Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INDEX
INTRODUCTION
Conduction of heat is flow of heat which occurs due to exchange of
energy from one molecule to another without appreciable motion of
molecules. In any heating process, heat is flowing outwards from heat
generation point. In order to reduce losses of heat, various types of
insulations are used in practice. Various powders e.g. asbestos powder,
plaster of paris etc. are also used for heat insulation. In order to
determine the appropriate thickness of insulation, knowledge of thermal
conductivity of insulating material is essential.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a smaller (inner) sphere, inside, which is fitted
a mica electric heater. Smaller sphere is fitted at the center of outer
sphere. The insulating powder, whose thermal conductivity is to be
determined is filled in the gap between the two spheres. The heat
generated by heater flows through the powder to the outer sphere. The
outer sphere loses heat to atmosphere. The input to the heater is
controlled by a dimmerstat and is measured on voltmeter and ammeter.
Four thermocouples are provided on the outer surface of inner sphere
and six thermocouples are on the inner surface of outer sphere, which
are connected to a multi channel digital temperature indicator.
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Inner sphere- 100mm O.D., halved construction
2. Outer sphere- 200mm I.D., halved construction
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
OBSERVAATIONS
Sl.
No. Temperatures 0 C Heat input
THEORY
CALCULATIONS
1. Heater input = Q = V x I Watts
T1 + T 2 + T 3 + T 4
2. Average inner sphere surface temperature, Ti =
4
0C
PRECAUTIONS
RESULT
Thermal conductivity of insulating powder is ___________at temperature
of ________
Fig. 1 Apparatus of thermal conductivity of insulating powder
1. Shell
2. Voltmeter
3. Ammeter
4. Temperature indicator
5. Selector switch
6. Main switch
7. Heater control
AIM
To determine the thermal resistance, thermal conductivity of composite
wall material and plot temperature gradient along composite wall
structure.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a plates of different materials sandwiched
between two aluminum plates. Three types of slabs are provided on both
sides of heater, which forms a composite structure. A small hand press
frame is provided to ensure the perfect contact between the slabs. A
dimmerstat is provided for varying the input to the heater and
measurement of input is carried out by a Voltmeter and Ammeter.
Thermocouples are embedded between interfaces of input slabs, to read
the temperatures at the surface.
SPECIFICATIONS
Slab size:
a. M.S. - 25 cm x 25 mm thick
b. Bakelite - 25 cm x 10 mm thick
c. Brass - 25 cm x 10 mm thick
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Start the supply of heater. By varying the dimmerstat adjust the
input (range 30- 70 Watts) and start water supply.
2. Take readings of all the thermocouples at an interval of 10 minutes
until steady state is reached.
a. M.S 2.5 cm 46 W / m K
b. Bakelite 1.0 cm 0.223 W / m K
c. Brass 1.0 cm 110 W / m K
OBSERVATIONS
Sl.No. Heat Supplied Temperatures 0C
(Watts)
Voltmeter Ammeter T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
CALCULATIONS
1) Mean readings,
(T1 + T2 )
a) TA = 0C
2
(T3 + T4 )
b) TB = 0C
2
(T5 + T6 )
c) TC = 0C
2
(T7 + T8 )
d) TD = 0C
2
2) Rate of heat supplied, Q = V x I Watts
For calculating the thermal conductivity of composite walls, it is assumed
that due to large diameter of the plates, heat flowing through central
portion is unidirectional i.e. axial flow. Thus for calculations central half
diameter area where unidirectional flow is assumed is considered.
Accordingly thermocouples are fixed at close to center of the plates.
Q
Now, Heat flux, q = Watt / m 2
A
A= x d 2 (d = half dia. of plates)
4
Total thermal resistance of composite slab:
T A TD
R total = m2 o K /W
q
q .b
i) Thermal conductivity of composite slab, K = W /m/k
T A TD
composite
GRAPH
TA
TB
Temperature, 0C
Mild Steel
TC
TD
Bakelite
Brass
25 35 45
Thickness of slab
RESULT
Thermal resistance of composite wall =
Over all thermal conductivity of composite wall =
Fig. 1 Composite wall apparatus
1. Voltmeter
2. Ammeter
3. Temperature indicator
4 Main switch
5. Heater Control
6. Water connection
1. To determine heat flow rate through the lagged pipe and compare it
with the heater input for known value of thermal conductivity of
lagging material.
2. To determine the approximate thermal conductivity of lagging
material by assuming the heater input to be the heat flow rate
through lagged pipe.
3. To plot the temperature distribution across the lagging material.
APPARATUS
SPECIFICATIONS
PROCEDURE
1) Start the supplies of heater and by varying dimmerstat adjust the
input for desired value (range 60 to 120 Watts) by using voltmeter and
ammeter, also start water supply.
2) Take readings of all the 6 thermocouples at an interval of 5 min until
the steady state is reached.
3) Note down steady readings in observation table.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Inner pipe O.D., D1 = 0.06 m
2. Middle pipe mean dia., D2 = 0.085 m
3. Outer pipe I.D., D3 = 0.107 m
Volt
Sl.No. Ammeter Thermocouple Readings
meter
V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
CALCULATIONS
Mean readings
T1 + T2 o
T inside = C
2
T3 + T4 o
T middle = C
2
T5 + T6 o
T Outer = C
2
ri = Inner pipe radius = 0.03 m
ro = outer pipe radius = 0.0535 m
rm = mean radius of middle pipe = 0.0425m
L = Length of pipe = 1m
k = thermal conductivity W / m K
Q= actual heat input = V x I Watts
Assumption: The pipe is so long as compared with diameter that heat
flows in radial direction only middle half length.
i) Now, first we find out the theoretical heat flow rate through the
composite cylinder
T inside T outside
Q =
1 1 r 1 r0
Log e m + Log e
2L k1 ri k2 rm
k1 = 0.22 W/moK & k2 = 0.13 W/m0K, where Actual heat input, Qact = V.I.
ii) Now from known value of heat flow rate, value of combined thermal
conductivity of lagging material can be calculated.
2 Lk ( Ti To )
Q act =
log e ( r 0 / r i )
PRECAUTIONS
RESULTS
INTRODUCTION
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a copper bar, one end of which is heated by an
electric heater and the other end is cooled by a water-circulated heat
sink. The middle portion, i.e. Test section of the bar is covered by a shell
containing insulation. The bar temperature is measured at 8 different
section, while 2 thermocouples measure the temperature at the shell.
Two thermometers are provided to measure water inlet and outlet
temperatures. A dimmer is provided for the heater to control its input.
Constant water flow is circulated through the heat sink. A gate valve
provided controls the water flow.
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Metal bar copper, 25mm O.D, approx. 430 mm long with
insulation shell along the test length and water cooled heat sink at
the outer end.
2. Test length of the bar 240 mm
3. Measuring flask to measure water flow.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Start the electric supply.
2. Start heating the bar by adjusting the heater input to say 80 V or
100 V
3. Start cooling water supply through the heat sink and adjust it to
around 350- 400 cc per minute.
4. Bar temperature will start rising. Go on checking the temperatures
at time intervals of 5 minutes.
5. When all the temperatures remain steady, note down all the
observations and complete the observation table.
OBSERVATION TABLE
Water
Sl. TEST BAR TEMPERATURE OC Shell Water
flow rate
No. Temp.oC Temp.oC
Lit/Sec.
Using the temperatures of the bar at various points, plot the temperature
distribution along the length of the bar and determine the slopes of the
graph (i.e. temperature drop per unit length) dT/dx at the sections AA,
BB and CC as shown in figure.
(Note: As the value of temperature goes on decreasing along the length of
the bar, the value of the slope dT/dx is negative)
CALCULATIONS
Heat is flowing through the bar from heater end to water heat sink.
When steady state is reached, heat passing through the section CC of the
bar is heat taken by water.
1) Heat passing through Section CC
Qcc = m. CP T Watts.
Where,
m = mass flow rate of cooling water, kg/s.
CP = Specific heat of water= 4180 J / kgo C
T = (Water outlet temperature) (Water inlet temperature)
dT
Now, Qcc = -kcc .A
dx cc
A = Cross sectional area of the bar = D2
4
Kcc = W / moC
2) Heat passing through section BB
Qbb = Qcc + Radial heat loss between CC & BB.
2 k .L1 (T6 T10 )
= Qcc +
log e (r0 / ri )
Where,L2 = 0.090 m
dT
Qaa = -kaa. .A
dx aa
Kaa = W/moC
RESULTS
1) Temperature of the bar decreases from hot end to cool end, which
satisfies the
INTRODUCTION
Extended surfaces or fins are used to increase the heat transfer rates
from a surface to the surrounding fluid wherever it is not possible to
increase the value of the surface heat transfer coefficient or the
temperature difference between the surface and the fluid. Fins are
fabricated in variety of forms. Fins around the air cooled engines are a
common example. As the fins extend from primary heat transfer surface,
the temperature difference with the surrounding fluid diminishes towards
the tip of the fin.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a simple pin fin which is fitted in a rectangular
duct. The duct is attached to suction end of a blower. One end of fin is
heated by an electrical heater. Thermocouples are mounted along the
length of fin and a thermocouple notes the duct fluid temperature. When
top cover over the fin is opened and heating started, performance of fin
with natural convection can be evaluated and with top cover closed and
blower started, fin can be tested in forced convection.
SPECIFICATIONS
1) Fins 12 mm O. D., Effective length 102 mm with 5 nos of
thermocouple positions along the length, made of brass, mild steel and
aluminum - one each.
Fin is screwed in heater block which is heated by a band heater.
2) Duct- 150 x 100mm cross-section, 1000mm long connected to suction
side of blower
3) FHP centrifugal blower with orifice and flow control valve on discharge
side.
4) Orifice dia 22mm, coefficient of discharge Cd = 0.64
5) Water manometer connected to orifice meter
THEORY
Let A= Cross sectional area of the fin, m2
P= Perimeter (circumference) of the fin, m
L= Length of the fin = 0.102 m
T1= Base temperature of fin
Tf= Duct fluid temperature (Channel No. 6 of temperature indicator)
= Temperature difference of fin and fluid temperature =T- Tf
h = Heat transfer coefficient, W / m2 oC
Kf = Thermal conductivity of fin material
= 110 W / m oC for brass
= 46 W / m oC for mild steel
= 232 W / m oC for aluminum
Heat is conducted along the length of fin and also lost to surroundings.
Applying first law of thermodynamics to a control volume along the
length of fin at a station which is at length x from the base
d 2T h.P
2
=0 (1)
dX k f .A
= (C1 .e mx ) + (C 2 .e mx )
(2)
h.P
Where m = (3)
k f .A
This is the equation for temperature distribution along the length of the
fin. Temperatures T1 and Tf will be known for the given situation and the
value of h depend upon mode of convection i.e. natural or forced.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
A) NATURAL CONVECTION
Open the duct cover over the fin. Ensure proper earthing to the unit and
switch on the main supply. Adjust dimmerstat so that about 80 V are
supplied to the heater. The fin will start heating. When the
temperatures remain steady, note down the temperatures of the fin and
duct fluid temperature.
Duct fluid temperature
Sl.
INPUT Fin temperatures oC oC
NO.
V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 (Tf)
B) FORCED CONVECTION
Close the duct cover over the fin. Start the blower. Adjust the
dimmerstat so that about 100 110v are supplied to the heater. When
the temperatures become steady, note down all the temperatures and
manometer difference
CALCULATIONS
Nomenclature:
Tm = Average fin temperature = (T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 +T5) /5
T = Tm T f
NATURAL CONVECTION
The fin under consideration is horizontal cylinder losing heat by natural
convection. For horizontal cylinder, Nusselt number, from data book,
page number 122.
Nu= 1.02 (Gr.Pr)0.148 ----------for 10-2 < Gr.Pr < 102
Nu = 0.85 (Gr.Pr)0.188 --------- for 102 < Gr.Pr < 104.
Nu= 0.48 (Gr.Pr)0.25 ----------for 104 < Gr.Pr < 107
Nu = 0.125 (Gr.Pr)0.333 --------- for 107 < Gr.Pr < 1012.
g. .D 3T
Where Gr = Grashof number. =
2
Cp .
Pr = Prandtl number = (take from data book.)
k air
FORCED CONVECTION
For flow across Horizontal cylinder loosing heat by forced convection,
from data book, page number 100.
Nu = 0.911 (Re)0.385. Pr.0.333 ---------- for 4 < Re < 40
Nu = 0.683 (Re)0.466 . Pr.0.333 ---------- for 40 < Re < 4000
Nu= 0.193 (Re)0.618 . Pr.0.333 ----------for 4000 < Re < 40,000
Vtmf . D
Where, Re =
V . (Tmf + 273)
Vtmf =
(T f + 273)
CONCLUSION
PRECAUTIONS
1. Operate all the switches and controls gently
2. Do not obstruct the suction of the duct or discharge pipe
3. Open the duct cover over the fin for natural convection experiment
4. Fill up water in the manometer and close duct cover for forced
convection experiment
5. Proper earthing to the unit is necessary
6. While replacing the fins, be careful for fixing the thermocouples.
Incorrectly fixed thermocouples may show erratic readings
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
23 23 23 23 10
GRAPH
Fin Temperature, 0C
Natural Convection
Forced Convection
Fig 2: Variation of fin temperature along the length of fin with natural
convection and forced convection.
RESULTS
Natural convection:
Forced convection:
1. Manometer
2. Ammeter
3. Voltmeter
4. Temperature indicator
5. Selector switch
6. Blower switch
7. Heater control
8. Main switch
9. Suction duct
10. Orifice meter
HEAT TRANSFER IN PIN FIN
HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION
AIM
INTRODUCTION
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a brass tube fitted in a rectangular vertical
duct. The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure
and serves the purpose of undisturbed surrounding. One side of the
duct is made up of perspex for visualization. An electric heating element
is kept in the vertical tube which in turn heats the tube surface. The
heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by natural convection.
The temperature of the vertical tube is measured by seven
thermocouples. The heat input to the heater is measured by an ammeter
and a voltmeter and is varied by a dimmerstat. The vertical cylinder with
the thermocouple positions is shown in figure. The tube surface is
polished to minimize the radiation losses.
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Diameter of the tube (d)= 38mm
2. Length of tube (L) = 500mm
3. Duct size 200mm x 200mm x 800mm Length
THEORY
When a hot body is kept in still atmosphere, heat is transferred to the
surrounding fluid by natural convection. The fluid layer in contact with
the hot body gets heated, rises up due to the decrease in its density and
the cold fluid rushes in to take place. The process is continuous and the
heat transfer takes place due to the relative motion of hot and cold fluid
particles.
The heat transfer coefficient is given by:
Q QR
h= (1)
A s (Ts Ta )
Where
. = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.667x 10-8 W/m2 K4
= Emissivity of pipe material = 0.06
Ts & Ta = Surface and ambient temperatures in o K respectively.
The surface heat transfer coefficient, of a system transferring heat by
natural convection depends on the shape, dimensions and orientation of
the fluid and the temperature difference between heat transferring
surface and the fluid. The dependence of h on all the above mentioned
parameters is generally expressed in terms of non-dimensional groups as
follows:
n
hxL g.L3 .T C
= A x K (2)
k 2
hxL
Where is called the Nusselt number.
k
g .L3 .T
= is called the Grashof Number and
v2
C .
= is the Prandtl Number.
k
A and n are constants depending on the shape and orientation of the
heat transferring surface.
Where L = A characteristic dimension of the surface.
K= Thermal conductivity of fluid
=Kinematic viscosity of fluid
= Dynamic viscosity of fluid
Cp = Specific heat of fluid
= Coefficient of volumetric expansion for the fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity.
T = [Ts Ta]
1
For gases = K-1, Tf = (Ts + Ta)/2
(T f + 273)
For a vertical cylinder losing heat by natural convection, the constants A
and n of equation (2) have been determined and the following empirical
correlations obtained from data book, page number 120.
hL
= 0.59 (Gr.Pr.)0.25 for 104 < Gr.Pr. < 109 (3)
k
hL
= 0.10 (Gr.Pr.)1/3 for 109 < Gr.Pr. < 1013 (4)
k
L = Length of the cylinder.
All the properties of the fluid are determined at the mean film
temperature (Tf)
PROCEDURE
1. Put ON the supply and adjust the dimmerstat to obtain the
required heat input (say 40 W, 60 W, 70 W etc).
2. Wait till the steady state is reached, which is confirmed from
temperature readings ( T1- T7)
3. Measure surface temperature at the various points i.e. T1 to T7
4. Note the ambient temperature i.e. T8
OBSERVATIONS
1) O.D. Cylinder = 38 mm
2) Length of cylinder = 500 mm
3) Input to heater = V. I Watts
Temperature, 0C
Sl.No. Volt Amp
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
CALCULATIONS
1) Calculate the value of average surface heat transfer coefficient
neglecting end losses using equation (1)
2) Calculate and plot (Fig.4) the variation of local heat transfer
coefficient along the length of the tube using:
T = T1 to T7 and h = Q/[As(T-Ta)]
3) Compare the experimentally obtained value with the predictions of
the correlation equation (3) or (4).
PRECAUTIONS
1. Proper earthing is necessary for the equipment.
2. Keep dimmerstat to ZERO volt position before putting on main
switch and increase it slowly.
3. Keep at least 200 mm space behind the equipment.
4. Operate the change-over switch of temperature indicator gently
from one position to other, i.e. from 1 to 8 positions.
5. Never exceed input above 80 Watts.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a circular pipe, through which cold fluid, i.e.
air is being forced. Pipe is heated by a band heater outside the pipe.
Temperature of pipe is measured with thermocouples attached to pipe
surface. Heater input is measured by a voltmeter and ammeter. Thus,
heat transfer rate and heat transfer coefficient can be calculated.
SPECIFICATIONS
Test pipe 33mm I.D. 500 mm long
Band heater for pipe.
Blower to force the air through test pipe
Orifice meter with water manometer.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Put ON main supply.
2. Adjust the heater input with the help of dimmerstat.
3. Start the blower and adjust the air flow with valve
4. Wait till steady state is reached and note down the reading in
the observation table
Sl. Vol Amp. Temperatures O C Manomete
No t r
Difference
hw
V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
CALCULATIONS
1. Air inlet temp T1 = 0 C
2. Air outlet temp. T7 = 0 C
1.293x 273
3. Density of air, a = kg/m3
273 + T1
4. Diameter of orifice = 22 mm
Manometer difference = Water head = hw meters
Air head, ha = hw (w / a)
Where w = density of water = 1000 Kg/m3
Air volume flow rate, i.e., discharge
Q = C d a 0 2 gha m3 /sec.
Where Cd = 0.64
ao = cross section area of orifice
5. Mass flow rate of air, ma = Q x a kg/sec.
Q
Velocity of air, V = m/sec.
a
PRECAUTIONS
1. While putting ON the supply, keep dimmerstat at zero position and
blower switch OFF
2. Operate all the switches and controls gently.
3. Do not obstruct the flow of air while experiment is going on.
RESULT
Experimental heat transfer coefficient, hexpt =
Theoretical heat transfer coefficient = htheo =
Fig.1 Forced convection apparatus
1. Manometer
2. Voltmeter
3. Ammeter
4. Temperature indicator
5. Selector switch
6. Blower switch
7. Heater control
8. Main switch
9. Blower
10. Orifice meter
11. Test section
12. Thermocouple setting
STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS
STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS
AIM
To determine the Stefan- Boltzmanns constant in the radiation heat
transfer.
INTRODUCTION
All the substances emit thermal radiation. When heat radiation is
incident over a body, part of radiation is absorbed, transmitted through
and reflected by the body. A surface which absorbs all thermal radiation
incidents over it is called black surface. For black surface, transmissivity
and reflectivity are zero and absorptivity is unity. Stefan Boltzmann Law
states that emissivity of a surface is proportional to fourth power of
absolute surface temperature i.e.
E T4
or E = T4
Where E = emissive power of surface, W / m2
T = absolute temperature
= Stefan Boltzmann constant
= emissivity of the surface
Value of Stefan Boltzmann constant is taken as
= 5.667 x 10-8 W / m2 K4
For black surface = 1, hence above equation reduces to
E = . T4
APPARATUS
The Apparatus consists of a water-heated jacket of hemispherical
shape. A copper test disc is fitted at the center of jacket. The hot
water is obtained from a hot water tank, fitted to the panel, in which
water is heated by an electric immersion heater. The hot water is
taken around the hemisphere, so that hemisphere temperature rises.
The test disc is then inserted at the center. Thermocouples are fitted
inside hemisphere to average out hemisphere temperature. Another
thermocouple fitted at the center of test disc measures the
temperature of test disc. A timer with a small buzzer is provided to
note down the disc temperatures at the time intervals of 5 seconds.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. See that water inlet cock of water jacket is closed and fill up
sufficient water in the heater tank.
2. Put ON the heater.
3. Blacken the test disc with the help of lamp black and let it cool.
4. Put the thermometer and check water temperature.
5. Boil the water and switch OFF the heater
6. See that drain cock of water jacket is closed and open water inlet
cock.
7. See that there is sufficient water above the top of hemisphere
(A piezometer tube is fitted to indicate water level)
8. Note down the hemisphere temperatures (up to channel 1 to 4)
9. Note down the test disc temperature (i.e.. channel 5)
10. Start the timer. Buzzer will start ringing. At the start of timer
cycle, insert test disc into the hole at the bottom of hemisphere.
11. Note down the temperatures of disc, every five times of the buzzer
rings. Take at least 8-10 readings
OBSERVATIONS
T2 =
T3 =
T4 =
Time Interval Test disc Temperature
(Sec) (oC)
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
CALCULATIONS
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4
Hemisphere temperature, TH = + 273.15 K
4
4) Initial Test disc temperature
TD = T5 + 273.15 k
As area of hemisphere is very large as compared to that disc, we can put
Q = .A (TH4 TD4)
Where Q = heat gained by disc/sec.
Q = m. cP. (dT/dt)t=0
= Stefan Boltzmann Constant
m = Mass of test disk = 7.6 x 10-3 kg.
= Emissivity of test disc = 1
A = Area of Test disc
cP= Specific heat of copper = 381 J/Kg 0 C
m .c P .( dT / dt ) t = 0
= 4 4
W/ m2 K4
A .( T H T D )
Theoretical value of is 5.667x 10-8 W/m2 K4.
In the experiment this value may deviate due to reasons like convection,
temperature drop of hemisphere, heat losses etc.
PRECAUTIONS
1) Never put ON the heater before putting water in the tank.
2) Put OFF the heater before draining the water from heater tank.
3) Drain the water after completion of experiment.
4) Operate all the switches and controls gently
RESULT
Stefan Boltzmanns constant, = ________W / m2 K4
1. Water tank
2. Main switch
3. Temperature indicator
4. Temperature selector switch
5. Buzzer switch
6. Heater switch
7. Shell
Fig.2 Thermocouple setting
INTRODUCTION
All the bodies emit and absorb the thermal radiation to and from
surroundings. The rate of thermal radiation depends upon the
temperature of body. Thermal radiations are electromagnetic waves and
they do not require any medium for propagation. When thermal radiation
strikes a body, part of it is reflected, part of it is absorbed and part of it is
transmitted through body. The fraction of incident energy, reflected by
the surface is called reflectivity (). The fraction of incident energy,
absorbed by the surface is called absorptivity () and the fraction of
incident energy transmitted through body is called transmissivity (). The
surface which absorbs all the incident radiation is called a black surface.
For a black surface, ++ = 1.
The radiant flux, emitted from the surface is called emissive power (E).
The emissivity of a surface is ratio of emissive power of a surface to that
of black surface at the same temperature. Thus,
= E / Eb
APPARATUS
The apparatus uses comparator method for determining the emissivity of
test plate. It consists of two aluminum plates, of equal physical
dimensions. Mica heaters are provided inside the plates. The plates are
mounted in an enclosure to provide undisturbed surroundings. One of
the plates is blackened outside for use as a comparator (because black
surface has = 1). Another plate is having natural surface finish. Input
to heaters can be controlled by separator dimmer stats. Heater input is
measured on common ammeter and voltmeter. One thermocouple is
fitted on surface of each plate to measure the surface temperature with
digital temperature indicator. By adjusting input to the heaters, both the
plates are brought to same temperature, so that conduction and
convection losses form both the plates are equal and difference in input
is due to different emissivities. Holes are provided at backside bottom
and at the top of enclosure for natural circulation of air over the plates.
The plate enclosure is provided with Perspex acrylic sheet at the front.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Blacken one of the plates with the help of lamp black (Normally
this is blackened at the works, but if blackening is wiped out,
then blackening is necessary)
2. Keep both the dimmer knobs at ZERO position.
3. Insert the supply pin-top in the socket (which is properly
earthed) and switch ON the mains supply.
4. Switch ON the mains switch on the panel.
5. Keep the meter selector switch (toggle switch) at the black plate
side position.
6. Adjust dimmer of black plate, so that around 110-120 volts are
supplied to black plate.
7. Now, switch the meter selector switch on other side.
8. Adjust test plate voltage slightly less than that of black plate (say
100- 110 volts)
9. Check the temperatures (after, say 10 min) and adjust the
dimmers so that temperatures of both the plates are equal and
steady. Normally, very minor adjustments are required for this.
10. Note down the readings after the plate temperatures reach
steady state.
OBSERVATIONS
Input Surface temperature,
Plate
V I 0C
Test plate T1 =
Black plate T2 =
Enclose temperature, T3 = 0C
CALCULATIONS
1. Enclose temperature:
TE =T3 = 0C = (T3 + 273.15) 0K
2. Plate surface temp.
T = T1 =T2 = 0 C
TS = (T+273.15) 0K
3. Heat input to black plate, Wb = V x I Watts
4. Heat input to test plate, WT = V x I Watts
5. Surface area of test plates, A = 2 x (/4) D2 + ( D t) =
Where, D = dia. Of plates = 0.16 m.
And t = thickness of plates = 0.009 m.
6. For black plate,
Wb = WCVb + WCdb + WRb (i)
Where, WCvb = Convection losses
WCdb = Conduction losses
WRb = Radiation losses
Similarly, for test plate,
WT = WCvT + WCdT + WRT (ii)
As both plates are of same physical dimensions, same material and
at same temperatures,
WCvb = WCvT and WCdb = WCdT
Subtracting equation (ii) from (i) we get,
Wb - WT = WRb - WRT
= [ A (Ts4 TE4)] - [ A T (Ts4 TE4)]
= A (Ts4 TE4) (b )
As emissivity of black plate is 1,
Wb - WT = A (Ts4 TE4) (1 )
Where, = Emissivity of test plate
= Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.667 x 10-8 W/m2K4
PRECAUTIONS
1. Black plate should be perfectly blackened.
2. Never put your hand or papers over the holes provided at the top of
enclosure.
3. Keep at least 200 mm distance between the backside of unit and
the wall.
4. Operate all the switches and knobs gently.
Note: Emissivity of oxidized aluminum plate i.e. test plate is normally
with in the range of 0.3 to 0.7.
RESULT
Emisvity of the test plate surface = ________at temperature of _____
1. Voltmeter
2. Ammeter
3. Temperature indicator
4. Meter selector switch
5. Heater control
6. Heater control
7. Black plate
8 Test plate
CONCENTRIC TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
CONCENTRIC TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
AIM
To determine the heat transfer rate, LMTD, over all heat transfer
coefficient and effectiveness of heat exchangers in parallel flow and
counter flow concentric tube heat exchanger.
INTRODUCTION
Heat exchangers are the devices in which the heat is transferred from one
fluid to another. Exchange of heat is required at many industrial
operations as well as chemical process Common examples of heat
exchangers are radiator of a car, condenser of a refrigeration unit or
cooling coil of an air conditioner.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of two concentric tubes in which fluids pass. The
hot fluid is hot water, which is obtained from an electric geyser. Hot
water flows through the inner tube in one direction. Cold fluid is cold
water, which flows through annulus. Control valves are provided so that
direction of cold water can be kept parallel or opposite to that of hot
water. Thus, the heat exchanger can be operated either as parallel or
counter flow heat exchanger. The temperatures are measured with
thermometers. Thus, the heat transfer rate, heat transfer coefficient,
LMTD and effectiveness of heat exchanger can be calculated for both
parallel and counter flow.
SPECIFICATIONS
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Start the water supply. Adjust the water supply on hot and cold
sides. Firstly, keep the valves V2 and V3 closed and V1 and V4
opened so that arrangement is parallel flow.
2. Put few drops of oil in thermometer pockets. Put the thermometer
in the thermometer pockets.
3. Switch ON the geyser. Temperature of water will start rising.
After temperatures become steady, note down the readings and fill
up the observation table.
4. Repeat the experiment by changing the flow.
5. Now open the valvesV2 and V3 and then close the valves V1 and V4.
The arrangement is in now counter flow.
6. Wait until the steady state is reached and note down the readings.
OBSERVATION
Parallel
Flow
Counter
Flow
CALCULATIONS
1. Hot water inlet temperature, thi = 0C
Parallel
Flow
Counter
Flow
RESULTS
1. Tci
2. Tho
3. V4
4. V3
5. Thi
6. V1
7. Tco
8. V2
AIM
To determine the experimental and theoretical heat transfer coefficient
for drop wise and film wise condensation.
INTRODUCTION
APPARATUS
SPECIFICATION
Fill up the water in the steam generator and close the water-filling
valve.
Start water supply through the condensers.
Close the steam control valve, switch on the supply and start the
heater.
After some time, steam will be generated. Close water flow through
one of the condensers.
Open steam control valve and allow steam to enter the cylinder and
pressure gauge will show some reading.
Open drain valve and ensure that air in the cylinder is expelled
out.
Close the drain valve and observe the condensers.
Depending upon the condenser in operation, drop wise or film wise
condensation will be observed.
Wait for some time for steady state, and note down all the readings.
Repeat the procedure for the other condenser.
OBSERVATIONS
CALCULATIONS
(Film wise condensation)
Water flow mw= LPH = kg/sec
Water inlet temperature T4= oC
PRECAUTIONS
RESULTS
1. Steam generator
2. Water level
3. Rota meter
4. Steam pressure
5. Condensers
6. Temperature indicator
7. Selector switch
8. Heater control
9. Main switch
CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS
CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS
AIM
INTRODUCTION
Nucleate Film
boiling boiling
I II III
107
A III a III b
106 II a II b
Radiation C
Bubbles Unstable coming in to
rise film play
Heat Bubbles Stable film
flux, condense
W/m2
1 10 10 10 1000
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a cylindrical glass housing the test heater and
heater coil for heating of the water. This heater coil is direct connected to
the mains (Heater R1) and the test wire is also connected to mains via.
variac. An ammeter is connected in series while a voltmeter across it to
read the current and voltage respectively. The glass container is kept on
a stand. There is provision of observing the test heater wire with the help
of a lamp light from back and the heater wire can be view a lens.
SPECEIFICATIONS
1) Glass container Diameter 250 mm
Height 100 cm
2) Heater for initial heating, Nichrome Heater (R1) 1 kW
3) Test Heater (R-2), Nichrome wire size - mm
(To be calculated according to wire used say 36 SWG to 40 SWG.)
3) Length of test Heater (R-2) = 100 mm
4) Thermometer 0 to 100o C
EXPERIMENTS
This experimental set up is designed to study the pool boiling
phenomenon up to critical heat flux point. The pool boiling over the
heater wire can be visualized in the different regions up to the critical
heat flux point at which the wire melts. The heat flux from the wire is
slowly increased by gradually increasing the applied voltage across the
test wire the change over from natural convection to nucleate boiling can
be seen. The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and number
can be visualized followed by the vigorous bubbles formation and their
immediate carrying over to surface and ending this in the breaking of
wire indicating the occurrence of critical heat flux point.
PROCEDURE
1) Take sufficient amount of distilled water in the container.
2) See that both the heaters are completely submerged.
3) Connect the heater coil R-1 (1KW Nichrome coil) and test heater
wire across the studs and make the necessary electrical
connections.
4) Switch on the heater R-1(Let variac be at O position.)
5) Keep it ON till you get the required bulk temperature of water in
the container say 50O C, 60O C, 70O C temperature.
6) Switch off the heater R-1.
7) Very gradually increase the voltage across test heater by slowly
changing the variac position and stop a while at each position to
observe the boiling phenomenon on wire.
8) Go on increasing the voltage till wire brakes and carefully note the
voltage and current at this point.
PRECAUTIONS
1) Keep the variac to zero voltage position before starting the
experiments.
2) Take sufficient amount of distilled water in the container so that
both the heaters are completely immersed.
3) Connect the test heater wire across the stud.
4) Do not touch the water or terminal points when the main switch
ON.
5) Operate the variac gently in steps and sufficient time in between.
6) After the attainment of critical heat flux decrease slowly the voltage
and bring it to zero position.
OBSERVATIONS
1) Diameter of test heater wire, d = m.
2) Length of the test heater, L = 0.1 m
3) Surface area A = .d.L m2 =
Note: - The ammeter and voltmeter readings are to be note down when
wire melts.
CALCULATIONS
The critical heat flux at various bulk temperatures water can be
calculated by the following procedure.
1. Heat input Q = V. l Watts
Q V.I
2. Critical Heat flux q exp t = = W / m2
A A
3. Zubfer has given following equation for calculating peak heat flux in
saturated pool boiling.
1/4
Q . g (
q theor = = 0 . 18 h v LV L v
v2
fg
A
Where Q/A = Heat Flux, W/m2
hfg = Latent Heat of vaporization J/kg ----------- (from steam table)
LV = Liquid vapour surface tension N/m ----------- (from Chart)
L = Density of Liquid
= Density of vapour = 1/vg kg/m3 (from steam table)
RESULT
1. Voltmeter
2. Ammeter
3. Heater switch
4. Lamp switch
5. Main switch
6. Heater control
7. Class container
8. Heater fitting
HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATOR
HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATOR
AIM
INTRODUCTION
Heat pipe basically consist of a stainless steel pipe, sealed at both the
ends. It is evacuated and filled partially with distilled water. Stainless
steel mesh is provided at inside periphery of the pipe. When heat is
applied at the lower end of the heat pipe, water inside it evaporates and
vapor passes to upper end of the pipe. The heat is taken by the medium
surrounding upper portion of heat pipe. The vapor condenses giving its
latent heat of evaporation to the surrounding medium. The condensed
vapor returns to bottom through the mesh packing, thus because of
circulation of vapor, heat pipe operates at near to isothermal operation
and conducts much heat than conventional conductors.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of three pipes, viz., a heat pipe, copper pipe and a
stainless steel pipe. All the pipes have same physical dimensions.
Copper and Stainless steel pipes serve the purpose of comparison of heat
pipe performance with copper pipe as good conductor of heat and with
stainless steel pipe as same material of construction. All pipes are
mounted vertically with a band heater at lower end and a water filled
heat sink at upper end. When heaters start heating the pipes, begin to
transfer the heat to heat sinks. Rapid rise of temperature of water in the
heat pipe heat sink demonstrates high [apparent] thermal conductivity of
heat pipe. Nearly isothermal operation of heat pipe is clearly visualized
from longitudinal temperature distribution of pipes.
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Heat pipe- Stainless steel pipe, 25 mm OD, 400 mm long at both
ends, evacuated & filled partially with distilled water one no.
2. Copper and stainless steel pipes of same size as that of heat pipe
one each
3. Equal capacity heaters at bottom end of each pipe.
4. Water filled heat sinks at upper end of each pipe.
5. Thermometers to note down water temperatures in heat sinks
3nos.
6. Thermocouples for longitudinal temperatures and three
thermometers to sink temperatures.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
PRECAUTIONS
1. Proper earthing is necessary.
2. Stir the water before noting the water temperature in heat sink.
3. Do not remove water from heat sink till the pipes become cool.
4. Operate only one meter selector switch at a time in upward
position. Other two switches must be in downward position.
GRAPHS
1. Plot the graph of heat sink water temperature rise up to 30
minutes
2. Plot longitudinal temperature distribution for pipes.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
10 110 80 90 150 10
450
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time, t, min
Height of pipe, mm
Fig.3: Variation of surface temperature along the length of the pipe after
30 min.
RESULT
Graphs are plotted and the performance of heat pipe is compared with
stainless steel pipe and copper pipe. Heat pipe conducts much heat than
conventional conductors. In longitudinal temperature distribution graph,
the heat pipe curve is almost straight line.
1. Heater
2. Water container
3. Thermometer
4. Heat pipe
5. S.S. pipe
6. Copper pipe
7. Voltmeter
8. Ammeter
9. Temperature indicator
10 selector switch
11. Temperature selector switch
12 Pipe toggle switches (only one switch is
to be put in upward direction at time)
13. Main switch
14. Heater control