ ipl e .

"
a
f 1
( r ( )
255

Lag rang e s Eq ua ions

t of Motion .

3W W " 0' 26
( )6

or VL 0, (267)

rh ere { 7 ; 1 :
V
A
 VECTO R AN L A Y
S IS .
289

Equation of Continuit y .

'
01
 ADDIT IO NS T O APPEN DIX .

N ote to 4 .

J
N ,
A

x
x

\
B r s
L

Note on Diff erent Variet ies of Vec tors . Cons ider a p ar ti

c le on movable p l atform P T he p art i cle is initiall y
the .

at A If t h e p art i cle remai ns at res t on t he p latform w hile

.

t h e p latform is disp l aced uniforml y to a new p os ition P '

,

t h e p art i cle will des cribe the p ath AA relatively to the ground
.

T his motion can be conveni ently desc ri bed b y th e vec tor

AA or more c onc isel y by t h e sing le s ymbol a

.

If t h e p l atform remains at res t and t h e p art i cl e moves

uniforml y to B ,th e p ath th us dis c ribed relati vely to the
u n d i A B o r more s h ortl y b

Evi dently if t he p art i cle moves uniformly from

g r o s ,
.

, A to B
whil e the p latform moves uniforml y from P to P the
,

p a r t i c l e wi l l n a l l y e n d up at B

a
,
n d wi ll h a v e d es cr i b e d t h e

p a th A B u n ifo r m l y with re s p ec t t o t h e g ro u n d a n d in the ,

same time . T his p ath is d efined to be t he sum of t he dis

p l ac e m e n t s (O r v e c to r s ) a a n d b a n d i s w r itt en a b .

thi th m m

( I n s c as e a l s o es e di s p l ac e en t s ay take p lace
c ons ec uti vel y in eith er order and t h e nal p os ition of the

p a r ti c l e wi l l b e t h e s a m
. e )

N ow it i a f a t th at forc es veloc iti es and many other

s c ,

h
p y s i c a l q u a n titi e s O b e y t hi s sa m e l a w H e n ce .t h e y w ill
obey th e conseq uences o f a cal c ul us whi c h follows f rom the

above, and ot h er denitions consist ent wi th th e t ent s .

 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

not , in general , eq ual to those rotati ons tak en in revers e

order . And y et a nite rotation h as an axis , which is a
di recti on and an amount or mag nitude and is , in that sense, a
vecto r, b ut it does not O bey th e l aw s of our vecto r analy sis .

H owever if these rotations were to take p lace simultane

ously t he res ul t ant rot ation woul d be correc t l y found b y

vecto r additi on as de ned above .

It is th us seen th at we are endeavori ng to deduce a calcul us

whi c h coinci des as nearly as poss ible with the fundamental
p roperti es of th e majority of q uantiti es to whi c h we app l y it .

H avi ng th us cons tru c ted a consi s tent analysis coinc i ding

as c losel y as may b e with t h e fac ts it c an of c ours e be taug ht
,

abs t ract l y with ou t reference to th em Later on wh en p hy

.

sic al q uantiti es are shown to ob ey th e same laws as vectors

h ave been de ned to h ave we may emp loy the res ul ts of the
,

vec to r c al culus t o th em with ou t furth er ado .

Personally th e writer does not app rove of th e teac hing of

Vecto r Anal ysi s as an ab stract sci ence nor even as a mathe
,

matical subjec t u nless b y a teac her who is thoroughl y

fami li ar with t he p hys ical resul ts to whi ch it app lies and f or
whi c h it was des igned .

Th e vec tor analy sis as deduced in this book is that of free

vec to rs .

N ote to 38 .

Normal , Normal Plane, Princ ipal Normal , B inormal .

R ec tif y ing Plane .

Every line p erpendi cul ar to t h e t angent to a curve at the

p o i nt of t a n g en c y ,
M ,
is c all e d a N o rm al T
. h es e normals

lie in a p l ane c alled t h e N ormal Plane and from th em two are

si ngled out f or spec i al menti on : t h e normal whi c h l i es in t he

O scul ati ng Plane c alled t h e Pri nc ip al N ormal , and t h e normal

e
p p r en d i c u l ar t o thi s p l ane c a l l ed t h e B i n orma l .

Th e p lane p as si ng through t h e po n i t of t angenc y p erpon

dic ular to the p rincip al normal is cah enth e Yectnjmn
'

c x ane.
 APPEN DIX .

Th us the tangent , th e princi p al nor mal and th e binormal

form t
a rec angu lar sy ste m of vecto rs . i
T ak ng t h e po n i t
of con ac t t as i i rec tions of these vec tors may
or gin, t he d
al w ays b e taken so as to form a ri g ht h anded s y s tem Th e -
.

p ri nc i p al normal h oweve r
, is al w ays c h os en s
, o as to p oi nt
towards t he center of curvature of the curve .

Let R b e t he mag nitude of th e rad i us of c urvat ure and let

v Bb e u ni t vec tors al ong t h e tang ent p ri nc ip al normal
, ,

and b inormal res p ec ti vel y T hen .

dr
T r
( )
a
a
-

1
Th e vecto r curva ure c t p wh ere p vec tor ra d i us of
c urva ure t ) is , b y d e n on, iti t h e rate of c h ang e of t h e unit
t t
ang en p er uni arc ort
< 17
C = =T =I - -
r
n
=9 -
1
d8
And as its di rec tion is al ong th e p ri ncip al normal w e may
write it , wh ere R is t h e mag nitu de of th e radi us of c urvature,

r
'
1
E
H ence
"
v Rt .

As Bis a un it vector J . both to 1

'

and v, it is
B = = RI J H
T x V X r
()
C

T he di recti on cos ines of th ese li nes are th e i

coef c ents of

i, j, k in th e followi ng eq uations .

"
j+ k,

i+y

I x z
 VECT OR A NA LYSIS .

Torsion or Tortu osi ty is de ned on a

p g e 78 as

dB
a
; B
(H ere B is th e n of p ag e

i
T h e rec p roc al of t h e torsi on is a vec tor call ed t h e radius of
t i
ors on 8 H ence.

F ormu l a of F renet f or a Space Curve .

In th e i nvestig ation of t h e p rop er ties of sp ac e c urves

i f mula due to Frenet are of fundament al importance

c ert a n or .

T h ey enab l e us to exp ress t h e derivatives of th e unit vec tors

al ong t h e t ang ent p ri nc ip al normal and b i normal in terms
,

of th es e v ec tors th ems elves .

Diff erenti ate (a) g i vi ng

I ll
T r ,

whi c h by (b) b ecomes

"
1 a
I

Diff erenti ate (c) g i ving

B

v T xv
'
r x
,

whi ch b y I b ec omes
uxu
B

+ v rx v
' '
1 x

R
.

F rom this eq uati on we see th at B is L to and since B is

.

a unit vec t or B is J to B ; it is th erefore p aral l el to v and we

.

may write
v
=
B 3 :

where S is a sc al ar wh ose absolute value as v is a unit vec to r , ,

is t h e radi us of t ors ion b y de niti on eq uatio n (d)

, , .

Ag ain S i nce v is at rig ht ang les to B and r we may wri te

,
'

v g it ",
 VECT OR ANALYSIS .

t h e elec tron , and v its t

vec or veloc ity . The force acting on
a i
l near conduc o r of t leng th (i f is

F = i dl x H
.

Let this curren t i be due to th e convec tion of t i ity

elec r c

c arr edi trons contained in th e element dr mov

b y th e n elec ,

ing with t h e common velocity v then ,

i df ne v .

H ence t he force on a single electron is

F = e v x l i
'

T his force p rodu c es an ac cel era tion { I on th e elect ron, so

th at t h e eq ua ion t of motion is
m& e H .

Pu tting h 3 H
-

t h e dierent ial
'

eq ua tion of th e p ath is
,

V Vx h .

From t he eq ua on we see a t h e accel era on is norm

ti th t al to ti
th h
t he p a , ence t h e sp eed is cons an As t h e ac c elerat on t t . i
is also normal to h t h e velo c y c omponen p arall el to h is it t
t t
cons an , and enc e t h e h wh
ol e ac celera on is al a s p arall el ti w y
to t h e p l ane normal to h .

AS h is a cons an t t vec tor , we h ave from (1 )

at mm 0 =
3 m 7 a . ( )
2

so th at th e th makes with th e eld is c onst ant

ang le th e p a .

From ( 1 ) ag ai n inc e v and h and th ei r i nc l uded angl e are

, s

cons t ant t h e ma gni tude of t h e ac c el erati on is cons tant

, .

T h e radi us of c u v at ure of any p ath is rel ated to th e speed

r

and t h e normal ac c elerat ion b y eq u ati on p age 81 ,

2
v
a =
 APPENDIX . 24 7

H ence

P v Vx h
'

(3)

And since t h e magnitudes of v and v x h constan t so is

th e magnitude of p .

Th e component of th e speed nor mal to h is

u; 0 S in vh
( ) .

Th e i
rad us of c urva ure of t the p a th in th e p l ane normal to
h is , S imi larl y to

0 S in
2
vh
( ) 0 Sin vh
( )
(5)

as S in (v l h ) h ence the p ath is a circle of radius p

1, and 1.

T h us t h e motion is comp letely determined It is a c urve .

of c ons t ant curvat ure des cri b ed with cons t ant speed whose
,

p j
ro e c ti on on a p l ane n orm a l t o t h e mag neti c l i nes is a c irc l e

of radi us p T h e velocity p arallel to th e eld is cons tant

1 . .

It is th erefore a rig ht c i rc ul ar h elix wh ose axis is p arallel to

t he li nes of forc e .

Comp aring eq uati ons (4 ) and (5) we see th at th e radi us

of c urvat ure of a c u v e and th at of its p rojec ti on on a p lane
r

are rel at ed b y t h e formul a ,

Pr P ( )
6
wh ere 0 is th e ang le between t he c urve and t h e normal to
th e p lane . T his holds f or every c urve, b ec aus e any s mall
p orti
on of it may be cons i dered to be a p ort ion of some helix .

This resul t is due to Euler .

A c i rcul ar h el ix is sometimes de ned as a curve havi ng (a)

const ant c urvat ure and (b) cons t ant to rsi on e can also . W
p ro ve th at th e ab ove p ath is a h eli x b y p roving (b) Eon . s.

tion (4) Sh ows th at th e c urvat ure is const ant .

 VECTO R ANALYSI
S .

The to rsion T is by IV of Frenet

s formula
n
]
il l
T p
g t r

where th e primes denote dierentiation with resp ect to the

are 8 .

NO W "
I =i
dl

de 0

and since v is const an t

and

S ub s titu ting in (7)

l iv x (v x h )] v
_ _
-

x . .

v '
(v x h)
'

i
B y d ff eren ti ating (1 )
Vh
. .

V x
(
Vx h)x h .

H ence
1
T :

v 1
(v x h)

whi ch reduced by ( )
58 b ecomes

Mr
T i
: :
5
"

:
AS t h e two p art s of t h e frac tion are sep aratel y const ant the
torsion is cons tant .

Th e res ul t (4 ) ob tai ned above , o th erwise written

,
E
r
; u -
H p s in 0H ( ) ,

is of great importance in obtaining a relation between and

u f or an el ec tron whi c h in comb i nati on with ot h er rel ations

,

enables us to determine th eir s ep arat e 1 al u es .

 250 VECTO R AN L S IS A Y .

(whi c h is t h e D i verg enc e T h eorem and is to b e tak en th rough

out t he vol ume oi , and o ver t h e surf ace of , any closed s pace)
to an i n ni tesi mal ri gh t cy i l nder, of e g h and base h i ht
ose wh
area is S . Let de be an ele ment of t he contour of t h e base,
and C, a u n it vec tor L to the base . .

Sup pose t he cyl i nder so s mall th at F may be consi dered con

s tant th roug hou t it so th at th e two s urf ace i nteg rals over
,

t he two plane ends canc el eac h oth er and thei r s um vanishes .

Replace F in ( 1 ) b y c l then ,

d8 .

By V . Pv a u cl c r
v p g

in w hi ch th e t t m of
rs er th e i h hand
rg t -
nu mber vanishes ,

as C, is a cons an t t vec tor; hence

fff c, -
Vd u =

B ut dv h dS , and d8 11 ds SO a t h e vol ume and su rf ace

f
th t
Ru e,
n
dS .

(2)

i t f
n eg ral s b ecome sur ace and l ne nteg rals respectivel y , and i i

N ow su ppose th e b ase to be an element of area of a surf ace

bounded by a c l os ed co nto u r T h e n 6 ; b ecomes a unit vec tor
.

norma tol t h e s u rf ac e, whi c h w e ca ll n , an d what w as fo rmerly

11 N , in (2) b ecomes a unit vec tor in t h e di rec ti on of ( if , so

th t
a F n c l ds 3 d l - x
'
.

Summi ng up th e el ements

Ef f nv d S =
Ef cir .

T he su mmati on of th e f
s ur ac e integ rals means simply that

ff
t he 1 nteg ral
mv F (is x

is to b e taken over th e enti re surface .

In s ummi ng up th e line i nteg ral s , th e t

con our of every
mentary
el e area is t raced twice, b u t in op posi te di rec ti ons
exc ep t t h ose f orming p a rt of th e c ont ou r .

n to ur a nd t h e v ec t or u .
 251

H ence t h e sum of t he line integrals becomes th e line inte

g ra l aroun d t h e bound i ng c urve and we h ave ag ai n S tok es

T h eorem .

N ote to 65 .

Anoth er Proof of Gauss s Th eorem

.

B y means of th e Di vergenc e T h eorem an an y proof of

Gauss s th eorem may be g i ven

.

T h e p robl em is to evaluate t h e integral

f i t?

over th e closed f
sur ac e S .

T his integral may be written

f nV -
as, by

There are three cases according as the ori gin is without

, ,

within or on t he surfac e S
,
.

CAS E 1 T he orig i n is withou t

. In this c ase r can never .

be zero h ence because b y t h e Di verg ence T heorem

,

ff nv
-
as
Ure a .

811 d 138 08 1188 br i 64 .

we h ave
If ?
n r1
0 '

CA S E II T he ori g i n is withi n
. S urround the ori g in by.

a small sp h ere of radi us c ; th en t h e ori gi n is exc l uded from

the reg i on b ounded by S and H ence th e req uired inte

g ral t ak en over bo th s u rfac es is z ero , b y Cas e I, i e , . .

dS h .
252 VECTOR AN ALYSI
S .

B ut f or t he sp here ,
to 6, n r,
o
1,

[L d8

f d8 41
.

H ence

dS

CAS E III T he orig i n is on th e surf ace

. Exc lude the .

p o i nt b y an el ement ary h emis p h ere .

T hen p roceedi ng as in Cas e II, we nd th at t h e req uired

integral is equal to minus the i nteg ral over the hemis p here,
i . e
.
, to

N ote to 52 .

Oth er In eg ra ion Th eorems

t t .

W e c an evalu a e ti tegrals in a manner similar

t wo vol ume n
to t hat gi ven b y th e Di verg ence T h eorem Fi rs t to nd .
,

ff Vd ,

wh ere F is a s c al ar p oi nt f unc-
ti o n . Let c be a constant

vec tor ,

B ut b y t he Di verg enc e T heorem

ff V

9 F do = c
[[ M ds ,
 INDEX .

Ac c el era ted mo tio n. 82 B o o k o f K el l and and T ait , 63

RW
.

Acc el erat io n cent ral 84 o f Lame 1 0 4 , .

, , .

c ent rip etal , 1 97 .

of ou t h , 41 , 1 81 .

no r mal , 81 .
of eb s t er 1 12 .

of mo v ing s p ac e , 1 97
1 25
.

Ca l c ul us o f varia tio ns . .

rad ia l ,

Ac t ivit y eq uat ion o f

,
81 .

1 65
C artes ian ex p ans io n for sc al ar p od
r
,
uct , 30
Add it io n o f vec to rs 4
.

exp ans io n f o r t rip l e p rod

.
,
vect or
Ampere 1 61 1 65 ,
53
.
,
uct ,
Anal y t ic so l u tion o f
.

Eul er s eq uap
exp ans io n f or v ec t o r p ro du c t , 38 .

t io ns , 200
Ang le so l id 1 38 1 66
.

ex pans ion o f d iver g enc e, 1 1 1 .

Ang ul ar veloc it ies co mpos it ion

, , .

of ,
C enter o f mass 1 9 , .

,
of mass motio n o f
, , 1 79 .

41
Cent ral acc el erat io n , 84
.

A p p arent inert ia 1 82
.

ax is ,
.
.
65
A p pendix 22 1
.

q u ad ric , ax es o f 1 89
.
,

A p plic at io ns to geo met ry 73

.

to mec h anics 3 9
, .

C ent rifug al cou p l e , 1 98 .

A real vel oc ity 86

, .

C t ip t l l ti 1 97
en r e a ac ce era o n, .

A reas d esc rip tio n o f 85

, .

C t id 1 8
e n ro ,
.

Ax es mo ving 1 9 4
, .

Ci l q i f 61
rc e, e u at o n o , .

no rmal to s u rface f o r max imu m

, .

Ci l m ti 82
rc u ar o o n, .

and min imum 1 89

Ci l t i 2 1 4
rc u a on, .

d it i
.

32
,
e n on ,
o f a c en t ral q uad ric , 1 89 .

C ll t i f f m l 2 29
o ec on o or
.

u a
man ent
.
,
p e r , 1 93 .

C ll i
o 3
near v ec to rs , .

p r

A x is
inc

,
i al
p ,
c ent ral ,
1 86
65
.

.
C mb i t i f t h
o na t
o ns o 48 ree v ec o rs , .

ins t ant aneo us , 43 , 1 8 8, 1 9 4 . C mm t t i ity f d df 1 2 5

o u a v o an , .

o f a v ec to r p ro d uc t , 34
C mp i
o f
ar so n i t ti o v ar o us no a ons ,

B ody , ri g i d . 41 1 81 .

C mpl
,

s y s te m o f forc es o n rig id , 63 . o i bl 15
ex v ar a e, .

B oo k of B u c h erer, 1 2 7 . C mpo f t
onents o 8 v ec or, .

of F eh r, 80 C mp it i f g l l iti 4 1
o os on o an u ar ve oc es , .

C mp d
.

F op p l , 3 8 i t l
'

of . o ou n l ti cent r p e a ac c e era on .

of G a ns , 1 1 2 , 1 27 1 98 .

C d it i f l i t b i d p n
.

o f G ib bs \Vils on, 4 7 , 56, 1 09 , 1 2 7

~
. on on o r re at o n o e n e e -v

of Jo l y , 1 23 . d ent of o rig in , 21 .
256 INDEX .

Co ndit io n o f inte g rab il it y , 1 30 . D A l emb ert. 1 78 , 1 80 , 202

.

of p aral l elis m of v ec to rs , 35 Del , app l ic at io ns of , to sc alars , 1

of p erp endic ul arit y , 28 . ap p l ied to a v ec t o r, 1 09 .

t h at fo u r v ec t o rs te rmi nate in fo rmu l ae f o r u s e of , 121 .

sa me p l ane ,
1 8 . ru l e f or us e o f , 1 34 .

th at t h ree v ec to rs end in sa me t h e op erato r, 9 4 .

s t raig h t l ine, 1 3 . D eriv at i ve, d irec t io nal , 1 06, 1 07 .

t h at t h ree v ec to rs l ie in a p l an e, 50 . to t al , 1 0 7 .

C o ne , p o l h od e and h erp o l h od e, 1 9 2 . D es c rip t ion o f areas , 85 .

C o nic s ec t io ns , 63 . D eterminantal c u b ic 1 90 , .

s ec t io n o rb it o f p l anet , 87 . D eterminant fo rm o f vec to r p ro du ct.

C j
o n u g ate , linear v ec to r fu nc t io n, -
39 .

1 86 . D et er minant fo rm of t rip l e scal ar

s el f 1 83 p rod u c t , 50 .

C
.

o ns erv at io n o f c irc u l at io n , 216 . q

Diere nt ial e u at io n o f geod etic , 78

C o ns ervat io n o f mo t io n o f c en te r o f eq uat io n o f h armonic mo tion, 86 .

mass , 1 79 . o p erato rs , 94 .

o f v o rte x mot ion 2 1 3 , .

p er ec t , f 1 29 .

C o ns erv at iv e s y s t em o f forc es , 1 29 , Dierent iat ion b y V , 1 2 1

1 4 5, 203 .

Co nt inu it y , e q u at ion o f , 1 1 6, 207 .

o f a sc al ar p o in t fun c t io n , 7 o f vec to r and s c al ar p ro du c t s 72

w
-
. .
.

o f a v ec to r p o int
-
fu nc t io n , 8 .
p art ial , 90 .

C o nv erg enc e , 1 12 . it h res p ec t to scal ar variabl u .

Co 3rd inat es , cu rvil inear, 79 . 70 .

is o t h ermal 80 , . Di ti n l d
re c o a eriv at ive , 1 06 .

of linear v ec to r -
fu nc t io n , 1 85 . Di nti it i
s co nu es , 95 .

o rt h o g o n al , 80 . Di pl m nt
s ac e e c u rrent , 1 61 .

p o l ar, 61 Di t ib t i l
s r u ve aw for cro ss pro duc t .

C
.

o p l anar v ec t o rs , 8 35 .

C
.

o rio l is , 1 98 . l aw , p h y s ic al p roo f o f , 37 .

co mp ou nd ac c el era tio n o f 1 98 D ivergenc e, d efi nit ion , 1 09

w
. .
,

t h eo rem o f 1 9 4 C artes ian ex p ans ion f or, 1 1 1 .

C k
.
,

or -
l 1 60 1 83
s c re ru e , interp ret at ion of , 1 46 .

C l mb l w 9 8 1 4 3
.
,

i i

ou o s a , h
p y s c al n te rp ret ation of , 1 09 .

C p l mi im m 65
.
,

ou e, n u , . t h eo rem, 1 1 2 .

C mire d P d
eu an 1 62 en er, Di v is ion o f a l ine in a giv n e rat io , 18
.

C p d t 34
.

ross ro uc , . Do t o r s c al ar
prod u ct , 28 .

d i t ib i
s r l w f 35 u t ve a o . D y ad , referenc e to , 1 09
C l mp l f 1 1 8
.
,

ur , ex a e o , . D y namic al eq u at ions o f Eul er, zoo .

co nd it io n o f v anish in g o f , 1 27 Dy n a mics , 1 78 .

ind ep end ent o f ax es , 117 . incl u d ed in a s ing l e formul a , 207 .

of magnet ic b od y , 1 20

w
.

the o p erat o r, 117 . E l ec tri c a l th eo ry . 1 38

C
.

u rv at u re , 76 E lec t ra mag net ic -

avu 1 63
C
.
.
,

u rve in s p ac e , 74 . El ec t ra -
mo t ive
forc e d e nition . 83.
Q y IV i near co ord inates . 79 . El ec t ra d ynamic p o te nt ial , 1 78
-

,
258 INDEX .

Grassmann 50 , . Integ ration th eorem, 1 74 .

Grass mann
s nota t io n , 22 1 , 22 3 . In te rp retat ion o f p rod u cts , 57 .

G rav it y , c ente r o f , 20 . In variab le line, 1 9 2 , 1 99 .

Green
s fo rmula , 1 48 .
p lane, 1 84 , 1 9 1 .

func tion , 1 48 .
q
Inverse s uare l aw , 87 , 1 05, 1 43 .

t h eo rem , 1 48 , 1 58 . Irro tational mo t ion , 1 1 9 , 2 1 2 .

Gy rat io n , rad ius o f , 1 81 . Is o th ermal su r ace. f 1 04 .

Gy rosc o p e, 1 99 . s ys te m of cu rves , 80 .

H a mi l to n
s integ ra l . 20 2 , 204 , 206 .
Jo ly . b ook of .
no t at io n , 63 , 22 1 , 223 . Jou le, 1 64 .

p rin c i l
p e, 20 2 .

H mo nic func t ion 1 4 7

ar , .
K ell an d and Ta i t. b oo k or. 63 .

mo t io n d iff erent ial eq u at io n o f , 86 .

K el vin , L o rd , 21 7 .

H i id O l i 50 1 55 1 64
ea v s e, v er, , , .
K ep l er, la w s of , 86 .

H i id n t t i n 22 1 223
eav s
'
e s o a o , .
K inemat ics of a p tic l e ,
a r 80 .

Hel mh l t 1 25 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 7
o z, , , , . K inetic ener gy o f rot atio n. 1 81 .

H l mh l t t h m 1 55 1 73
e o z s

eo re , , . of trans l ation , 1 79 .

H p lh d
er o 1 92 o e c u rv e, .

H d g p h nd b it und N
o o ra a or er ew Lag ran g e
s eq u a tions of mo tion.
to nian forces , 8 7 .

H od og rap h ,
d e nit ion , 8 1 Lag rang ian func t ion , 204 .

q
e u atio n o f 83 . Lame, b oo k of , 1 04 .

o f ac c el era t ed mo t ion , 82 . de nit ion of , 6 .

of a p art ic l e at res t , 82 . L amell ar compo nent of a vecto r

of uniform c irc u l a r mo t io n , 82 . func tion 1 54 , .

o f u ni for m mo t io n , 82 . vec to r, 1 28 , 1 54 .

H mg n
o o e eo u s fu n c t io n, 1 3 1 . Lapl a c ian , t h e, op erato r, 1 34 .

H y d d yn
ro a mic s ,
20 7 . L pla
a ce s

q
e u at io n , 1 43 .

Law , d is t rib u t ive f o r vec to r p rod

l nc o mp re s s i b l l l ty , c o nd i ti o n o f . 2 09 . u c ts , 35 .

Ind epend ent of t h e orig in , rel a t io ns of C o ul o mb , 98 .

of , 21 . o f F o u rier, 1 04 .

Ind u c tanc e , 1 7 1 . of K ep l er, 86 .

Ind u c tio n , v e c to r, 1 58 of L
ens , 1 60

w
. .

Inert ia . ap p aren t , 1 82 . of w
Ne t on, 87 , 1 05, 1 43 .

moment of , 1 8 1 , 1 85 . L a s o b ey ed b y l l k , 29 , 35 .

p rod u c t s o f , 1 85 . o b ey ed b y s cal ar p rod u cts , 29 .

Ins t antaneo u s ax is , 4 3 , 1 83 , 1 9 4 . o b ey ed b y t rip l e s cal ar p roduct ,

Integ ral d u e t o N eu mann , 1 7 1 , 1 75 . 49 .

line o f a v ec to r, 3 1 . L q
ay ers , e uiv al ent , no t e u ip otential , q
of G au ss , 1 38 . 1 51 .

f
su r ace , o f a v ec to r, 32 . Len z, l aw of , 1 60 .

Inte g rat ing fac to r , 1 29 . L ev el s u r ac es f , 98 .

o p era to r o
p ,t 1 52 . L in ear vec t o r -
funct io n ,
1 82 ,
Inte g rat io n , 83 . Lin e i nte g ral o f a v ec t o r, 31 .

as a vec t o r s u m , 5 . of nor mal co mpo nent , 1 68 .

 INDEX . 259

Lines of forc e , 1 09 N eumann

s integ ral , 1 7 1 , 1 75 .

o f v ec to r -
fu nc t ion , 3 2 . w
N e t o nian f o rc es , 87 .

Liq u id . fund ament al e q uat ions , 207 l aw fo rc e 1 0 5 1 43

of , , .

L dK or el v in , 21 7 . N on vo rti c al mo t ion 1 20
-

, , 212 .

N ormal ac c el erat ion 8 1 , .

Ma g neti c fi el d d u e to a c u rren t. 1 65 . and t ang ent , 7 5 .

el d d u e to el e ment of cu rrent , to tang ent p l ane of q u ad ric , 1 89 .

1 67 . u nit , 78 .

M ag nit u d e o f a v ec to r,
d e nit ion, 3 . No tat io n of G ans , 223 .

of a vec to r, 29 . of Gib b 2 2 2 2 2 3
s , , .

M at h e mat ical and p h y sic al dis con of G m nn 22 1

ras s a , .

t inu it ies , 9 5 of H milt n 2 2 1 2 23

a o

w
. .
, ,

M axw el l , 1 1 6, 1 28 . of H i id 2 2 1 22 3
ea v s e, , .

Max ell 8 equ at io ns 1 60

.

, . of t h is b o o k , 224 .

Mc Au l ay t heo rem o f 1 7 0
, , . N o tat ions , co mp aris o n of , 2 23 .

Mec h anic al fo rce o n el ement of c ir v a rio u s , 22 1 .

c u it , 1 67 .

M ec h anics , 1 78 . O p era to r. integ ra ting p o t. 1 52 .

ap p l ic a t io ns to , 39 . t h e, c u rl , 1 1 7 .

M th d f
e o s o so l u t io n o f p ro b l ems , 1 3 t h e, V 94

w
.
, .

Minim m u co up le o n c ent ral ax is , 65 . t h e, p , 7 2 , 73

"
.

M m nt b
o e a o u t an ax is , 1 80 . in vol ving V t i ce, 1 33 .

as v ec t o r, 40 b
1 87

w
. .

de nit i on , 39 . O rbit of a p l anet , 84 .

of inert ia , 1 8 1 , 1 85 . under N e t onian fo rces , 87 .

M o ment al ell ip so id 1 84 , . O rig in o f o p era to r V , 90 .

M o ments o f inert ia p rinc ip al , , 1 86 . O rt h og o nal s y s te m of c u rves , 80 .

M o ment u m mo ment o f 1 8 1 , , . O s c u l at ing p l ane, 7 7 .

o f mo ment u m 1 8 1 . .

M o t io n , c ircu l ar, 82 . Pa rab o la . p a th o f p ro jec til e. 1 79 .

h armo n ic , 86 . Para b o lic o rb it , 84 .

irro t a t io nal , 1 1 9 . P aral l elis m , c o nd iti o n o f , 35 .

o f a rig id b od y , 4 1 . con d it io n o f o f v ec to rs , 35 .

o f ce nte r of mas s ,
1 79 . P arall el og ra m l aw , 40 .

Poinso t , 1 9 2 . P aral l el o p ip ed p rinc ip l e, 50 .

u n d er no fo rc es , 1 84 . P are n th es es , 51 .

v orte x , 212 P art ial d iff erent iat io n of v ec to rs ,

w
.

M o v ing ax es , 1 90 , 1 9 4 . 90 .

s p ac e, 1 95 . d ifferent iat io n it h V , 1 05, 1 06 .

M u l t ip l e v ec to r p ro d u ct s , 55 . P art ic l e, k inemat ics of , 80 .

M u t u al en ergy of two c irc u its ,

1 71 , P f d iff erent ial 1 29
er ec t , .

1 75 . P ermanent a x es 1 92 , .

M u t u al ind u c t an c e, 1 7 3 , 1 76 . P erp end ic u l ar fro m orig in to a p l ane,

59 .

n di
-
mens io n s . e x ten s io n of vec to r P p nd i l
er e c u arit y , c o nd it io n o f , 28 .

to . 2 0 4 . Ph y i l d i
s ca s c o n t inu it ies , 95 .

Neg ativ e v ec to r, 2 .
p roo f of dis t rib u tiv e l aw , 3 7 .
 260 IN DEX .

Pl q
ane , e u at io n o f , 1 7 , 58 , 59 .
P rod u c t , vec to r
, 34 .

inv a riab l e, 1 84 .
P rod u ct s o f inert ia , 1 85 .

os c u la t ing , 77 .
of t w o vec t o rs , 28 .

p as s ing t h ro ug h end of a v ec to r, of t h ree vec to rs , 48 .

58 .
of mo re t h an t h ree vec to rs , 55 .

p as s ing t h roug h end s o f t h ree v ec P j

ro ec til e,
p at h o f 1 7 9 , .

to rs , 59 .
P ro ject io ns o f vec t o r 29
, .

p erp end ic u la r to a v ec t o r, 58 .
P roo f of d el formul a 121 , .

t h ro u g h end s o f t h ree g iv en vec o f nor mal it y

p rincip al ax es , 1 90
of .

to rs , 1 7 of exp ans io n o f tri l e vec to r

p p rod
.

Pl anet , o rb it o f , 84 .
u et , 51 , 53 , 54 .

Po inso t el l ip so id , 1 84 , 20 1 .
P rop ert ies of frict ionl ess uid , 2 1 3,
mo tion 1 9 2 , .
21 7 .

Po int func t ion

-

, s c al ar, 6 .

vec to r, 7 . Q uad ri e s urf ac e. 63 , 86, 1 84 .

P o iss o n 6 e u at io n ,
'
q 1 43 . p incip al
r a x es of, 1 89 .

eq u at io n , sol u t io n o f , 1 52 . t ang en t p l ane to , 1 88 .

P o l ar c oord inates , 61 . Q uate rnions , 63 .

P ol ari za t io n , ener gy in t er ms o f 1 59

RR
.
,

Pol h od e and h erp ol h od e c u rves , 1 92 . R adia l ac c el era ti on. 8 1 .

P ol y g o n o f vec to rs , 4 . a d iant vec to r,

-
1 65 .

P o t ent ial , 6 . ad ius of gy ration, 1 8 1 .

d e nit io n, 9 8 . Ratio , d iv is ion of l ine in gi ven , 1 8.
d eriv at ives of , 1 02 , 1 4 9 . Rec ip roc al op era to r, 1 87 .

fo rc es h av ing a, 1 29 , 2 1 6 . s y s te m of v ect ors , 57 .

t h e, 6, 1 4 3 v ec to r, 3

R
. .

v ec t o r, 1 53 , 1 7 3 . Re c t ang ul ar coo rd ina tes , 62 .

v el o c it y 21 6 el at io n b et w een any fo u r vec to rs ,

w
.
,

P o yn t ing s

t h eo rem, 1 65 56
m
. .

P rac t ic al ap p l ic at io n o f s te ad y mo b et een forc e and

p o te nt ial , 1 .

t io n eq u at io n , 21 2 . Re l at ions independ ent o f t h e ori in, g

P inr c ip al ax es , 1 86, 1 89 21

R
. .

ax es , at rig h t ang l es , 1 90 . mot io n 1 94

Re l at iv e , .

mo ments o f inert ia 1 86 , . ema rka b l e fo rmul a , 207 .

o f D Al emb ert
'
1 78 2 02 , , . Re marks o n no tat ion , 63 , 22 1 , 223 .

o f H amil to n 202 , . Rep resent at ion of a vecto r -

funct ion .

Prob lems met h od o f so l u t ion 13 74

R
.
, , .

to Ch ap . I, 22 o f vec t o r o r c ross p rodu ct , 34 .

C
.

to h ap . 1 1 , 43 . es o l u t io n o f a s y s te m o f f o rc es , 63 .

to Ch ap . III, 66 o f a v ec to r fu nct ion int o sol eno idal

-

Ch
.

to ap IV , 9 1 and l amell ar co mp onents 1 54

R
.
.
,

Ch
.

to ap . V , 1 36 o f v el oc it y , 81 .

Ch
.

to ap VI, 1 7 6 es u me of n o t a t io n o f this b ook .

R
.

Ch
.

to ap . V II, 2 1 7 .

Prod u c t , c ross , 34 . ig id b o d y . 4 1 , 1 81 .

d ot 28. . b od y , mo tio n o f , 41 .

scal ar, 28 . sy s te m 1 80 , .
262 INDEX .

Variab l e. c o mp l ex . 1 5 . Vec t ors , co p l anar, 8 .

Variat io ns , c a l c u l u s o f , 1 25 . deco mp os it io n o f , 8 .

Vec to r and sc a l ar el ds , 94 . d iff erent iat io n o f , 70 .

Vect or, co mp o nents of , 8 . eq u al it y o f , 2 .

c u rv a t u re , 76 .
p ro d u c t s o f t h ree, 4 8 .

de nit i on o f , 1 .
p rod u c t s o f mo re t h an t h re e , 55.

e q u at io ns , 1 1 , 58 . rec ip roc a l s y s tem o f 57 , .

el d , 6. t ermino -
c o l l inear, 13 .

fu nc t io n , rep res ent at io n o f , 74 . te rmino -

c o p l ana r, 18 .

g rap hic al rep res entat io n o f , 1 . t h e u nit , i J k . 9. 2 9 , 3 5 .

l amel l ar, 1 28 . Vel oc it y al o n t ang ent g and no r mal

l ine in te g ral of , 31 . o f a cu rve, 8 1 .

mag nitu d e of , 29 . ang ul ar, 4 1 .

neg at ive , 2 . areal , 86 .

er
p p en d i c u l a r to a p l ane , 59 . o f el ec t ric ra m , 1 64 .

p o in t f u n-
c t io n , 7 . Vel oc it y po te nt ial , 2 1 6
-
.

p o te n t ial , 1 53 , 1 7 3 . Vol u me o f sp h ere b y d ivergenc e

p od u c t ,
r 34 . t h eorem, 1 1 4 .

p ro d u c t s , d iff erent iat io n of , 72 . Vo rte x -

at om t h eo ry 2 1 7 , .

p rod u c t s o f t h ree v ec to rs , 48 . Vo rte x l ament 2 1 5 , .

rad iantr , 1 65 . motion , 21 2 .

rec ip ro ca l , 3 . Vo rt ic it y , 2 1 1 .

su m as an inte g rat io n , 5 . ind es t ruct ib l e 2 1 3 , .

s u rfac e inte g ral of , 32 . u nc rea t ab l e, 2 1 6 .

to rt u os it y , 7 8
W
w
-
.

unit , 1 63
W
3 . a ve e q u a tio n. .

v el o c it y , 80 . ay s in hic h a vect o r may

l ec t o rs , add it io n and s u b t rac 7 0
Wb
.

t io n, 4 b oo k o f , 1 1 2
W
. e s t er, .

col linea r o r G ib b s , b oo k of , 1 09
W
p a ral l el, 3 . il so n -
.

condi t io n o f p a ral l el is m of , 35 . o rk o f a forc e, 31 .