Economics of Dyeing
John Shore
ICI PLC
Organics Division
Hexagon House
Blackley
Manchester M9 3DA
Recently published work concerned with the internal cost
structure of textile coloration processes is reviewed and an
attempt is made to identify development trends from this
viewpoint. The emphasis is on cost comparisons between
processes and the degree of contribution by the various
factors to the overall cost of the process. The information
discussed is classified according to substrate, i.e. synthetic
yarn and tow, synthetic fabrics, cotton and polyester
blends, because this brings together methods of dyeing
which are sufficiently similar to permit useful cross-
comparisons Comments on the costs of scouring and
bleaching cotton are included in the section on batchwise
dyeing of knitted fabrics, but washing-off and thermal
treatmentsare best dealt with in the context of continuous
dyeing. Polyester-cotton dyeing, where there is most scope
for rationalization and cost-optimization because of the
expensive and timeconsuming nature of conventional
batchwise procedures, is left until last. The review
concludes with a re-statement of certain underlying trends
which govern the relative cost-effectiveness of different
methods of coloration.
"The barge she sat in, like a burnish'd throne,
Burn'd on the water: the poop was beaten gold;
..
Purple the sails.
..
. she did lie
In ::er pavilion, - cloth-of-gold of tissue, -" Antony and Cleopatra
Since the early Pharaohs, long before Cleopatra's fabulous
craft graced the Nile, there has been a high-priority, but l o w
volume, demand for luxury fabrics. This sector, however, has
scarcely affected the relatively stable economic environment
of traditional textile manufactu ring, dyeing and finishing
activities supplying the majority of the population. It is only
in the second half of the twentieth century that increasing
complexity in the balance of supply and demand has made
economic survival of a textile enterprise a more difficult and
unpredictable challenge. The reasons for these changes have
been admirably summarized in a recent comment to the
Journal (1I . They include:
Steadily rising world inflation, as global population rises
towards natural limits imposed by limited resource
availability.
Greater economic freedom of textile consumers in
developing countries and the refusal of modern societies
to be regimented into traditional styles and colours, or
to follow specific fashion trends.
An increase .in the number and variety of textile pro-
duction centres throughout the world, leading to a
marked disturbance of traditional patterns of trade in
textile materials.
Industrialization of developing countries in the cotton-
growing areas of the world and training of rural workers,
displaced by agricultural mechanization, to operate low-
wage textile factories exporting to developed nations at
highly competitive prices.
Availability of a wide range of fibres and blends dyed by
numerous different processes requiring relatively
sophisticated control.
58 REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981
Increasing relative cost and decreasing availability of oil
supplies, resulting in more expensive treatment chemicals
as well as higher energy costs for process heating.
Concern about environmental pollution, so that more
money is allocated to hazard testing of dyes and chem-
icals and to treatment of water and dyehouse effluent,
making them more costly.
In a sense, therefore, almost every Cleo nowadays can
have purple sails and golden sheets a t an accessible price, but
colouring them is getting less and less rewarding.
This review will not be concerned with the external
economic environment of modern textile industries, but
instead it will be concentrated on the internal pattern of cost
factors operating within textile dyeing systems. The external
economic pressures have forced dyers to consider in more
detail how the cost distribution depends on the products and
processes selected for a specified c o l o u r h bstrate combina-
tion and the equipment installed to achieve the necessary
process conditions. The impact of the energy crisis on textile
coloration processes and equipment design has been reviewed
comprehensively already I21 ; the relative importance of
energy and other cost factors will be assessed here instead.
Published information on this topic appears in a wide variety
of currencies and productivity or energy units, and it i s soon
outdated by inflationary trends. To minimize these difficult-
ies, figures quoted to illustrate the comments made will be
expressed in percentages wherever possible, since the actual
cost data is readily available in the original sources. I t should
be noted, however, that the cost distribution i s influenced to
a large extent by different rates for depreciation and capital
interest (which are not always included in the published
source), as well as by different costs of labour in individual
countries. Comparisons between sources are intended to illu-
strate general qualitative trends rather than specific quantita-
tive conclusions. Dyeing processes mentioned will be classified
broadly by substrate type, although the major principles
involved are applicable t o many different textile wet
processes.
DYEING OF SYNTHETIC YARN AND TOW
It is appropriate to consider this sector of the industry first,
because of the particularly difficult economic conditions
experienced by many dyers of synthetic yarns in recent years.
A slackening in the growth curves for the synthetic fibres, as
successive oil crises have had their effect on raw material
prices, consequent over-capacity in equipment for high
temperature dyeing, and a resurgence of cotton and cotton
blends in fashion garments, have all contributed to this. A
recent technical and economic appraisal of package dyeing
referred to the high cost of purchasing and installing package-
dyeing equipment and the threat from development of more
economical methods, such as producer coloration of
unstretched gel filaments and continuous dyeing of synthetic
tow. These trends had already by 1979 eroded the acrylic
yarn dyeing market to only 30% of i t s 1973 extent [31 .
Relative dyeing costs per unit of production for the
continuous dyeing of synthetic-fibre tow or the pad-batch
dyeing of wool top, expressed as a percentage of the corres-
ponding cost of package dyeing the same fibre, are as follows:
acrylic 31-41% [4], polyester 47-56% [51, and wool 80%
 TABLE 1
Simple Distribution of Costs for Polyester Yarn Dyeing
Literature reference (71
Cost Distribution (%) Model
Calculation
Dyes and Chemicals 36
Overheads 20
Labour 34
Services 10
[61.The variation in the figure for polyester fibre depends
on the payback period selected fordepreciation of the capital
cost of theequipment used in the two methods (2-10 years).
The range of values quoted for the continuous dyeing of
acrylic tow are determined by the type of continuous dyeing
unit employed (Fleissner, Serracant or Vanysol). It should be
noted that the acrylic package dyeing control value includes
the cost of two winding operations. If the cost of the dyed
Yarn on cone is taken as control, the tow-dyed product is
only 15% cheaper than package-dyed yarn, indicating the
considerable savings that are possible by eliminating winding
operations.
The variable or production-dependent costs of dyeing
processes include services (such as electricity, steam and
water supplies), dyes and chemicals, and the labour used
directly in the process. The investment-dependent fixed
costs include interest on the capital investment, depreciation
of the equipment and buildings, as well as labour and general
overheads not directly dependent on the quantity of finished
goods produced. The distribution of costs between these
areas is indicated in Table 1 for the package dyeing of textur-
ized polyester yarn. Some of the data quoted in this review
are based on actual cost analyses for one or more dyehouses
operating in the industry, whereas other results are obtained
from model calculations for a hypothetical dyehouse, using
average costs of labour, products and services prevailing in
the industry a t the time. The limitations of cost calculation
models have been outlined [71 and actual case histories
obviously relate to only one situation at a given time; never-
theless, such analyses demonstrate significant trends and give
a reasonably consistent picture when compared on a similar
basis.
From Table 1 the important contribution that the cost of
dyes and chemicals can make a t an average applied depth on
polyester yarn can be clearly seen. A recent publication has
given dyehouse costs (excludingpreparatory or final winding)
for four different fibre types dyed commercially in yarn
form using the same automated package dyeing equipment
[9].This permits a direct comparison and it is seen that the
contribution of dyes and chemicals to the cost distribution
is even greater on wool thanon the synthetic fibres (Table 2).
Process differences, such as the extra steam required for
high-temperature dyeing of polyester, and time-consuming
procedures, such as a slow rate of temperature rise on
acrylics to control levelling, or the aftertreatment of nylon to
improve wet fastness, have a significant effect on the balance
of costs between these contributing factors.
TABLE 2
Cost Distribution for Various Types of Yarn [91
Cost Distribution (%) Acrylic Nylon Polyester Wool
Dyes and Chemicals 29-44 3945 32-45 55
Overheads 27-32 24-27 25-28 20-22
Labour 18-22 16-18 16-19 13-14
Services 11-17 15-17 13-21 10-12
[81 [81 [91
Model Actual Actual
Calculation Dyehwses Dyehouse
51-58 45 3245
17-26 32 25-28
9-1 4 12 16-1 9
12-13 11 13-21
It is not easy to lower significantly the contribution of
dyes and chemicals to the overall cost distribution [7].
Instrumental colour-matching systems can be helpful in
making the best use of economical dyes in recipe formulation,
and automation of colour weighing and dispensing avoids
some wastage, but reliance on the cheapest dyes and mini-
mum chemical additions would be false economy if it greatly
increased the risk of unlevelness or inadequate fastness. What
the dyer really needs are cost-effective productswhich behave
in a controllable way. This search for reproducible recipes is
likely to prove more rewarding, because the avoidance of
multiple shading and re-processing greatly improves product-
ivity as well as controlling product usage. It i s worth paying
more for products which enable an overall saving of process
costs to be achieved in this way.
The contribution of overheads can only be modified sub-
stantially when investing in new equipment or extending an
existing plant, although it is obviously essential to make the
most productive use of the capacity available. The prospects
for investing in the dyeing of synthetic yarn are dixwrag-
ing. The appraisal already mentioned [31 concluded that
commission dyeing in this sector i s likely to disappear and
the building of a new fully-automated yarn dyehouse on a
greenfield site could only be considered as part of a total
manufacturing operation planned on similar lines for a
carefully selected profitable product.
Cost-saving exercises in the yarn-dyeing sector have, there-
fore, been concerned mainly with energy saving and improving
the productivity per operative. Model calculations for the
package dyeing of texturized polyester yarn [lo1 demon-
strated that halving the manning level, from two operatives
to one operative per machine, lowered the relative dyeing
cost from 100% to 81%; halving the level again, from one
machine to two machines per operative, lowered the relative
cost further, to 72%. One obvious way to increase the pro-
ductivity per operative i s to introduce a higher degree of
automation. If hank-dyeing machines are automated, the
productivity in kg dyed yarn per operative hour can be
improved from 40 to 50, but the automation of a package-
dyeing plant can bring about an improvement from 70 to
.
100-1 25 units [ 1 1I
An interesting model calculation [ 121 examines the
relationship between batch sizes and the effect of automation
on dyeing cost. As Table 3 confirms, the cost of the invest-
ment and the influence of automation in lowering the
production-dependent variable cost are highly dependent on
batch size of the equipment involved. If there is no increase
in production from automated machines, the return on the
investment is barely adequate. The successful introduction of
automated equipment necessitates a search for ways to
shorten the dyeing cycle and it is essential to improve the
scheduling of production before the dyeing stage. Blind
dyeing can be adopted, thus avoiding extending the dyeing
time to make shading additions, but this approach puts a
premium on reliability of recipe formulation.
So far services have been considered as a general cost
factor, but it i s important to distinguish between the cost of
REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981 59
 TABLE 3

Relationship Between Batch Size and Automation [121

Investment Variable Dyeing

Cost Index Cost Index
Machine Capacity (kg) Manual Automated Manual Automated
50 41 53 1 00 81
150 53 66 50 44
425 83 100 37 34

steam (highly dependent on both dyeing temperature and TABLE 6

liquor ratio), water (sensitive to liquor ratio, but not
temperature) and electricity (rather insensitive to both Liquor Ratio and Polyester Yarn Dyeing Cost (101
variables). Published data showing the average cost distribu-
tion between these three factors in various yarndyeing Relative Cost Indices
systems are compared in Tables 4 and 5. The differences in Liquor Ratio Steam and Water Dyeing
Table 4 presumably relate to the assumptions made about 6:1 43 69
average costs of supply of these services; as Table 5 confirms, 8:1 57 76
the high temperature of dyeing required for polyester makes 10:1 71 84
the cost of steam particularly important. 12:l 86 92
It is possible lower the contribution of steam cost by 14:1 100 100
operating a t a lower dyeing temperature, but thisoften incurs
a t least a compensating rise in the cost contribution of dyes
and chemicals. Decreasing the liquor ratio, however, makes a
considerable saving of both water and steam; for this reason,
one of the most significant recent trends in design of new
dyeing equipment has been in this direction. A direct cost TABLE 7
comparison for texturized polyester yarn dyed on package-
Relative Cost for Various Acrylic Yarn Packages [41
dyeing machines, designed to operate a t liquor ratios of 5:l
and 10: 1, respectively, has revealed an overall saving of 13%
Package Type Levelness Liquor Relative
in cost per kg of dyed yarn with the short-liquor machine
Assessment Ratio Dyeing Cost
1131. Model calculations (Table 6) for the same systems ParaIlel- sided Level 11:l 100
confirm the value of such improvements in design. Changes
Dyed on B I-KO Former Level 15:1 118
in package shape and type of central support permit the
Conical Unlevel 21:l 148
attainment of lower liquor ratios without risk of increased
incidence of unlevelness (Table 7).
An obvious method of simultaneously reducing all those
cost factors which do not depend directly on the volume of
production i s to improve the productivity in unit time and,
therefore, to utilize the available productive capacity more TABLE 8
efficiently. Model calculations for polyester yarn dyeing
show reductions of 27% 171 to 32% [lo1 in dyeing cost if Effects of Process Optimization and Rapid Dyeing 18,141
the dyeing time per batch is halved, and improving the
machine utilization from 50% to 90% can result in a 13% Type of Installation Productivity Relative
lowering of the cost index 1101.Two major routes towards Index Dyeing Cost
improving productivity may be followed: to optimize the Conventional, non-optimized 100 100
dyeing process and to introduce rapiddyeing equipment. A Rapid Dyeing, non-optimized 147 100
penetrating analysis of the consequences of these approaches Conventional, optimized 154 87
has been published during the period under review (8.141. Rapid Dyeing, optimized 237 85
TABLE 4

Services Cost Distribution for Polyester Yarn Dyeing

Literature reference 171 181 [91 [lo1

Cost Distribution (%) Model Actual Actual Model
Calculation Dyehouses Dyehouse Calculation
Electricity 15 27-38 9-17 40
Steam 27 42-50 65-77 33
Water 58 20-24 6-22 27

TABLE 5

Cost Distribution for Various Types of Yarn (91

Cost Distribution (%) Acrylic Nylon Polyester Wool

Electricity 15-23 13-14 9-1 7 15
Steam 53-59 46-53 65-77 49
Water 23-27 34-41 6-22 36

60 REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981

 Table 8 summarizes the degree of improvement in pro-
ductivity and cost per unit of production to be expected if
conventional and rapid-dyeing package machines are operated
with an optimized process in which a controlled rate of dye
adsorption per liquor circulation ensures an acceptable degree
of levelness in a minimum dyeing time, thusavoiding the need
for subsequent migration treatment. Process optimization
always lowers the dyeing cost, regardless of whether con-
ventional or rapid-dyeing machines are in use. Contrary to
widespread opinion, acquisition of rapid-dyeing equipment
without optimization of the process does not significantly
reduce costs, because the moderate increase in productivity i s
counterbalanced by the higher investment cost. Only
if the process i s optimized can the full benefit of the higher
productivity be realized and, even then, it i s essential to
ensure that the supply of undyed yarn is scheduled to
cope with the increased productivity a t the dyeing stage.
As already noted, avoidance of the shading step by
adopting blind dyeing can make a considerable impact on
dyeing costs, providing the formulation of recipes can be
developed to the level of reliability necessary for avoiding
excessive re-dips of offshade batches. Model calculations
predict an increase of about 6% in cost per kg dyed polyester
yarn if the dyeing time i s extended by one hour to accom-
modate a shading addition (71.Relative cost data based on
practical experience of dyeing acrylic and polyester yarn
packages are quoted in Table 9. It is clear that both con-
TABLE 9
Relative Cost of Conventional and Blind Dyeing [91
Relative Cost of Dyeing Acrylic Polyester
Conventional, one add 127 123
Blind, 33% redip 118 118
Conventional, no add 105 102
Blind, no re-dip 100 100
ventional and blind dyeing costs are highly sensitive to the
proportion of first-time successful dyeings which can be
achieved by either method.
DYEING A N D PRINTING SYNTHETIC FABRICS
Much of the published information in this sector is con-
cerned with the costs of processing texturized polyester
fabrics. The hydrophobic nature of this substrate pro-
vokes interest in solvent treatments and a recent analysis
examined the economics of a combined process [151.
Solvent pre-scouring of polyester jersey fabric, followed
by aqueous scouring on a combined open-width washing
machine, can give an 11% saving in process costs compared
with conventional continuous aqueous scouring, owing to a
substantial decrease in the steam and water consumption.
Excess heat from the perchloroethylene system can be
recovered efficiently by using it t o heat the water for the
aqueous scour a t 40-60C.
Many of the trends already noted for the dyeing of
polyester yarn are also applicable to the piece-dyeingsector.
The cost of dyeing in fabric form i s more sensitive to pro-
ductivity per man than in the case of yarn dyeing (see earlier)
because labour cost in the jet dyehouse makes a greater
contribution to the total cost. Model calculations for the j e t
dyeing of texturized polyester fabric [I61 showed that
halving the manning level, from two operatives to one
operative per machine, lowered the relative dyeing cost
from 100% to 74%; halving the level again, from one machine
to two machines per operative, lowered the relative cost
further, to 61%. Fabric-dyeing costs are also much more
sensitive to the degree of utilization of capacity owing to the
high capital cost of jet machines: an improvement in capacity
utilization from 50% to 90% lowers jet-dyeing costs by 32%
[16],compared with only 13% for yarn dyeing [lo].
Piece-dyeing machines differ more widely in design and
often can be operated over a wider range of liquor ratios than
package-dyeing machines for yarn. Most of the cost data

TABLE 10

Batch Size and Liquor Ratio in Fabric Dyeing [lSl

Relative Dyeing Cost Indices

Machine Type Liquor Ratio One Machine Several Machines
(55-90 kg/h) (50kg/h I
Cost Index Sizes Cost Index
R Jet 140 6:1 55 3 x 600 kg 58
8:1 61 3x 600kg 64
Soft-Stream 8:1 75 9x 300kg 70
12:l 87 9 x 3L3 kg 83
Jumbo Jet 12:l 68 5 x 300;1 x 150 76
20:1 92 5x 300;lx 150 100
HT Beam 12:1 100 14x 200kg 84

TABLE 1 1

Relative Dyeing Cost for Texturized Polyester [181

Dyeing Disperse Relative Cost Indices

Machine Liquor Time Dye Dyes and Process D & C as %
Type Ratio (min) (%j Chemicals Costs of Total

R Jet 140 6:l 180 2.65 84 66 80

R Soft-stream 11:l 210 2.70 86 75 72
Jumbo Jet 15:l 180 2.85 93 84 70
Soft-Stream 16:l 240 2.85 93 86 67
HT Winch 25:l 360 3.00 100 100 63

REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981 61

derived from practical experience or model dyehouse calcu- TABLE 12
lations is, therefore, concerned with attempts to compare the
productivity and cost-effectiveness of different designs of Effect of Productivity on Carpet Printing Cost 1201
machine in the fabric-dyeing sector. One model calculation
concluded that the cost of jet dyeing is only 75-95% of the Production Level (m2 x lo6 p.a.1 10 5 2 1 0.5
cost of beam dyeing of polyester, depending on the assump- Relative Printing Cost 20 26 36 58 100
tions made about manning levels and the period of payback Cost Distribution (%)
of the capital investment [171.A more ambitious series of
calculations compared the high-temperaturebeam with three Print Paste 66 52 36 23 13
different designs of Thies jet machine operating a t liquor Services 9 7 5 3 2
ratios in the range 6:l to 20:l (Table 101.These results Depreciation 9 16 22 28 32
confirmed the major influences on dyeing cost of batch size Interest on Capital 6 10 20 25 29
(compare Table 3) and liquor ratio (compare Table 6) Labour 7 11 10 12 14
already noted in the discussion of yarn-dyeing costs. Sampling 2 3 5 6 7
Similar trends are evident in data published by Thies for Maintenance 1 1 2 3 3
some of these machine types [ 181, based on actual costs
collected in the course of piece-dyeing trials (Table 11). The
relative process costs used in this comparison include only Increasing concern about the cost and availability of
dyes, chemicals and services, so that the product costs repre- energy in recent years has contributed to greater interest in
sent a high proportion of the total, rising to 80% as the the possibility of replacing some nylon by polyester in such
liquor ratio decreases to 6: 1 in the R Jet 140. outlets as textile floorcoverings and automotive fabrics, since
There i s now a considerable amount of published informa- the energy required for polymer production is less for poly-
tion on the costs of dyeing processes, some of it conflicting, ester than for nylon. Nevertheless, the stages of extrusion,
but in general providing a useful background for the spinning and dyeing are more expensive for polyester and
development of more economical dyeing machinery, products this operates against the cost difference in polymer manu-
and processes. The economic background of textile-printing facture. Table 13 gives an indication of the magnitude of
processes is much less clearly defined and there is a definite these differences in cost for nylon, polyester and modified
need for reliable cost analyses in this sector as guidance for polyester fibres [211. Deep-dye or basic-dyeable polyester
improvements in machine design and process development. variants can be dyed or printed a t cost levels much closer to
A good example of the kind of approach needed i s re- those for nylon. They also offer useful possibilities in design
presented by a recent technoeconomic assessment 1191 of because they can be used in blend constructions to obtain
the application of disperse dyes to texturized polyester fab- a wide variety of shadow or contrast effects by differential
rics (a) by vapour-phase transfer from printed transfer paper, dyeing (221.
and (b) in direct printing by rotary screen. Each system has Energy conservation has also been a stimulus to the
i t s own advantages and limitations which are not easy to development in recent years of dual-function rapiddyeing
express in monetary terms. The transfer-printing method i s and hydroextracting machines for the processing of nylon
particularly cost-effective for short runs, and the two hosiery and knitted garments. By combining the functions of
methods become closely competitive for lengths in the region separate traditional processes, these machines economize in
of 5000 m. Although more expensive than rotary screen the use of labour, energy, water, dyes and chemicals, as well
printing for longer runs, the progress made by transfer print- as shortening the dyeing cycle to 45-90 min, compared with
ing can be attributed partly to the less clearly defined advant- 3-5 hours in conventional rotary drum or paddle dyeing
ages of low capital outlay, wide availability of designs, quick machines [231.Savings of dyes and chemicals in this way are
delivery and turnround times, and the convenience and ver- limited, however, and product costs form a substantial pro-
satility of holding stocks of printed paper awaiting transfer, portion of the total dyeing cost: dyes and chemicals 68%,
rather than fabric already printed. labour lo%,electricity 1%, steam 16%, water 5%.
Another valuable source of data on printing costs is a In a valuable cross-comparison of equipment available in
series of model calculations relating to the Mitter rotary- this sector, the relative efficiencies of the Dytex, Milnor and
screen carpet printing machine 1201. These results show in Sancowad multipurpose machines were compared with con-
considerable detail how the distribution of costs varies with ventional rotary drums [241.All three rapid-dyeingtypes are
the production index (expressed in millions of square metres much more economical in operation than conventional drum
printed per annum). Typical values are quoted in Table 12. or paddle machines, but not to the extent claimed by their
At a production level of 10 million square metres per annum respective manufacturers. Table 14 summarizes the results of
the variable costs (print paste and services) account for 75% this comparison. Savings in consumption of water and dyes
of the total printing cost, but the high fixed costs associated increased in the sequence Milnor<Dytex<Sancowad, but in
with machinery required in this sector form an increasing the Sancowad machine tangling occurred with garments
proportion as the production level decreases towards 0.5 processed in bags. Savings in dyeing time and auxiliaries
million mz p.a.; the variable costs then are only 15% of the consumption increased in the order Sancowad<Dytex<-
total, which has reached five times the printing cost a t Milnor, but loading of the Milnor machine was a more
the 10 million m2 p.a. level. The contributions of individual critical operation.
factors to the total cost of services in this process are as These advantages of the multipurpose machines must be
follows: electricity 13%. steam 48%, water 39%. offset against their much greater capital cost (Table 15).
TABLE 13
Costs for Nylon and Polyester in Carpet Coloration 1211

Relative Cost of Polymer Cost of Yarn Undyed Dyeing Printing

Cost Indices Production Production Yarn Cost Cost Cost
Nylon 100 100 100 100 100
Modified Polyester 73 150 86 163 160
Normal Polyester 67 150 80 227 171-247

62 REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981

 TABLE 14

Cornperison of Multipurpose and Conventional Drum Machines [241

% Saving vs Drum Machine Manufacturer Claims Found by Hatra

Water Cycle Water Cycle
Multipurpose Machine and Steam Time and Steam Time
Dytex Model 54 (100 kg) 82 42 59 49
Milnor 3621 DYA (25 kg) 81 75 30 69
Sancowad Machine (50 kg) 90 69 85 47

TABLE 15 PREPARATION A N D BATCHWISE DYEING OF KNITTED

COTTON
Relative Cost of Hosiery-dyeing Machines 1241 The removal of impurities from synthetic fabrics before dye-
ing is seldom difficult and, therefore, the cost of preparation
Machine Capacity (kg) 25 50 100 forms a relatively insignificant part of the overall costs of dye-
ing and finishing. This i s not the case with cotton, however,
Drum 11 13 21 where the thorough removal of impurities to give a clean and
Dytex 74 100 uniformly absorbent substrate is a timeconsuming, but
Milnor 42 79
essential, stage in the achievement of a successful coloration
Paddle 10 11 16 process. Removal of warp size is usually the first stage for
woven fabrics and a cost comparison between four desizing
methods [261 is reproduced in Table 17. The costs differ
Hosiery and garment dyeing represents a relatively promi-
widely, mainly in terms of labour requirement and consump-
sing sector for introducing techniques of re-constitution and
tion of chemicals and steam. Relatively l i t t l e attention
reuse of exhaust dyebaths in order to save energy, water,
(about two machines per operative) i s needed for methods
dyes and chemicals for the following reasons:
(a) and (b), but the throughput is slow. Methods (c) and (d)
(a) Nylon is chemically stable and garments are usually require two operatives each, but the much lower liquor reten-
packed in bags for dyeing, so there is l i t t l e accumu-
tion saves water, steam and chemicals compared with jig and
lation of fibre waste.
especially winch methods. A similar trend i s evident in the
(b) Nylon hosiery recipes are often based on the same
comparison of bleaching costs for knitted cotton [271
three disperse dyes in different proportions to give
quoted in Table 18. Although details of t he process
various browns.
sequences are not given in the original source, it is clear that
(c) Auxiliaries used in hosiery dyeing are chemically
winch bleaching is considerably more costly than the semi-
stable and not exhausted significantly by nylon.
continuous and continuous processes.
(d) Rotating-drum waste dyebaths are normally dis-
charged to drain, rather than pumped to a heat
exchanger. TABLE 17

An estimate of the savings in cost, which are claimed Relative Cost of Various Desizing Methods 1261
for this approach, is given in Table 16, which relates to
conventional and re-use sequences of nylon hosiery dye- Method Relative Cost
ings in a typical rotating drum. At the end of each cycle (a) Enzyme Treatment and Wash (Winch) 100
in the re-use sequence, the exhaust dyebath was sampled (b) Enzyme Treatment and Wash (Jig) 60
for spectrophotometric analysis and then re-constituted (c) Enzyme Pad-Batch-Store-Wash 40
with dyes and chemicals to the concentrations required (d) Acid Pad-J-Box Store-Rope Wash 30
for the next dyeing in the sequence [25]. Bearing in mind
the cost of spectrophotometric equipment and qualified TABLE 18
personnel required to operate the analysis of solutions
containing ternary mixtures of dyes on a routine basis,
Relative Cost of Various Bleaching Methods (271
however, it is doubtful whether the adoption of the re-
use technique can justify the necessary investment. Method Relative Cost
Winch Bleach 83-1 00
Immersion Bleach 63-74
TABLE 16 Steam Bleach 53
Circulation Bleach 51
Conventional and Re-use System, in Hosiery Dyeing (251 Hypochlorite-Peroxide Bleach (J-Box) 48
Chlorite Bleach (J-Box) 45
Processing System Conventional Re-use Cold Bleach 38
Cycles in Sequence 15 14-17
Relative Dyeing Cost 100 63 Traditional batchwise bleaching processes based on
hypochlorite have several inherent drawbacks, includ-
Cost Distribution (%) ing low labour productivity, high usage of energy and
Dyes 35 45 water, and lengthy processing times. The widespread
Chemicals 46 41 adoption of hot alkaline peroxide to give a combined
Steam 15 11 scouring and bleaching action has Overcome many of
Water 4 3 these difficulties with substantial savings in labour and

REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981 63

services (Table 19). The conventional bleach is specified as: bleaching installation is as follows: chemicals 43%. deprecia-
two alkaline kier boils, hypochlorite bleach, scour and tion 19%. maintenance 3%, labour 18%, electricity 5%. steam
neutralize, with intermediate washing between stages. The 4%, water 8%. This refers to the following sequence of treat-
peroxide kier bleach sequence is: desize by hypochorite ments: caustic soda pad-steam-wash-hypochlorite pad-J-
impregnation, then alkaline peroxide bleach [281 . box store-peroxide pad-steam-wash [291 .
TABLE 19 The total cost of operating a textile wet-processing plant
i s much influenced by the number of machine units required
Comparison of Conventional and Peroxide Kier Bleaehing [281 to fulfil the required production schedule, which also regu-
lates the cost of operative and supervisory staffing, plant
Batchwise Bleaching Conventional Peroxide
maintenance and the consumption of power, steam and
Relative Bleaching Cost 100 69
water. The interaction of these factors is discussed in a recent
Cost Distribution (%I analysis of the operating costs for three different plant
Chemicals 10 42 arrangements for the desizing, scouring, bleaching and mer-
Labour 74 45 cerizing of cotton fabrics (Table 22). Plant B in the compari-
Electricity 2 2 son is that described in great detail in an earlier publication
Steam 7 6 1301. Plant A has t h e same number of wet-processing
Water 7 5 machines as B, but includes additional drying machines t o
For continuous bleaching ranges, utilization of plant capa- permit maximum flexibility of process sequence. Plant C has
city can play a significant part in the cost per unit weight the same production capacity as B, but employs a much
of cotton processed. Minimum plant occupation times are more rapid hot mercerizing and flash scour sequence [311.
possible when the quality of the raw cotton permits single- Plant A i s 20% more expensive to operate than B, whereas
stage peroxide bleaching without a preliminary alkaline the total production costs in Plant C are 29% less than those
scour. The ability to do this depends on the degree of in B.
removal of cotton seeds, fats and waxes achieved by alkaline TABLE 22
peroxide treatment. Sometimes an adequate bleach i s
obtained, but seed removal may be incomplete. In such a Efficiency of Plant Utilization in Cotton Preparation [31I
situation, cold-pad oxidative desizing can be useful, by
combining the desizing and scouring stages. A cost analysis
for three continuous desize-scour-bleach sequences is given Plant A Plant B Plant C
in Table 20, showing the economic attractiveness of a com- Relative Production Cost 120 100 71
bined desize-scour or scour-bleach.
Some of the cost differences already noted between Cost Distribution (%)
different methods are confirmed in a further set of compara- Chemicals 21.5 26.0 32.0
tive data referring to traditional and modern batchwise bleach Depreciation 21.5 20.5 19.5
ing, continuous solvent dewaxing and continuous aqueous Indirect Charges 7.5 8.5 11.0
bleaching methods on cotton shirting (Table 21 1. An analysis Wages and Salaries 32.0 27.5 23.5
of the cost distribution for a modern open-width continuous Services 17.5 17.5 14.0
TABLE 20

Cost of Continuous Desiae-Scour-Bleach Processes [271

Method (a) Three-stage (b) Desize-Scour (c) Scour-Bleach

Plant Cost 100 83 62
Bleaching Cost 100 87 81
Cost Distribution (%)
Chemicals 48 55 56
Overheads 9 9 7
Labour 13 12 13
Services 30 24 24
(a) Enzyme desize-caustic scour-peroxide bleach
(bJ Cold-pad oxidative desize-peroxide bleach
(cJ Enzyme desize-combined alkaline peroxide bleach

TABLE 21

Relative Cost of Scouring and Bleaching Methods [261

Scouring and Bleaching Sequence Relative Cost

Caustic Kier Boil-Rope Wash-Hypochlorite Bleach-
Wash-Acid Pad-Wash 100
Peroxide Pad-Roll 98
Chlorite Pad-Rol I 92
Caustic Soda Vaporloc- Wash- Hypochlorite Pad-
J-Box Store-Peroxide Vaporloc-Wash 84
Peroxide Bleach-Kier Boil-Rope Wash 78
Open-width Dewax in Solvent-Steam to Evaporate 76
Caustic Soda J-Box-Wash-Hypochlorite Pad-
J-Box Store-Peroxide J-Box-Wash 60

64 REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981

 The current climate of concern about energy cost some- times the liquor ratio of the typical jet (Table 25).In spite
times results in decisions being taken to minimize this with- of the higher capital cost of a jet machine (Table 26),it i s
out considering the implications for other factors contri- always more economical in use than a conventional winch
buting to the overall balance of costs. An illustration of this except when dyeing pale depths under conditions of extreme
kind of erroneous assumption is the choice between so-called under-utilization 1321.
hot-dyeing and cold-dyeing reactive dyes for the batchwise
dyeing of knitted cotton on atmospheric jets. When dyeing TABLE 25
a t 40C. the cost of steam consumed in the dyeing stage is
only 4% of the total steam cost for the full process (scour- Jetdyeing Cost as a Percentage of Winchdyeing Cost
dye-wash-dry), and even a t 80C the figure i s only 12%
(Table 23). If considered as a proportion of total variable Literature Liquor Ratio Jet Cost as %
cost for these four stages, the cost of the steam for dyeing Reference Jet Winch of Winch Cost
i s only 0.34% according to applied depth and temperature,
so that differences between methods in this respect can be Actual Dyeings 18 6:l 20:l 67
neglected for all practical purposes. Model Calculations 32 8:l 20:l 60-87"
Actual Dyeings 33 6:l 18:l 72
TABLE 23 Model Calculations 34 5:l 2O:l 66-69t
Model Calculations 35 8:l 30:l 64-76*
Steam Cost Distribution in Jet Dyeing Sequence 1321
*According to dye type and applied depth
Dyeing Temperature tAccording to dye type (hot- or colddyeing
40C 80"C kAccording to machine capacity
Steam Cost in Each Stage (%)
Scouring 15 17
Dyeing 4 12 TABLE 26
Washing 21 19
Drying 60 52 Relative Capital Cost of Jets and Winches 133,351

An essential feature of the argument that more attention Short-liquor Relative Long-liquor Relative
should be paid to the contribution of energy in dyeing costs Machine cost Machine Cost
is the implication that, owing to the rise in oil prices, this 100 kg Krantz KF Jet 59 100 kg Winch 27
contribution will increase dramatically in future relative to 200 kg Then KFA 200 54 200 kg Winch 43
other cost factors. Nevertheless, even i f the current inflation 300 kg Krantz KF Jet 100 300 kg Winch 54
rates for steam and electricity were to double over the next
five years, this would only result in a 3% increase in the con-
tribution of energy cost to the total dyeing cost [321. It i s a There is good agreement between published sets of data
much more important objective for the dyer to select dyes on the distribution of costs in winch and jet dyeing (Table
with maximum cost-effectiveness, owing to the overwhelm- 27).The average cost of dyes and chemicals is close to 60%
ing contribution of dye cost when dyeing in heavy depths. of the total and labour accounts for another 10-15%. Depre-
An indication of this i s seen in Table 24; based on actual ciation of the higher capital cost of the jet is exceeded by
costs recorded by Thies in the course of cotton dyeing trials the higher cost of services for the winch. The cost distribu-
[ 181 . Differences in dye exhaustion behaviour under long- tion between services is always in the order water>stearn>
Iiquor conditions can have a decisive influence on cost-effect- electricity, but the contribution of electricity to the total i s
iveness. For example, although the winch dyeing method for much greater for the relatively highly automated jet than for
a range of hot-dyeing dyes was longer in duration than for the simple conventional winch (Table 28).
cold-dyeing dyes, so that the costs of labour, energy and
chemicals were higher, the total of all these extra items of TABLE 27
cost was only half that of the extracold-dyeing dyesrequired,
owing to their inferior exhaustion under these conditions Simple Distribution of Costs for Reactive Dyes on Cotton
[321.
In contrast to the choice between hot- and cold-dyeing Machine Jet Winch
reactive dyes, the decision as to whether to use winches or jet
machines has a very marked influence on the cost of energy Literature reference [33*1 (34tI [351 [331 [341 [351
and chemicals used in the dyeing process, owing to the much Dyes and Chemicals 58 58-61 60 57 59 59
greater volume of water required a t the longer liquor ratio Overheads 13 10-11 16 10 3 8
typical of a conventional winch, On average, the variable Labour 15 11-12 12 13 14 1 1
cost of jet dyeing (or winch dyeing in a short-liquor machine Services 14 18-19 12 20 24 22
[331 of the Then KFA 200 type) is only 65-70% of that *Data for Then KFA 200 short-liquor winch
observed in conventional winch dyeing a t three or four tAccording to dye type (hot- or cold-dyeing)

TABLE 24

Relative Dyeing Cost on Cotton Fabric [181

Dyeing Reactive Relative Cost Indices D & C as

Machine Liquor Time Dye Dyesand Process %of
Type Ratio (min) (%) Chemicals Costs Total

R Jet 95 6:l 210 3.6 75 67 85

Open Winch 20:l 300 4.5 100 100 77

REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981 65

 TABLE 28
Services Cost Distribution for Reactive Dyes on Cotton
Machine Jet
Lit. Ref. 1181 1331 134tl
Electricity 22 15 17-19
Steam 26 32 17-22
Water 52 53 59-66
t According to dye type (hot- or cold-dyeing)
As already noted in the sect& of this review devoted to
yarn dyeing, cost factors which are not production-depend-
ent can be lowered by improving productivity in unit time
and so utilizing the productive capacity more efficiently.
If the result of shortening the dyeing time would be an
unacceptable increase in the proportion of unsatisfactory
dyeings, however, the attempt to improve productivity
would fail and no benefit would result. The cost structure of
a dyeing process is considerably dependent on the propor-
tion of defective batches produced [36]. No investment can
be justified unless it succeeds in lowering costs, either direct-
ly or by improving operating conditions in order to avoid
correction steps or to minimize the proportion of faulty dye-
ings. Table 29 indicates the relative sensitivity of the total
cost of dyeing to changes in individual cost parameters.
TABLE 29
Relative Sensitivity of Dyeing Cost t o Production Parameters
(361
Production Parameter Cost Sensitivity
Number of Re-dyeings 0.037
Treatment Time per Batch 0.018
Shade Corrections and Corrective Treatments 0.01 2
Product Costs 0.006
Machinery Investment 0.004
Water Cost 0.001
BATCHWISE AND CONTINUOUS DYEING OF WOVEN
COTTON
The previous section of this review was concerned mainly
with reactive dyeing on winches and jets because of the
commercial importance of rope-dyeing methods for knitted
cotton. It was also convenient to deal with the costs of
methods of preparation in the same section because many
such methods are carried out in rope form. Woven cotton
fabrics, however, usually have to be dyed in open width in
order to avoid creasing problems and, therefore, this section
will be concerned mainly with cost comparisons on open-
width machinery, such as jigs and pad-batch equipment, as
well as fully-continuous ranges. It is useful to conclude with
a discussion of the costs of the washing and drying stage
which make a major contribution to dyeing costs on cotton.
Current trends of development in cotton dyeing are in
favour of semi-continuous and small-scalecontinuous install-
ations. Pad-batch processing is attractive from the viewpoint
of energy conservation, capital investment, productivity and
simplicity, cornpared with batchwise or fully-continuous
methods [371. Pad-batch application followed by a perfora-
ted beam wash i s an exceptionally economical process seq-
uence for reactive dyes; on average, this approach uses only
9%of the water, 19%of the energy, 22%of the chemicals
and 31%of the labour required for winch dyeing 1381. Con-
sequently, the unit cost of dyeing by the former route i s
only about 20% of that for the conventional winch route,
excluding the considerable contribution of dye cost in
66 REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981
Winch
[351 [181 1331 I34tI 1351
27 4 2 2 >1
30 30 45 2940 40
43 66 53 58-69 60
each method [391. A similar cost comparison, but this
time including the cost of the dyes used, concluded that
the cost of pad-batch dyeing was 76% of the cost of
jet dyeing for a batch of 1000 kg, dyed to a 3% depth
with reactive dyes [271.
One of the limitations of this kind of comparison bet-
ween batchwise and semi- or fully-continuous processes
is that the relative values apply only to the set of assump
tions made about relative productivity of the different kinds
of equipment in designing the model for the cost calcula-
tions. By carrying out multiple comparisons a t various
productivity levels, it is possible to obtain a more complete
evaluation. The pad-batch process was compared with con-
ventional jig dyeing inthis way [401. Taking intoaccount the
cost of the dyeing stage only, the pad-batch method is more
economical than the jig for lengths greater than 1600 m to a
colour. If the costs of washing-off are included, the semi-
continuous method i s favoured and the breakeven point
is reached at about m.
A less complicated assessment at one level of productivity
i s more often employed when making a cross-comparison
between several possible methods, in order to simplify pre-
sentation of the results. In a discussion of the advantages of
the continuous pad-wet steam route for reactive dyes com-
pared with several batchwise processes [411, the data showed
the cost for the continuous process to be less than 30%of
the cost of conventional winch dyeing (Table 30). A differ-
ent set of results for reactive dyes applied by the pad-batch
method and by four continuous sequences, including the
pad-wet steam process 1421, suggested that the last-named
possibility is not substantially more economical than other
continuous processes when operated a t 30 m/min and only
begins to rival the pad-batch process in terms of unit cost
when running speeds of 50-60 m/min are achieved (Table
31). It should also be borne in mind that dye costs were
excluded from both of these analyses and the relative dye
yields attainable by the various approaches can have a
decisive influence on the overall cost comparison in practice.
Meaningful cost data for the application to cotton of
other dye classes, such as vats or solubilised vats, is less
readily available than for reactive dyes, although the produc-
tivity-cost relationships already mentioned [40] were
extended to cover these areas. For runs of more than 1500
m, the pad-batch-develop method for solubilised vat dyes
is more economical than jig dyeing, but equivalent cost is not
reached by the quicker pad-develop method until batches of
more than 5000 m are processed. With conventional vat dyes,
the fully continuous pad-dry-chemical pad-steam
sequence becomes cheaper than jig dyeing when lengths of
2000 m t o a colour are to be dyed.
Some values illustrating the relative investment costs
required to achieve a given level of production by various
methods of dyeing are quoted in Table 32 for a production
level of 50,000 m per threeshift day or an average operating
speed of 35 m/min for the continuous methods [431. The
relative dyeing cost and distribution data for three of these
processes are shown in Table 33, which again favours the
pad-wet steam approach with regard to the costs of both
investment and processing.
 TABLE 30

Comparison of Batchwise and Pad-Wet Steam Methods 1411

Reactive Dyeing Method Conventional Sancowad Sancowad Pad-

Winch on Winch on R Jet 95 Wet Steam
Liquor Ratio 20:1 8:1 5:1 1:l
Relative Dyeing Cost 100 62 51 29
Cost Distribution (%)
Chemicals 34 15 23 26
Depreciation 10 15 17 15
Maintenance 7 8 10 6
Labour 32 48 28 38
Services 17 14 22 15

TABLE 31

Comparison of Pad-Batch and Continuous Methods [421

Reactive Dyeing Method Pad- Pad- Chemical Pad- Pad-

Batch Wet Pad- Dry- Dry-
Steam Steam Bake Steam
*Relative Dyeing Cost 42-49 47-83 94 84-1 00 92-1 00
*Cost Distribution (%)
Depreciation 16-1 7 19-21 21 19-20 19-20
Maintenance 9 11-12 11 11 11
Labour 28-3 1 24-28 18 19-27 19-23
Services 44-46 39-46 50 42-5 1 47-50
'Values vary with running speed

TABLE 32 a 30-m steamer, but less capacity in the other process stages,
so that the fabric must be run through the range twice.
Investment Cost a t Equivalent Production Capacity (431 These modifications reduce the cost of the overall invest-
ment a t the expense of productive capacity, but s t i l l offer
Equipment for 50,000m/day or 35 m/min Relative Cost of a cost advantage over conventional jig dyeing.
Investment
Ten Jet Machines 100 TABLE 34
Ten Beams 70
Fourteen Winches Jig and Various Pad-Steam Ranges 1441
55
Pad- Dry-Chemical Pad-Steam Range 45
Pad Mangle and Twelve Jigs Relative Cost Indices
40
Vat Dyeing Plant Plant Productivity Processing Unit
Pad-Wet Steam 30
Cost (kg/h) Cost/h Cost/kg
Full-scalePad-Steam 100 100 100 46
TABLE 33 Contracted Range 73 40 54 63
Limited Range 54 23 41 83
Comparison of Vat Dyeing Installations 1431 Eight Jigs 67 26 56 100

Vat Dyeing Method Chem ical Pad- Pad- A more recent comparison of investment and production
Pad- Jig- Wet costs for jig, pad-batch, full-scale and compact pad-steam
Steam Develop Steam installations was expressed in general terms [451 and did
Relative Plant Cost 100 88 67 not take into account the more detailed differences arising
Relative Dyeing Cost 85 1 00 84 from the cost of the dyes and chemicals required for the
Cost Distribution (%) various processes. These results (Table 351, which relate to
Dye 58 56 68 a level of 65% utilization of the available productive capa-
Chemicals 9 13 9 city, favour the current trends towards pad-batch and
Depreciation 17 13 12 compact pad-steam machinery, taking into account
Labour 7 10 5 low investment cost as well as low costs of processing by
Services 9 8 6 these methods. It should be noted that the relative cost
indices in Table 35 have not been compared a t the same
average rate of production and this difference tends to favour
Relative productivity, investment and processing costs for the padding methods relative to jig dyeing. The same is true
the dyeing of woven cotton with vat dyes were compared in to a lesser extent for another set of data demonstrating the
a recent study [441 of various pad-steam ranges, as more cost-effectiveness of a compact pad-steam unit relative to
economical alternatives to conventional jig application (Table eight conventional jigs (Table 36).The average productivity
34). The full-scale pad-steam plant referred to includes a from eight jigs is only 80% of that from the pad-steam
6 0 m steamer. The "contracted" range is similar, but with a installation and 17% of the jig-dyeing cost i s attributed to
30-m steamer, and the individual process units arranged on waste fabric arising from such problems as ending; no waste
two levels to save floor space. The "limited" range also has is allowed for in the pad-steam calculation [461.

REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981 67

 TABLE 35

Jig, Pad-Batch and Pad-Steam Ranges [451

Relative Average Relative

Plant Cost Productivity (m/min) Unit Cost
Compact Pad-Steam 43 27 43
Pad-Batch 73 50 50
FuII-scale Pad-Steam 100 50 68
Eight Jigs (4-h Batch) 45 20 56
Eight Jigs (6-h Batch) 45 13.3 87
Eight Jigs (8-h Batch) 45 10 100
'Jig production (P mlmin) is 8 X 600 m in dyeing time of (80/P)
h

TABLE 36 in terms of rates of water consumption 1471, and it seems

likely that substantial savings could be achieved if improved
Jig and Compact Pad-Steam Unit [461 measures of control were introduced. For example, a t a
specific water consumption of 10 I/kg fabric, the production
Dyeing Equipment Eight Jigs Compact Pad-Steam costs of an open-width washer with a heat-exchanger (70%
Relative Plant Cost 100 80 recovery) are only 80% of those for a similar washer which
Average Productivity (m/min 10 12.5 lacks a heat exchanger [481. The Kleinewefers 100-plus
Relative Dyeing Cost 100 64 machine has an average water consumption of only 10 I/kg,
Cost Distribution (%) compared with 40 I/kg for a conventional open-width washing
Overheads 34 44 range [49] ; the cost of water and steam for the former is
Waste Fabric 17 only 25% of that for the latter and, therefore, as Table 38
Labour 28 44 indicates, the total cost of washing is halved using this more
Energy 9 5 efficient system.
Water 12 7
TABLE 38

lnfluenoe of Water Consumption on Cost of Washingaff [481

TABLE 37
Water Consumption (I/kg) 5 10 20 40
Relative Importance of Washing and Drying Costs 1421
Relative Cost of Washing 42 50 67 100
Cost Distribution (%)
Reactive Dyeing Method Relative Contribution to Cost" 19 13
Depreciation 31 25
Dye Washing and 15 13 10 7
Maintenance
Application Drying Labour 25 21 16 10
Pad- Batch 18-31 69-82 5 5 3 2
Chemicals
Pad-Wet Steam 27-31 69-73 4 3 2
Electricity 5
Pad- Dr y-Ba ke 59-66 3441 19 32 49 66
Water and Steam
Pad-Dry-Steam 63-66 34-37
Chemical Pad-Steam 64 36
'Values vary with running speed Major savings can also be achieved if a similar ration-
alization is applied to techniques of removal of water after
In view of the considerable interest in comparing the over- washing. The use of hot air to dry out a saturated fabric is
all costs of different batchwise and continuous methods of expensive, slow and wasteful of resources. The more water
dyeing, and in designing improved equipment and process that can be removed mechanically before the drying stage,
recommendations to conserve chemicals, labour and energy, the less the expensive thermal energy required to dry out
it is surprising that more attention i s not focussed on the the remaining moisture. Table 39 compares the relative cost
relatively expensive and unavoidable stages of washing-off and productivity of three approaches to the removal of water
and final drying. As Table 37 indicates, the removal of un- from wet carpeting [501. The processes do not differ widely
fixed dye and excess water from the fabric often costs as in relative operating cost per annum or in cost distribution,
much as does dye application and fixation (excluding the which is split almost equally between labour, overheads and
cost of the dye itself). In batchwise dyeing with reactive energy, but the productivity improves considerably with
dyes, washing-off and drying account for 55-65% of the total efficiency of hydroextraction, so that the relative unit cost
processing cost [321 ; after pad-batch or pad-wet steam of drying after high-efficiency extraction is only about one-
application sequences involving the energy-intensive drying fifth the unit cost of drying from the saturated state. A
and fixation steps after padding, the subsequent washing and capillary vacuum type of hydroextraction unit for woven
drying uses 35-40% of the total cost. or knitted fabrics has been described, which operates at a
Owing to the very high contribution of steam and water unit cost of only 15% of the c o s t of a conventional suction-
costs to the total cost of operating a continuous washing type hydroextractor, mainly owing to the relatively low
range with no facilities for recovery of used resources, the energy consumption of the capillary vacuum technique [511.
cost of washing processes increases rapidly with the amount One of the most effective ways of minimizing energy costs
of water consumed (Table 38). At a specific water consump at the drying stage of continuous dyeing and finishing pro-
tion of about 20 I per kg of fabric, about half of the cost is cesses is to reduce the liquor pick-up at the application stage.
attributable to the water and steam used. Wide differences Techniques used for this purpose include foam padding,
have been observed between different textile dyeing factories looptransfer, kiss-roll and spray application of concentrated

68 REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981

 TABLE 39

C o s t s of Hydroextraction and Drying of Carpets [501

Method of Water Removal High-eff iciency Low-efficiency Drying

Hydroextraction Hydroextraction Without
and Drying and Drying Hydroextraction
Relative Production Cost p.a. 100 95 90
Relative Productivity p.a. 100 75 20
Relative Unit Cost 22 28 100
Cost Distribution (%)
Overheads 33 30 29
Labour 33 34 36
Energy 34 36 35

TABLE 40

Relative Cost of Stenter Drying Methods 1541

Methods of Stenter Heating Cost Distribution (%) Relative

Over heads Labour Energy Cost Index
Direct Gas Heating 33 48 19 100
Steam Heating (Low Steam Cost) 31 46 23 106
Natural Gas and Heat Exchanger 34 46 20 107
Circulated-oil Heating (Light Oil) 35 45 20 108
Circulated-oil Heating (Heavy Oil) 36 46 18 108
Direct Oil Heating (Light Oil) 36 46 18 108
Light Oil and Heat Exchanger 36 45 19 110
Steam Heating (High Steam Cost) 26 41 33 126
Electrical (Low Power Cost) 27 38 35 149
Electrical (High Power Cost) 19 31 50 212

solutions of treatment chemicals (521, but discussion of this
topic is outside the scope of this review. Curves showing the
influence on stenter drying costs of steam cost, number of
stenter sections (which influences labour cost), air tempera-
ture, steam content of the drying air, and ventilator effi-
ciency (all of which influence the energy cost) have been
published [481, and possible methods of economizing by
heat-recovery modifications in the design of hot-air stenters
were discussed recently [ 531 .
Few analyses of stenter drying cost and efficiency have
been published and the most detailed evaluation is now
somewhat outdated [54]. A t the time of this study (1970),
there was little to choose between oil- and gas-fired methods
either in terms of relative cost or distribution between the
various cost factors (Table 40). As the relative cost of energy
increases, steam and especially electrical heating become
increasingly uncompetitive owing to the relatively greater
contribution of energy t o the overall cost of drying by these
methods. In spite of the considerable movements in price of
the various forms of energy over the last decade, these gen-
eral comments on relative cost distribution for stenters
heated by hydrocarbon fuels, steam or electricity are prob-
ably s t i l l valid. Some authorities on this question now argue
strongly in favour of the substitution of oil by natural gas in
applications of this kind (551.
DYEING OF POLYESTER BLENDS
Polyester-wool blends are mainly dyed by batchwise
methods, but both batchwise and continuous processes are
important for polyester-cellulosic fabrics; these commer-
cially important systems have been given consideration in
published work on the economic structure of dyeing pro-
cesses. As in the earlier discussion of the costs of dyeing the
separate fibres, some information i s based on practical
experience and other results are derived from model calcula-
tions. A comparison of the actual performance of six types
of batchwise machine for dyeing a 55:45 polyester-wool
blend fabric (Table 41) revealed a greater sensitivity of dye-
ing cost to liquor ratio in this system than in the correspond-
ing results [181 for dyeing texturized polyester in similar
equipment (compare Table 11).
A further report on actual cost differences observed with
three of these machine types [561 gave separate figures for
savings of specific resources, emphasizing the particularly
significant decrease in carrier consumption by dyeing a t
105-106C in the closed machines rather than at 90-
95C in a conventional winch (Table 42). Analysis of the
number of shading additions required during a run of 547
production dyeings with these three types of machine
(Table 43) demonstrated another built-in advantage of the
closed machines, attributable to their greater degree of
automation and better control over dyebath conditions than
in a typical atmospheric winch. The higher level of reproduci-
bility for the jet, implicit in these results, is an essential
feature in i t s favour. The proportion of dyeings requiring
correction steps by shading, or more costly re-processing,
has a decisive influence on productivity in unit time and
hence on the effective utilization of the available capacity
[361.
The assessments of performance of various Thies dyeing
machines [181 reported earlier (Tables 11 and 41) were
extended to include corresponding information for a 70:30
polyester-cotton fabric (Table 44). Once again, applied
depth for a given colour yield and the operating liquor ratio
are the major factors determining the relative dyeing cost. A
very similar result was obtained in a different comparison
[57] between the R Jet 140 and a HT winch for dyeing a

REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981 69

 TABLE 41

Relative Dyeing Cost for Polyester-Wool Fabric [181

Machine Liquor Dyeing Disperse Relative Cost Indices

Type Ratio Time and Acid Dyes and Process D & C as %
(min) Dyes Chemicals Costs of Total
(%I
R Jet 95 6: 1 185 1.70 85 45 77
R Jet 140 6:l 180 1.70 85 46 75
R Soft-StreamJet 16:l 240 1.90 95 70 66
HT Winch 25:l 315 1.95 98 88 63
Open Winch 25:l 310 2.00 100 100 71

TABLE 45
TABLE 42
Jet and HT-Winch Dyeing of Polyester-Viscose (571
Economy of Resources in Polyester-Wool Dyeing [561
Dyeing Machine HT Winch R Jet 140
Machine Conditions Relative Cost Indices Relative Dyeing Cost 100 65
Carrier Steam Water Cost Distribution (%)
R Jet 1 4 0 a t 106"Cand 6:l 15 23 38 Dyes and Chemicals 74 84
R Soft-StreamJet a t 106C and 1 1 :1 20 46 44 Electricity 2 5
Open Winch a t 93C and 25: 1 loo 100 100 Steam 7 4
Water 17 7
TABLE 46
TABLE 43
Winch and Pad-Batch-Beam Dyeing of Polyester-Cotton [391
Frequency of Shading Additions on Polyester-Wool [561

Machine Type Winch Jet Dyeing Method for Cotton Portion Open Pad-Batch-
Number of Dyeings 244 303 Winch Beam
Number of Additions Proportion of Dyeings (%) Relative Processing Cost 100 45
6 31 Cost Distribution (%)
0
1 16 34 Chemicals 35 4
2 22 26 Labour 22 44
3 19 9 Energy 35 44
4 16 1 Water 8 8
x 21 0 A recent evaluation [58] of alternative rationalized tech-
niques for the batchwise dyeing of polyester-cotton deter-
mined the percentage savings offered by a single-bath, two-
70:30 polyester-viscose fabric with disperse and direct dyes stage process and by the RID (rapid inverse dyeing) system,
(Table 45). compared with the conventional two-bath sequence on beam
A popular two-stage method for polyester4otton fabrics and pad-batch equipment (Table 47). The single-bath
i s high-temperaturedyeing of the polyester portion on the method entails HT dyeing of the polyester, cooling to 40C.
beam, reduction-clearing or scouring in a fresh bath, and addition of Procion MX dyes (ICI) and 20 minutes exhaus-
then filling-in of the cotton component by the pad-batch tion onto the cotton before adjusting to pH 9.7 for fixation
technique. If the latter stage is followed by washing-off on a over 35 minutes, rinsing and scouring. Elimination of inter-
perforated-beam machine, the sequence is highly economical mediate clearing mainly saves energy and water. More sub-
compared with winch dyeing (Table 46). These results are stantial savings are claimed for the RID process, in which the
applicable to a pad-batch installation with one pad mangle cotton portion is dyed first a t 40C with Procion MX dyes;
and two beam wash-off stands, operating in competition with after an intermediate rinse, the disperse dyes are added at
a winch dyehouse equipped to achieve similar productivity 50C and the polyester is HT dyed a t 130C with an agent
(nineteen 450-kg machines). Dye cost is excluded and the to protect the reactive dyeing against decomposition, before
major savings made are in chemicals, energy and water [391 . rinsing and drying.

TABLE 44

Relative Dyeing Cost for Polyester-Cotton Fabric (181

Machine Liquor Dyeing Disperse Relative Cost Indices D & C as %

Type Ratio Time and Direct Dyes and Process of Total
(min) Dyes Chemicals Costs
(%I
R Jet 140 6:l 255 4.00 80 64 83
R Soft-Stream 11:l 300 4.25 85 75 78
Jumbo Jet 15:l 265 4.50 90 84 76
Soft Stream 16:l 355 4.50 90 85 75
HT Winch 25:l 400 5.00 1 00 100 71

70 REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981

 TABLE 47

Percentage Savings Relative to Conventional Two-Stage Process 1581

Batchwise Methods for Polyester-Cotton Time Chemicals Energy Water

Single-bath, Two-stage 6 0 18 19
RID Process, with Soaping 24 6 35 25
RID Process, without Soaping 31 7 54 25

TABLE 48

Disperse and Vat or Leu- Ester Dyes on PolyesterXotton [MI

Dyes and Dyeing Method Relative
Dyeing Cost
Disperse/Solubilised Vat by Pad-Thermos01 -Open Soaper 81
Disperse/Vat by Thermosol-Pad-Steam 84
Disperse/Solubilised Vat by Pad-Thermosol-Jig Develop 88
Disperse/Vat by Thermosol-Jig Develop 100

Excessively long processing times are a characteristic
drawback of conventional two-bath batchwise methods of
dyeing polyester-cotton and this has been a powerful incent-
ive for development, either in the direction of more rational
one-bath methods as already mentioned, or towards semi-
continuous and continuous stages for one or both of the
fibre components. Many of these improved sequences
commence with pad-thermos01 dyeing of the polyester por-
tion and four such possibilities are compared in Table 48,for
the application of disperse and vat or vat leuco ester dyes to
a 67:33 polyester-cotton rainwear fabric I401 . Continuous
dyeing of the cotton component is always more economical
than jig methods, irrespective of the length of run to be
dyed, and leuco esters are less expensive than conventional
vat dyes in both cases.
Ten different continuous dyeing sequences for polyester-
cotton fabrics (Table 49)were analysed in a comprehensive
series of model calculations [591.Although this shows a
wide spread in terms of relative dyeing cost the pattern of
cost distribution depends more on the running speed than on
the process conditions and type of equipment used. The
contribution of overheads is relatively unaffected by running
speed, but the labour contribution decreases from 56-6296
t o 57-55% and the services proportion increases from 28-
32% t o 35-39% if the speed is raised from 30 m/min to 50
m/min. The most economical process is the simple one-bath
pad-thermos01 (i)used mainly for solubilised vat or disperse
dyes, with vats or reactives for pale dyeings. The thermosol-
wet develop procedures (ii and iv) for disperse and solu-
bilked vat or reactive dyes in pale colours are not much more
expensive and competitive with the thermosol-pad-batch
(iii)sequence for disperse and azoic or reactive dyes, and the
thermosol-pad steam method (v) mainly of interest for dis-
perse and vat or reactive dyes. Multi-stage sequences, such as
chemical pad-steam (vii) for disperse and vat or sulphur
dyes, or the azoic-thermosol alternatives (vi and x) for
disperse and azoic dyes, and processes incorporating batch-
wise dyeing of the cotton, like the thermosol-jig methods,
(viii and ix), are economically less attractive in general,
although they may offer technical advantages, such as
reliability (chemical pad-steam) or versatility (thermosol-
jig).
In view of the almost indispensable nature of the thermo-
sol stage in continuous methods for polyester-cotton, much
consideration has been given to improving the efficiency and
reproducibility of this treatment. Energy calculations have
shown that lowering of the thermosol temperature to con-
serve energy results in almost negligible savings on the total
dyeing cost, limits the selection of suitable dyes, and may
result in lower productivity [60].Improved process control,

TABLE 49

Relative Costs in Continuous Dyeing of Polyester-Cotton 1591

C o s t Distribution (%) Relative

Running Speed 30 m/min 50 m/min Dyeing Cost
Process Sequence O L S O L s 30 m/min 50 m/min
(i) P-IR-HF-T-W 12 56 32 14 47 39 47 48
(ii) P- I R-H F-T-P-W 11 60 29 13 51 36 53 53
(iii) P-IR-HF-T-P-B-W 1 1 60 29 13 51 36 54 53
(iv P- IR -H F-T-WD-W 11 58 31 13 50 37 54 53
(v) P-IR-HF-T-P-ST-W 12 57 31 14 48 38 56 55
(vi) P-H F-P- I R-H F-T-W 11 58 31 12 50 38 63 62
(vii) P-R-HF-T-P-HF-CP-ST-W 1 1 59 30 12 51 37 71 70
(viii) P-IR-HF-T-J 10 60 30 10 54 36 71 91
(ix 1 P- I R -H F-T-P-B-J 10 62 28 10 55 35 77 96
(x) P-HF-P-W-HF-P-IR-HF-T-W 10 58 32 12 49 39 100 100

0 = Overheads
P = Pad L = Labour S = Services
T = Thermosol IR = InfraRed HF = Hot Flue
B = Batch ST= Steam CP = Hot Flue
W = Wash J = Jig WD = Wetbvelop

REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981 71

better reproducibility and installation of heat-recovery a t the
preferred operating range of 200-220C are more worth-
while targets. In-depth studies of the important parameters
for optimizing the thermosol process [61,621 have provided
a valuable framework for improved technical control, and a
computer model has been constructed (631 to carry out
model calculations based on semi-continuous and fully-con-
tinuous dyeing processes with particular reference to poly-
ester-cotton blends.
CONCLUSION
Before leaving this absorbing and decisive topic of the inter-
nal cost structure of dyeing processes, it i s worthwhile to
attempt to draw some general conclusions from the some-
what fragmentary body of information available to us from
the published literature. Although it is particularly difficult
to compare various processes designed to operate a t differ-
ent levels of average productivity, and basis costs of the
various contributing factors can vary considerably from one
plant to another, apart from the effects of currency fluctua-
tion and continuing cost-inflation, trends in technical
development which are designed to optimize some aspect of
the cost balance for one or more related processes can be
identified.
The energy crisis has created renewed interest in replacing
some nylon by polyester, which requires relatively less
energy in polymer manufacture, although subsequent yarn
processing and coloration methods for polyester are more
expensive. Modified polyester variants, however, share the
relatively lower production costs of normal polyester and can
be dyed or printed a t cost levels much closer to those for
nylon. In the field of acrylic fibre coloration, package dyeing
of yarn has replaced much of the capacity for slower and less
reproducible hank-dyeing processes, only to be threatened in
turn by the more economical producer coloration of
unstretched gel filaments and continuous towdyeing
methods. In both of these instances, economic pressures are
defining the technological shape of the future for the syn-
thetic fibres dyeing industry.
In the cotton dyeing sector there i s a tendency to under-
estimate the major contributions of preparation, washing-off
and drying to the overall cost of dyehouse processing. This
may be because dyes and chemicals can contribute more than
half of the cost of the dyeing stage; it is much easier to
replace an expensive product by a cheaper one than to
justifv a change in process routine, or to invest in a new item
of equipment. Spillage of a small quantity of dye is
immediately obvious, but chronic wastage of colourless
chemicals, water or steam can continue for months in a
poorly organized and cost-obliv ious environment.
Excessive production, wasteful distribution and inefficient
use of steam was characteristic of the traditional winch dye-
house, filled with fog and leaking pipework. Modern d y e
houses equipped with closed machinery are greatly improved
in this respect, but much steam can be conserved by rational
design of equipment and processes. Steam consumption
makes a major contribution to the cost of services; it ranges
from 6 5 7 5 % (polyester) to 50-60% (acrylic), 45-55%
(nylon and wool), 3 5 4 5 % (cotton on winch), and 20-30%
(cotton on jet). Recovery of heat from hot liquors can be of
considerable help in steam economy; some measures which
have been mentioned include using waste heat from a solvent
pre-scour to maintain the subsequent aqueous scour at
40-60C. lowering the costs of washing-off by installing
heat-exchangers, and modifying the design of drying stenters
to accommodate heat-recovery features.
A deceptively obvious answer when faced with a large bill
for thermal energy i s to turn down the treatment tempera-
72 REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981
ture, but in the case of dyeing processes this seldom makes
economic sense. If we recall three examples mentioned in the
course of this review:
winch dyeing of knitted cotton (40C rather than 80C).
batchwise dyeing of polyester-wool (93C rather than
106"C),
and thermosol treatment of polyester-cotton (180C
rather than 210"C),
in all cases, cost analyses have shown that the energy sav-
ings are trivial and almost always accompanied by ultimately
more costly and timeconsuming disadvantages arising from
the lower temperature of treatment.
A much more substantial saving in overall cost of a pre-
paration, dyeing or washing process can be made by lowering
the liquor ratio, because this conserves chemicals, water and
steam, without any adverse influence on other costs, apart
from possible investment in new or modified machinery.
Some examples of this development trend towards more eco-
nomical short liquor ratios are:
pad-J-box bleaching instead of traditional batchwise
vesse Is;
multi-purpose nylon hosiery machines to replace drum or
paddle types;
jets taking Over from winches, first in polyester dyehouses
and later for cotton and cotton blends;
pad-batch and continuous methods, already important
for woven fabrics, now increasingly of interest in the
knitgoods industry;
perforated beam washing or high-efficiency ranges such as
the Kleinewefers 100-plusmaking progress a t the
expense of conventional open soapers.
Related trends, which also share a similar objective - to
minimize drying costs by eliminating excess water before the
drying stage - are the introduction of novel, economical
techniques of padding with low pick-up and the adoption of
high-efficiency hydroextraction equ ipment.
Probably the most effective approach towards more eco-
nomical processing is an improvement in the productivity
index, especially if it does not require substantial capital
investment to bring it about. One way of evaluating such a
change is in terms of productivity per operative, for example,
by increasing the average batch size or fitting automatic con-
trol devices so that one operative can look after more mach-
ines simultaneously, but these developments often demand
justification for capital expenditure. Another measure of
improved cost-effectiveness is productivity in unit time.
Some examples of ways in which this can be increased have
been mentioned, viz:
elimination of winding stages in yarn package processing;
combined desize-scour or scour-bleach stages to shorten
the traditional bleaching sequence;
rapid hot mercerizing and flash scouring to replace a con-
ventional kier boil and cold mercerizing;
singlebath and rapid-inverse methods instead of conven-
tional two-bath batchwise dyeing of polyester-cotton;
process optimization in exhaust processes to control dye
uptake in minimum time without inducing unlevel dye-
ing;
rapid-dyeing equipment with high-efficiency flow to per-
mit controlled adsorption a t rapid rates of temperature
rise;
control of recipe formulation and adoption of blind dye-
ing to improve production scheduling and eliminate
shading time;
possible reuse of exhaust dyebaths in selected areas, such
as nylon hosiery dyeing.
Certain measures of this kind, such as adoption of com-
bined processes, optimization of rate of temperature rise, and
 improvements in recipe formulation can be introduced with 24. Chapman, Jaeckel and Stubbs, J.S.D.C., 92 (1976)
little or no investment in new machines. More drastic 191.
changes, requiring purchase of special equipment for rapid 25. Cook, Tincher, Carr, Olson and Averette, Text. Chem.
bleaching or dyeing processes, on-line colorimetric control of Colorist, 12 (1980) 1.
adsorption rate, instrumental recipe prediction, or spectro- 26. Wrigley and Grimshaw, Amer. Dyestuff Rep., 62 (Apr
photometric estimation of exhaust dyebaths before re-use, 1973) 67.
demand a careful cost-benefit analysis before the more 27. Rothweiler. Melliand Textilber., 60 (1979) 341.
sophisticated system can be installed. A costly and sensitive 28. Dickinson, J.SD.C. 95 (1979) 119.
device of this kind i s designed to operate a t a high level of 29. Weber, Textilveredlung, 13 (1978) 215.
reproducibility and productivity; it is essential that the 30. Duckworth and Thwaites, J.S.D.C., 85 (1969) 225.
ancillary processes, not directly controlled by the new 31. Duckworth and Wrennall, ibid., 93 (1977) 407.
system, are upgraded in this respect so that the cost-effect- 32. Shore, Textil Praxis, 36 (1981) 681.
iveness of the new system is not jeopardized by defects 33. Rudolf Then GmbH, Dyer, 162 (2 Nov 1979) 441.
arising before or after the process for which it is acquired. No 34. Stewart, Chemiefasern, 27 (1977) 89.
investment can be justified unless it i s successful in lowering 35. Von der Eltz and Wassner, Melliand Textilber., 60
costs directly, or does so by avoiding correction steps and (1979) 167.
minimizing the proportion of unacceptable dyeings prod- 36. Carbonell, Hasler and Walliser, Dyer, 155 (16 Apr
uced. 1976) 350.
37. Joos, Textilveredlung, 10 (1975) 72.
38. Cotton Inc., Tech. Bull. TCR 207R (July 1979).
R EFER ENCES 39. Stone, Text. Chem. Colorist, 11 (1979) 195.
1. Atkinson, J.S.D.C., 96 (1980) 165. 40. Bartl, Capponi, Egger and Joos, Textilveredlung, 9
2. Wyles, Rev. Prog. Coloration, 9 (1978) 35. (1974) 147.
3. Chaplin, Park and Thompson, J.S.D.C., 96 (1980) 580. 41. Somm, Melliand Textilber., 59 (1978) 229.
4. Mason, Park, Thompson and Shore, ibid., 96 (1980) 4 2. Bartl, Egger and Lehmann, Textilveredlung, 11 (1976)
246. 525.
5. Beutler and von der Eltz, Melliand Textilber., 53 43. Weigold and Schluter, Melliand Textilber., 54 (1973)
(1972) 548. 1066.
6. Graham and Seltzer, Textilveredlung, 9 (1974) 551. 44. Lehmann, Textil Praxis, 33 (1978) 1395.
7. Thurner, Melliand Textilber., 55 (1974) 870. 45. Von der Eltz and Wassner, Melliand Textilber., 60
8. Carbonell, Hasler and Walliser, J.S.D.C., 92 (1976) (1979) 154.
100. 46. B&r, Textil Praxis, 33 (1978) 846.
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497. 48. Schraud, Melliand Textilber., 56 (1975) 403.
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405. 50. Cooper, ibid., 53 (1972) 704.
11. Park, J.S.D.C., 96 (1980) 7. 51. Houben, Textilveredlung, 11 (1976) 12.
12. Cowan, ibid., 95 (1979) 73. 52. Goldstein, Text. Chem. Colorist, 11 (1979) 148.
13. Ameling, Textil Praxis, 33 (1978) 71. 53. Hausmann and Barendahls, Textil Praxis, 34 (1979)
14. Carbonell, Egli, Hasler and Walliser, Textilveredlung, 1360.
10 (1975) 3. 54. Vernazza, Melliand Textilber., 52 (1971) 579.
15. Steitz, ibid., 14 (1979) 241. 55. Stadelmann, Textilveredlung, 14 (1979) 322.
16. Von der Eltz, ibid., 11 (1976) 169. 56. Fischbach, ibid., 11 (1976) 56.
17. Von der Eltz and Reuther, Textil Praxis, 28 (1973) 57. Minnet, ibid., 11 (1976) 57.
150. 58. AATCC S.E.Section, Text. Chem. Colorist, 11 (1979)
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20. Mitter, Textil Praxis, 29 (1974) 949. (1975) 1231.
21. Dawson and Roberts, J.S.D.C., 93 (1977) 83. 60. Haile, Amer. Dyestuff Rep., 67 (Sept 1978) 60.
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M. Nunn (Ed) (Bradford: Dyers Company Publications 62. Lehmann and Oschatz, Textil Praxis, 31 (1976) 1037.
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REV. PROG. COLORATION VOL. 11 1981 73