Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Forest Restoration in
Landscapes
Beyond Planting Trees
With 28 Illustrations
Stephanie Mansourian Daniel Vallauri
Consultant WWF France
WWF International 6 Rue des Fabres
Avenue Mont Blanc 13001 Marseille
Gland 1196 France
Switzerland
Nigel Dudley
Consultant
Equilibrium
47 The Quays
Cumberland Road
BS1 6UQ
United Kingdom
Cover Illustrations: Photo Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani), tree seedling. Photo
Credit: WWF-Canon/Michael Gunther. Background photo: Mt. Rinjani, Lombok,
Indonesia, Agri Klintuni Boedhihartono.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 SPIN 11377405
springeronline.com
Foreword
Is it a sign of the times that last year the Nobel committee chose
to award the Nobel Peace prize to Wangari Maathai for having
planted 30 million trees? We believe so. We think that while in the
20th century conservation made signicant progress on setting up
a global protected area network, the 21st century will be a time of
forest restoration. The fact that Wangari Maathai is the rst African
woman to receive such an honourable distinction is in itself a major
accomplishment. What is even more remarkable is that, for the rst
time, this highly esteemed prize, which has long been associated
with political feats, was given for an environmental achievement.
And not just any environmental achievement, but forest restora-
tion. It is a comfort to see that it is not just us at WWF, the global
conservation organisation, who believe forest restoration to be of
global signicance, but that the Nobel committee is in agreement.
The committee members are not the only ones, I should add. In
2003 WWF, IUCN, (the World Conservation Union), and the
United Kingdom Forestry Commission launched a global partner-
ship on forest landscape restoration to raise awareness about the
importance of the restoration of forests and to invite all decision
makers and inuential organisations to join in a movement to
restore forests. Today this partnership includes governments as
diverse as Switzerland, Finland, El Salvador, and Italy, and inter-
national organisations such as the United Nations Food and Agri-
culture Organisation (FAO), the Centre for International Forestry
Research (CIFOR), the International Tropical Timber Organisa-
tion (ITTO), and it continues to grow.
Too much damage has already been done for us to afford to
ignore our dwindling forest resources. If we wait until tomorrow to
restore forests, it will be too late. If too little is left, it will take
longer, will be more difcult, and will cost much more to begin
restoring a healthy forestand it may also be too late.
At WWF we are aware of this urgency, and with this book we
invite practitioners, researchers, and decision makers to join us in
doing something practical about our forests. As the Nobel com-
mittee has noted, too many wars are fought over dwindling
resources. If we do not do something about it, this may well be the
new security scourge jeopardising our future and that of our
children.
v
Preface
vii
viii Preface
This book has been designed to help readers understand how forest
restoration can be integrated with other aspects of conservation
and development in landscapes. Parts A, B, and C introduce the ele-
ments for planning and implementing restoration on a broad scale,
including a range of social, political, and economic considerations
that will inuence and that will be inuenced by any large-scale
restoration effort. Part D focusses on more specic issues, includ-
ing restoration in different forest habitats and for different reasons.
While we believe that successful restoration generally needs to
be planned on a large scale, it will probably be implemented in one
or more sites within a landscape, and the book similarly starts with
very broad-scale considerations and then focusses increasingly on
actions that can be taken at the site. Parts A, B, and C thus provide
what could be seen as the foundations, and part D provides some
much more specic tools and considerations that are applicable in
different situations. We recommend that you read the relevant
chapters in part D once you have read all of parts A, B, and C.
The nal part (part E) discusses some of the lessons learned to
date from practical experiences and recommendations for future
work related to forest restoration on a large scale.
Each chapter starts with an introduction to the issue, illustrating
it with a series of brief thumbnail examples, showing, where appro-
priate, both good and bad practice. Some useful tools are then listed
followed by a brief description of future work required and nally
and importantly a set of references. We cover a vast subject here
and each chapter is as a result kept deliberately short, we can only
introduce many of the techniques described but have provided
detailed sources for those who wish to follow up specic issues in
greater detail.
The book includes contributions from a large number of authors.
Although we have all been writing within the framework of forest
landscape restoration, there are inevitably different nuances in how
this should be interpreted and applied. What follows is a set of
experienced opinions rather than a rigid blueprint. We will in turn
very much appreciate hearing feedback, criticism, and experience
from users.
ix
Acknowledgements
xi
xii Acknowledgements
Chapter 1
Forest Landscape Restoration in Context
Nigel Dudley, Stephanie Mansourian, and
Daniel Vallauri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 2
Overview of Forest Restoration Strategies and Terms
Stephanie Mansourian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter 4
The Impacts of Degradation and Forest Loss on Human
Well-Being and Its Social and Political Relevance for
Restoration
Mary Hobley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
xiii
xiv Table of Contents
Chapter 5
Restoring Forest Landscapes in the Face of Climate
Change
Jennifer Biringer and Lara J. Hansen . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Chapter 6
Restoration as a Strategy to Contribute to
Ecoregion Visions
John Morrison, Jeffrey Sayer, and Colby Loucks . . . . . 41
Chapter 7
Why Do We Need to Consider Restoration in a
Landscape Context?
Nigel Dudley, John Morrison, James Aronson, and
Stephanie Mansourian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Chapter 8
Addressing Trade-Offs in Forest Landscape Restoration
Katrina Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chapter 9
An Attempt to Develop a Framework for
Restoration Planning
Daniel Vallauri, James Aronson, and Nigel Dudley . . . . 65
Chapter 10
Assessing and Addressing Threats in
Restoration Programmes
Doreen Robinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Chapter 11
Perverse Policy Incentives
Kirsten Schuyt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Chapter 12
Land Ownership and Forest Restoration
Gonzalo Oviedo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table of Contents xv
Chapter 13
Challenges for Forest Landscape Restoration
Based on WWFs Experience to Date
Stephanie Mansourian and Nigel Dudley . . . . . . . . . 94
Chapter 14
Goals and Targets of Forest Landscape Restoration
Jeffrey Sayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Chapter 15
Identifying and Using Reference Landscapes for
Restoration
Nigel Dudley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Chapter 16
Mapping and Modelling as Tools to Set Targets, Identify
Opportunities, and Measure Progress
Thomas F. Allnutt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Chapter 17
Policy Interventions for Forest Landscape Restoration
Nigel Dudley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Chapter 18
Negotiations and Conict Management
Scott Jones and Nigel Dudley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Chapter 19
Practical Interventions that Will Support Restoration in
Broad-Scale Conservation Based on WWF
Experiences
Stephanie Mansourian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Chapter 20
Monitoring Forest Restoration Projects in the Context of
an Adaptive Management Cycle
Sheila OConnor, Nick Salafsky, and Dan Salzer . . . . . 145
Chapter 21
Monitoring and Evaluating Forest Restoration Success
Daniel Vallauri, James Aronson, Nigel Dudley, and
Ramon Vallejo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
xvi Table of Contents
Chapter 22
Opportunities for Long-Term Financing of Forest
Restoration in Landscapes
Kirsten Schuyt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Chapter 23
Payment for Environmental Services and Restoration
Kirsten Schuyt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Chapter 24
Carbon Knowledge Projects and Forest Landscape
Restoration
Jessica Orrego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Chapter 25
Marketing and Communications Opportunities: How to
Promote and Market Forest Landscape Restoration
Soh Koon Chng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Chapter 26
Restoring Quality in Existing Native Forest Landscapes
Nigel Dudley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Chapter 27
Restoring Soil and Ecosystem Processes
Lawrence R. Walker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Chapter 28
Active Restoration of Boreal Forest Habitats for
Target Species
Harri Karjalainen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Chapter 29
Restoration of Deadwood as a Critical Microhabitat in
Forest Landscapes
Nigel Dudley and Daniel Vallauri . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Chapter 30
Restoration of Protected Area Values
Nigel Dudley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Table of Contents xvii
Chapter 31
Using Nontimber Forest Products for Restoring
Environmental, Social, and Economic Functions
Pedro Regato and Nora Berrahmouni . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Chapter 32
An Historical Account of Fuelwood Restoration Efforts
Don Gilmour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Chapter 33
Restoring Water Quality and Quantity
Nigel Dudley and Sue Stolton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Chapter 34
Restoring Landscapes for Traditional Cultural Values
Gladwin Joseph and Stephanie Mansourian . . . . . . . 233
Chapter 35
Overview of Technical Approaches to Restoring Tree
Cover at the Site Level
Stephanie Mansourian, David Lamb, and
Don Gilmour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Chapter 36
Stimulating Natural Regeneration
Silvia Holz and Guillermo Placci . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Chapter 37
Managing and Directing Natural Succession
Steve Whisenant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Chapter 38
Selecting Tree Species for Plantation
Florencia Montagnini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Chapter 39
Developing Firebreaks
Eduard Plana, Ruf Cerdan, and Marc Castellnou . . . . 269
Chapter 40
Agroforestry as a Tool for Forest Landscape Restoration
Thomas K. Erdmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
xviii Table of Contents
Chapter 41
Restoring Dry Tropical Forests
James Aronson, Daniel Vallauri, Tanguy Jaffr, and
Porter P. Lowry II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Chapter 42
Restoring Tropical Moist Broad-Leaf Forests
David Lamb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Chapter 43
Restoring Tropical Montane Forests
Manuel R. Guariguata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Chapter 44
Restoring Floodplain Forests
Simon Dufour and Herv Pigay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Chapter 45
Restoring Mediterranean Forests
Ramon Vallejo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Chapter 46
Restoring Temperate Forests
Adrian Newton and Alan Watson Featherstone . . . . . . 320
Chapter 47
Forest Landscape Restoration After Fires
Peter Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Chapter 48
Restoring Forests After Violent Storms
Daniel Vallauri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Chapter 49
Managing the Risk of Invasive Alien Species in
Restoration
Jeffrey A. McNeely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Chapter 50
First Steps in Erosion Control
Steve Whisenant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Table of Contents xix
Chapter 51
Restoring Forests After Land Abandonment
Jos M. Rey Benayas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Chapter 52
Restoring Overlogged Tropical Forests
Cesar Sabogal and Robert Nasi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Chapter 53
Opencast Mining Reclamation
Jos Manuel Nicolau Ibarra and
Mariano Moreno de las Heras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Chapter 54
The Role of Commercial Plantations in Forest Landscape
Restoration
Jeffrey Sayer and Chris Elliot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Chapter 55
Attempting to Restore Biodiversity in Even-Aged
Plantations
Florencia Montagnini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Chapter 56
Best Practices for Industrial Plantations
Nigel Dudley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Chapter 57
What Has WWF Learned About Restoration at an
Ecoregional Scale?
Nigel Dudley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Chapter 58
Local Participation, Livelihood Needs, and Institutional
Arrangements: Three Keys to Sustainable Rehabilitation
of Degraded Tropical Forest Lands
Unna Chokkalingam, Cesar Sabogal, Everaldo Almeida,
Antonio P. Carandang, Tini Gumartini, Wil de Jong,
Silvio Brienza, Jr., Abel Meza Lopez, Murniati,
Ani Adiwinata Nawir, Lukas Rumboko, Takeshi Toma,
Eva Wollenberg, and Zhou Zaizhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
xx Table of Contents
Chapter 59
A Way Forward: Working Together Toward a Vision for
Restored Forest Landscapes
Stephanie Mansourian, Mark Aldrich, and
Nigel Dudley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Appendix
A Selection of Identied Ecological Research Needs
Relating to Forest Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Acronyms
ACGArea Conservacin Guanacaste IUCNThe World Conservation Union
CAPcommon agriculture policy IISDInternational Institute for Sustainable
CATIECentro Agronmico Tropical de Development
Investigacin y Ensenanza IIEDInternational Institute for
CBDConvention on Biological Diversity Environment and Development
CBFMcommunity-based forest management LULUCFLand Use, Land-Use Change, and
CDMclean development mechanism Forestry
CEAMCentro de Estudios Ambientales MOSAICManagement of Strategic Areas
Mediterrneos (Mediterranean Centre for for Integrated Conservation
Environmental Studies) NTFPnontimber forest products
CIFORCentre for International Forestry NGONongovernmental organisation
Research ODAOverseas Development Assistance
DFIDU.K. Department for International PESpayment for environmental services
Development PRAparticipatory rural appraisal
DGDirectorate General PVApopulation viability analysis
ECEuropean Commission RILreduced-impact logging
ECCMEdinburgh Centre for Carbon RRArapid rural appraisal
Management REACTIONRestoration Actions to
ERCecoregion conservation Combat Desertication in the Northern
EUEuropean Union Mediterranean
FAOUnited Nations Food and Agriculture SAPARDSpecial Action for Pre-Accession
Organisation Measures for Agriculture and Rural
FLOFair-Trade Labelling Organisation Development
FLRforest landscape restoration SERISociety for Ecological Restoration
FSCForest Stewardship Council International
FONAFIFOFondo Nacional de Finan- SDCSwiss Agency for Development and
ciamiento Forestal (National Fund for Cooperation
Financing Forestry) SEIStockholm Environment Institute
GEFglobal environment facility SLUSwedish University of Agricultural
GISgeographical information system Sciences
GTZDeutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische TDFtropical dry forests
Zusammenarbeit (German Company for TNCThe Nature Conservancy
International Technical Cooperation) UNCCDUnited Nations Convention to
HCVFhigh conservation value forest Combat Desertication
IASinvasive alien species UNFCCCUnited Nations Framework
ICDPIntegrated Conservation and Devel- Convention on Climate Change
opment Programme USAIDU.S. Agency for International
IFOAMThe International Federation of Development
Organic Agriculture Movements WWFWorldwide Fund for Nature (also
IMFInternational Monetary Fund known as World Wildlife Fund in North
IPFIntergovernmental Panel on Forests America)
ITTOInternational Tropical Timber
Organisation
xxi
Contributors List
xxiii
xxiv Contributors List
3
4 N. Dudley et al
the temperate countries gradually recovering site-based, aiming to produce one or at most a
forest area if not necessarily quality after severe limited number of goods and services. Projects
deforestation in the past. As well as creating have often sought to encourage and sometimes
acute threats to forest dependent biodiversity, impose tree planting without understanding
the decline in global forests also has a series of why trees disappeared in the rst place and
direct social and economic costs because of the without attempting to address the immediate or
role of forests in supplying timber and many underlying causes of forest loss.6 Projects have
important nontimber forest products along also relied heavily on tree planting, which is
with a wide range of environmental service often the most expensive way of reestablishing
such as the stabilisation of soils and climate. tree cover over a large area, frightening off gov-
Forest loss and degradation has already led to ernments, donors, and nongovernmental organ-
the extinction of species, has altered hydro- isations. Because restoration takes time, it is
logical regimes and damaged the livelihoods essential to think and plan long term. Unfortu-
of millions of peoplemainly amongst the nately, short-term political interests often
poorest on the earthwho rely on forests for supersede longer term priorities, creating sim-
subsistence. In many areas, protecting and man- plistic approaches.
aging the remaining forests are no longer suf- The above reservations are not to under-
cient steps in themselves to ensure that forest estimate the major steps that have been made in
functions are maintained, and restoration is understanding the ecological and social aspects
already an essential third component of any of restoration, many of which are summarised in
management strategy. this book. Criticising after the event is always
Unfortunately, many existing restoration easy, and we also recognise the very real bene-
projects have partially or completely failed, ts that have accrued from successful restora-
often because the trees that they sought to tion projects. Nonetheless, we are far from alone
establish have not survived or have been in believing that some new perspectives are
rapidly destroyed by the same pressures that needed in addressing the current restoration
have caused forest loss in the rst place. challenge. Perhaps the most important of these
Anyone working regularly in the tropics relates to working on a broader scale, along with
becomes accustomed to nding abandoned tree all the implications that this has.
nurseries, often with their donor organisations
signboards still in place, the paint gradually
1.1. Taking a Broader Approach
peeling away. Even when crops of trees have
survived to maturity, they have not necessarily An increasing number of governmental and
been welcomed, as evidenced by the wide- nongovernmental conservation institutions
spread controversy over afforestation with have recognised that in order to achieve lasting
exotic monocultures of conifers in much of conservation impacts it is necessary to work
western Europe4 and the increasingly bitter on a larger scale than has been the case in the
debates about tree plantations in the tropics.5 past. Although there are a number of ways of
There has also often been a mismatch dening useful ecological units for planning
between social and ecological goals of conser- conservation, the concept of the ecoregion is
vation; either restoration has aimed to full increasingly being adopted, including by WWF,
social or economic needs without reference to the global conservation organisation. An ecore-
its wider ecological impacts, or it has had a gion is dened as a large area of land or water
narrow conservation aim without taking into that contains a geographically distinct assem-
account peoples needs. blage of natural communities that share a large
A number of consequent problems can be majority of their species and ecological dynam-
identied. Most restoration to date has been ics, share similar environmental conditions, and
4
Tompkins, 1989.
5 6
Carrere and Lohmann, 1996. Eckholm, 1979.
1. Forest Landscape Restoration in Context 5
Ecoregion
Figure 1.1. At the ecoregional scale, ecoregion be restored, leading to a number of actions at indi-
visioning can help to identify a series of priority land- vidual sites within the landscape. All these t within
scapes. At the landscape level, assessment and nego- the landscape goals for restoration, which them-
tiation can help to identify agreed forest functions to selves contribute to the ecoregion vision.
interact ecologically in ways that are critical ities that could meet multiple needs and to
for their long-term persistence. Ecoregions are negotiate the compromises and trade-offs that
suitable for broad-scale planning, which usually such a mosaic entails. The aims of forest land-
includes the identication of a few smaller pri- scape restoration have therefore always tran-
ority landscapes that are particularly important scended conservation to embrace development
from a conservation perspective, themselves as well, and we have invited a number of
composed of numerous sites with different experts to provide a parallel set of social tools
management regimes or habitats (see chapter and approaches within the current volume. We
Restoration as a Strategy to Contribute to believe that successful restoration on a broad
Ecoregion Visions). scale relies on getting the right mix between
As used here (Fig. 1.1), landscapes are gen- social and environmental needs; this is a fun-
erally smaller than ecoregions, and typically damental part of the process and not an
a number of important conservation land- optional extra.
scapes have been identied within ecoregions Accordingly, in 2000, WWF and IUCN, the
during planning processes. But the key point World Conservation Union, brought together a
here is that landscapes are bigger than single range of experts from different organisations,
sites and therefore almost always encompass a different regions, and different disciplines to
range of different management approaches. agree on a denition for forest landscape
Coming from a conservation organisation, restoration7: A planned process that aims to
this book is biased toward ecological and bio- regain ecological integrity and enhance human
diversity issues. However, forests have social well-being in deforested or degraded land-
and economic functions as well, and restoration scapes. This denition and approach lies at
efforts often need to address many needs at the heart of the current book. Ecological
once. This may not be possible within a single integrity is described by Parks Canada as a
site; it is, for example, difcult to create a large state of ecosystem development that is charac-
harvest of industrial timber or rewood in an teristic of its geographic location, containing a
environment that is also suitable for specialised full range of native species and supportive
or sensitive wildlife species. One important processes that are present in viable numbers.
reason for shifting the focus to a landscape Well-being embraces the factors that make
scale is that it is hoped this can provide a broad-
enough area to plan a suite of restoration activ- 7
WWF and IUCN, 2000.
6 N. Dudley et al
human life comfortable, such as money, peace, respect to the way that the forest changes and
health, stability, and equable governance. regenerates over time).
Forests managed for social needs may have
different priorities. Sometimes these overlap
1.2. What Is Special About Forest
with conservation requirementsfor instance
Restoration in a Landscape?
some forests managed for nontimber forest
Restoring the complexity of a small patch of products can be extremely rich in biodiver-
forests is in itself an achievement. However, a sityin other cases they do not. Seeking a
greater challenge lies in restoring a matrix of balance at a landscape scale is more important
forests within larger areaslandscapesto than trying to make sure that every scrap of
meet different needs. At this greater spatial forest fulls every possible role. Broad-scale
scale, different inuences, pressures, stake- restoration in most cases, therefore, has to
holders, and habitats coexist, which in some address multiple, sometimes competing, needs
ways increases the challenges of restoration. that will themselves entail different types of
However, the landscape scale also provides forests (perhaps ranging from natural forests to
enough space to plan and implement restora- plantations) and sometimes also including quite
tion to meet multiple needs. specic requirements such as particular non-
Conservation priorities therefore must be timber forest products required by local com-
balanced with other aspects of sustainable munities or maintenance of water quality in a
development. Specic uses and priorities may certain watershed. Such multifunctional land-
have to be focussed on part of the forest land- scapes by their nature need to be planned and
scape, and the resulting trade-offs negotiated implemented on a far broader scale than an
and agreed to by a wide range of stakeholders. individual forest patch.
The resulting task is generally too complex
to be solved solely by site-based approaches
focussing on a narrow range of benets from 2. Conclusion
individual forests. Achieving a balance between
the various goods and services required from For foresters, restoration traditionally meant
restored forest ecosystems requires conceptu- establishing trees for a number of functions
alisation, planning, and implementation on a (wood or pulp production, soil protection). For
broader scale. many conservationists restoration is either
It also requires deciding where forest is and about restoring original forest cover in
is not needed. Aiming at restoring forest func- degraded areas or about planting corridors of
tions does not necessarily mean restoring forest forest to link protected areas. For many inter-
across the whole landscape; this is often impos- ested in social development, the emphasis will
sible in a crowded world with many competing instead be on establishing trees that are useful
claims on land. Rather, it entails identifying for fuelwood, or fruits, or as windbreaks and
those areas where forests are most useful, from livestock enclosures. The sad fact is that all too
a variety of social and ecological perspectives, many restoration projects do not bother to nd
and further identifying what type of forest is out what local people really want at all; if they
likely to be most useful in a particular location. do, then a collection of different and often
Whilst from a conservation perspective a high opposing or mutually exclusive wants and
degree of naturalness is often important, this desires emerge. There is still a lot to be learned
may not be the case for social or economic uses. and disseminated about reconciling nature and
Even in the parts of the landscape that are spe- human needs, and about planning restoration
cialised in conservation, sometimes cultural areas within larger scales in order to return as
landscapes are desired either because they have wide a range of forest functions as possible.This
been in place for so long that remaining bio- requires the ability to work across disciplines,
diversity has adapted to these conditions or including agriculture, forest-compatible
because there is not sufcient space for a fully income-generation activities, forestry, and
functioning natural system (for instance, with addressing water issues as well as specic social
1. Forest Landscape Restoration in Context 7
issues. It also, perhaps even more importantly, Eckholm, E. 1979. Planting for the Future: Forestry
requires nding out how to bring the people for Human Needs. Worldwatch Paper number 26.
most affected into the debate, not as a matter Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC.
of duty or because funding agencies expect it FAO. 2001. Global Forest Resource Assessment
2000: Main Report. FAO Forestry Paper 140. Food
but because this is vital and necessary for both
and Agriculture Organisation of the United
nature and human well-being.
Nations, Rome.
Through ecoregion conservation, WWF has Perlin, J. 1991. A Forest Journey: The Role of Wood
learned that working on a large scale is com- in the Development of Civilisation. Harvard Uni-
plex, costly, and time-intensive; however, it is versity Press, Cambridge, MA, and London.
also a more sustainable way of addressing con- Perrow, M.R., and Davy, A.J. 2002. Handbook or
servation than through small, often unrelated Ecological Restoration, vol. 1 and 2. Cambridge
projects. This approach is also a challenge for University Press, Cambridge, UK.
restoration. Society for Ecological Restoration International.
Science and Policy Working Group. 2002. The SER
Primer on Ecological Restoration, www.ser.org.
Tompkins, S. 1989. Forestry in Crisis: The Battle for
References the Hills. Christopher Helm, London.
Whisenant, S.G. 1999. Repairing Damaged Wild-
Carrere, R., and Lohmann, L. 1996. Pulping the landsa Process-Oriented, Landscape-Scale
South: Industrial Plantations and the World Paper Approach. Cambridge University Press.
Economy. Zed Books and the World Rainforest WWF and IUCN. 2000. Minutes, Restoration work-
Movement, London and Montevideo. shop, Segovia, Spain (unpublished).
2
Overview of Forest Restoration
Strategies and Terms
Stephanie Mansourian
8
2. Overview of Forest Restoration Strategies and Terms 9
made the best attempt at cataloguing and den- integrity in terms of species composition and
ing these different terminologies and concepts. community structure.
It must be noted that this complexity is also Example 2: Bamburi Cements quarries in
apparent and sometimes exacerbated when Mombasa (Kenya) were once woodland
translating these terms into other languages. expanses covering 1,200 hectares.11 Starting in
1971, experiments began with the rehabilitation
of the disused quarries. In the face of badly
2. Examples damaged soils, three tree species proved
capable of withstanding the difcult growing
We present below a number of terms that have conditions: Casuarina equisetifolia, Conocarpus
been dened recently by SERI in its The SER lancifolius, and the coconut palm. The Casuar-
Primer on Ecological Restoration.9 ina is nitrogen xing and is drought and salt
tolerant, enabling it to colonise areas left
virtually without soil. The Conocarpus is also a
2.1. Ecological Restoration
drought-, ood-, and salt-tolerant swamp tree.
Ecological restoration is dened as the process The decomposition of the Casuarina leaf litter
of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that was initially very slow due to a high protein
has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. It is content, thus impeding the nutrient cycling
an intentional activity that initiates or acceler- process, although this problem was overcome
ates the recovery of an ecosystem with respect by introducing a local red-legged millipede that
to its health, integrity, and sustainability. feeds on the dry leaves and starts the decom-
Example 1: In 2000, in an attempt to re-create position process. Today this area contains more
a native wild wood, the Scottish nongovern- than 200 coastal forest species and a famous
mental organisation (NGO), Borders Forest nature trail, attracting 100,000 visitors a year
Trust, together with many partners, bought a since opening in 1984.
600-hectare plot of land, Carrifran, in the
Southern Uplands of Scotland in order to
2.3. Reclamation
restore its original forest. Thanks to fossil
pollen buried deep in peat, it was possible to Reclamation is a term commonly used in the
identify the nature of the variety of species pre- context of mined lands in North America and
viously found on this now near-denuded site the United Kingdom. It has as its main objec-
and therefore to develop a restoration plan that tives the stabilisation of the terrain, assurance
aimed to re-create the species mix that had of public safety, aesthetic improvement, and
occurred in the past. Thousands of native tree usually a return of the land to what, within the
seeds from surviving woodland remnants in regional context, is considered to be a useful
the vicinity were collected. A total of 103.13 purpose.
hectares (165,008 trees) have been planted at Example 3: A large open-cut bauxite mine at
Carrifran since the start of the project. The Trombetas in Par state in central Amazonia
upper part of the site is being allowed to regen- is located in an area of relatively undisturbed
erate naturally.10 evergreen equatorial moist forest. A reclama-
tion programme has been developed to restore
the original forest cover as far as possible. The
2.2. Rehabilitation
project has treated about 100 hectares of mined
Rehabilitation emphasises the reparation of land per year for the last 15 years. First, the
ecosystem processes, productivity, and services, mined site was levelled and topsoil replaced to
whereas the goals of restoration also include a depth of about 15 cm using topsoil from the
the reestablishment of the preexisting biotic site that was removed and stockpiled (for less
9
SERI, 2002.
10 11
www.carrifran.com. Baer, 1996.
10 S. Mansourian
than 6 months) prior to mining. Next, the site Reforestation is dened by the UNFCCC as
was deep-ripped to a depth of 90 cm (1-m the direct human-induced conversion of non-
spacing between rows). Trees were planted forested land to forested land through planting,
along alternate rip lines at 2-m spacings (2500 seeding, and/or the human-induced promotion
trees per hectare) using direct seeding, stumped of natural seed sources, on land that was
saplings, or potted seedlings. Some 160 local forested but that has been converted to non-
tree species were tested for their suitability in forested land.
the programme, and more than 70 species from Example 5: In Madagascar, large plantation
the local natural forests are now routinely used. projects were planned in the early 1970s to
After 13 years most sites have many more tree supply a paper mill on the Haut Mangoro. By
and shrub species than those initially planted 1990 about 80,000 hectares had been planted,
because of seeds stored in the topsoil or coloni- 97 percent of which was Pinus spp. This project
sation from the surrounding forest. Not sur- created signicant social and political tensions,
prisingly, the density of these new colonists is as the local population systematically opposed
greater at sites near intact forest, but dispersal a project that it felt was not providing much
was evident up to 640 m away from old-growth benet.14
forest. The new species, most of which have
small seed, have been brought to the site by
2.5. What Is WWFs Denition?
birds, bats, or terrestrial mammals.12
In 2000 WWF and IUCN, the World Conserva-
tion Union, were asking the questions: What
2.4. Afforestation/Reforestation is meant by forest restoration? How can we
Afforestation and reforestation refer to the achieve lasting and successful forest restoration
articial establishment of trees, in the former in our ecoregional programmes? The two
case where no trees existed before. In addition, organisations felt that a suitable denition and
in the context of the U.N.s Framework Con- typology of restoration were needed. In partic-
vention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and ular, given the large-scale conservation work
the Kyoto protocol, specic denitions have that the organisations were engaging in, it was
been agreed on reforestation and afforesta- felt that there was still a gap in knowledge and
tion.13 Afforestation is dened by the UNFCCC in approaches to forest restoration. Notably,
as the direct human-induced conversion of how does forest restoration relate to planta-
land that has not been forested for a period of tions, agroforestry, secondary forests, biological
at least 50 years to forested land through plant- corridors, and single trees in the landscape?
ing, seeding, and/or human induced promotion In July 2000 WWF and IUCN brought
of natural seed sources. together a number of regional conservation
Example 4: During the middle years of the staff, foresters, economists, and other profes-
20th century, very large areas of long- sionals to help them take restoration forward.
deforested land were planted in Scotland by They dened the term forest landscape restora-
the state forestry body, initially as a strategic tion as a planned process that aims to
resource. In contrast to the Borders Forest Trust regain ecological integrity15 and enhance
project described above, these efforts made no human well-being16 in deforested or degraded
attempt to re-create the original forest, instead landscapes.
using exotic monocultures, mainly of Sitka 14
Faralala, 2003.
spruce from Alaska (Picea sitchensis) or Norway 15
Ecological Integrity, for WWF and IUCN, is maintain-
spruce (Picea abies) from mainland Europe. ing the diversity and quality of ecosystems, and enhancing
Planting was generally so dense that virtually no their capacity to adapt to change and provide for the needs
understorey plant species developed. of future generations.
16
Human well-being, for WWF and IUCN, is ensuring that
all people have a role in shaping decisions that affect their
12
Lamb and Gilmour, 2003. ability to meet their needs, safeguard their livelihoods, and
13
UNFCC, 2003. realise their full potential.
2. Overview of Forest Restoration Strategies and Terms 11
The key elements of FLR are as follows: what may seem like a less than optimal solu-
tion if taken from one perspective, but a solu-
It is implemented at a landscape scale rather tion that when taken from the whole groups
than a single sitethat is to say, planning for perspective can be acceptable to all.
forest restoration is done in the context of It places the emphasis not only on forest
other elements: social, economic, and biolog- quantity but also on forest quality. Decision
ical, in the landscape. This does not necessar- makers often think predominantly about the
ily imply planting trees across an entire area of trees to be planted when considering
landscape but rather strategically locating restoration, yet often improving the quality
forests and woodlands in areas that are nec- of existing forests can yield bigger benets
essary to achieve an agreed set of functions for a lower cost.
(e.g., habitat for a specic species, soil stabil- It aims to restore a range of forest goods,
isation, provision of building materials for services, and processes, rather than forest
local communities). cover per se. It is not just the trees themselves
It has both a socioeconomic and an ecologi- that are important, but often all of the
cal dimension. People who have a stake in accompanying elements that go with healthy
the state of the landscape are more likely to forests, such as nutrient cycling, soil stabilisa-
engage positively in its restoration. tion, medicinal and food plants, forest-
It implies addressing the root causes of forest dwelling animal species, etc. Including the
loss and degradation. Restoration can some- full range of potential benets in the plan-
times be achieved simply by removing what- ning process makes the choice of restoration
ever caused the loss of forest, (such as technique, locations, and tree species much
perverse incentives and grazing animals). more focussed. It also allows more exibility
This also means that without removing the for discussions on trade-offs with different
cause of forest loss and degradation, any stakeholders, by providing a diversity of
restoration effort is likely to be in vain. values rather than just one or two.
It opts for a package of solutions. There is
Forest landscape restoration goes beyond
no single restoration technique that can be
establishing forest cover per se. Its aim is to
applied to all situations. In each case a
achieve a landscape containing valuable forests,
number of elements need to be covered, but
for instance partly to provide timber, partly
how to do that depends on the local condi-
mixed with subsistence crops to raise yields and
tions. The package may include practical
protect the soils, as well as partly improving
techniques, such as agro-forestry, enrichment
biodiversity habitat and increasing the avail-
planting, and natural regeneration at a land-
ability of subsistence goods. By balancing these
scape scale, but also embraces policy analy-
within a landscape, WWF believes that it is pos-
sis, training, and research.
sible to enhance the overall benets to people
It involves a range of stakeholders in plan-
and biodiversity at that scale.
ning and decision making to achieve a
solution that is acceptable and therefore sus-
tainable. The decision of what to aim for in 3. Outline of Tools
the long term when restoring a landscape
should ideally be made through a process Broad denitions and explanations of what
that includes representatives of different restoration entails can be found in most con-
interest groups in the landscape in order to servation and forestry institutions. Nonetheless,
reach, if not a consensus, at least a compro- little of this has reached the eld. Because of its
mise that is acceptable to all. complexity, large-scale restoration requires a
It involves identifying and negotiating trade- mixture of responses from practical to political
offs. In relation to the above point, when a and many practitioners are at a loss as to where
consensus cannot be reached, different inter- to begin.
est groups need to negotiate and agree on Some practical guidance is available:
12 S. Mansourian
The Nature Conservancy (TNC). 2002. Geography of and Technological Advice. 2003. Land Use,
Hope Update: When and Where to Consider Land-Use Change and Forestry: Denitions and
Restoration in Ecoregional Planning. www.con- Modalities for Including Afforestation and Refor-
serveonline.org. estation Activities Under Article 12 of the Kyoto
United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Protocol. Eighteenth session, Bonn, June 413,
Change (UNFCCC) Subsidiary Body for Scientic 2003.
Section II
The Challenging Context of Forest
Restoration Today
3
Impact of Forest Loss and
Degradation on Biodiversity
Nigel Dudley
17
18 N. Dudley
is likely, and where these thresholds are known Whilst the rst two can be assessed through
they can play a key role in monitoring impacts single surveys, assessment of trends implies the
and planning restoration strategies. need for a monitoring system.
Impacts on authenticity or naturalness: On an
ecosystem scale, measuring impacts on overall
naturalness of forests is easier than surveying 2. Examples
biodiversity and acts as a partial surrogate; gen-
erally the greater the naturalness of a forest, the 2.1. New Caledonia
more of its original constituent species are likely
In New Caledonia the overall loss of forests
to survive. Worldwide forest authenticity is
creates a critical threat to biodiversity and eco-
declining fast. In most West European countries
logical integrity. Today only 2 percent of the
less than 1 percent of forests are classied by the
dry forest remains in the island, in scattered
United Nations as undisturbed.21 A growing
fragments of 300 hectares or less, leading to
proportion of forests in Africa, the Pacic, and
extreme threats to the remaining biodiversity.
the Amazon have been logged at least once.
Over half of the 117 dry forest plant species
Ecological integrity: This concept covers
assessed by the IUCN Species Survival Com-
many of the above issues. It is dened by Parks
mission are threatened, and it is likely that
Canada as a condition that is determined to be
several have already gone extinct. For example,
characteristic of its natural region and likely to
the tree Pittosporum tanianum was discovered
persist, including abiotic components and the
in 1988 on Leprdour Island in an area that has
composition and abundance of native species
been devastated by introduced rabbits and
and biological communities, rates of change,
deer, declared extinct in 1994, and rediscovered
and supporting processes.22
in 2002. This level of damage suggests an urgent
Evaluation of options for restoration should
need for both restoration of forest cover and a
also consider the reasons why forest loss or
carefully designed series of interventions to
degradation have occurred. Many restoration
protect and allow the spread of species that
programmes fail because the pressures that
may already be at critically low levels.23
caused deforestation are not addressed, and
restored forests suffer the same fate as the orig-
inal forests. If population or economic pres- 2.2. Western Europe
sures mean that there is insufcient fuelwood,
Changes in management and human distur-
then planted trees will be burned long before
bance have reduced near-natural forests to less
they have a chance to mature and reach a useful
than 1 percent of their original area in most
size. On the other hand, understanding the
western European countries, despite an expan-
nature of the pressures and working with local
ding forest estate. In Europe as a whole, almost
communities to plan restoration in ways that
nine million hectares are dened as undis-
are mutually benecial increases the chances of
turbed by man, but most of this exists in the
restoration succeeding. Assessment needs to
Russian Federation and Scandinavia; Sweden
address several different aspects:
records 16 percent of its forest as natural,
Impacts of forest loss and degradation on Finland 5 percent, and Norway 2 percent. In
biodiversity, naturalness, and ecological most of Europe the proportion is usually from
integrity; zero to less than 1 percent; for instance, Switzer-
Some of the key factors causing change; land records 0.6 percent.24 Even in forest-rich
Changes in biodiversity, naturalness, and countries like Finland and Sweden, many
ecological integrity following restoration forestd-welling species are threatened because
interventions. the forests contain only a proportion of the
21 23
UNECE and FAO, 2000. Vallauri and Graux, 2004.
22 24
Parks Canada, undated. UNECE and FAO, 2000.
3. Impact of Forest Loss and Degradation on Biodiversity 19
expected habitats and ecosystem functions. viduals, in Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Reserve
Here the challenge is less to recover forest area in Uganda. Another major population is in the
(although this may sometimes be important) Virunga volcanoes area, some of which is in
than to restore natural ecosystem processes and Mgahinga National Park. Neither of these pop-
microhabitats. Specic monitoring criteria are ulations is considered large enough to be genet-
needed and these have started to be developed, ically secure over time, but both reserves are
for instance by the Ministerial Conference on also thought to be reaching their natural carry-
the Protection of Forests in Europe.25 ing capacity. Linking the two populations is
important for their long-term survival, but the
intervening land has all been converted to agri-
2.3. Brazilian Atlantic Forests culture, and any restoration efforts will need a
In the Atlantic forest of Brazil, forest loss long period of planning and negotiation (infor-
and fragmentation are combining to threaten mation from park staff in Bwindi).
endemic species. Although international atten- Understanding of what has been lost, and
tion tends to focus on threats to the Amazon, what is at risk of being lost, should be the basis
the Atlantic forests of Brazil have undergone for any forest restoration that has biodiversity
far more dramatic losses. The forests have conservation amongst its aims. This needs to be
already been reduced to just 7 percent of their augmented with an understanding of what type
original size, and the associated threats to bio- or quality of forest is needed to maintain biodi-
diversity are increased because the remaining versity. If the key issue is connectivity for large
areas are fragmented and the populations are mammals and birds, for example, managed sec-
genetically isolated. The area is home to many ondary forests or even plantations or shade-
endemic species, including some of the 19 resi- grown coffee may be suitable. If the threats are
dent primates and 92 percent of amphibian more generally to forest biodiversity, restora-
species found there. Attention has focussed par- tion efforts should probably be aimed at creat-
ticularly on the golden lion tamarins (Leontop- ing a forest as near to natural as possible.
ithecus rosalia), which now inhabit less than 2
percent of their original range.Their population
is currently around 1000, up from little more 3. Outline of Tools
than 200 twenty years ago following a major
conservation effort. However, population is still Detailed biodiversity surveys are expensive and
believed to be below long-term viability, and rely on a high level of expertise. Methodologies
subpopulations are isolated in remaining forest for achieving these have become increasingly
fragments. Restoration efforts, therefore, focus sophisticated, and a number of short cuts have
particularly in reconnecting the remaining been developed where time and money are
forest fragments of high biological importance. limited.
international database for many of the temper- of results, and incorporation into management.
ate countries, but as yet no similar exercise has Information is collected through primary
been attempted in the tropics. It also does not research, literature review, and interviews. The
create a very useful way of measuring progress extent to which assessment is a participatory
in restoration. Some individual countries (e.g., process can change depending on the situation
Austria, France, and the U.K.) have also carried and aims.27
out detailed surveys of ancient forest.
3.4. Frontier Forest Analysis
3.2. High Conservation Value Frontier forest analysis is a World Resources
Forests (HCVF) Institute/Global Forest Watch approach28 that
This is a WWF/ProForest methodology for iden- denes frontier forests as free from substantial
tifying the forests of the highest conservation anthropogenic fragmentation (settlements,
and social value in a landscape, drawing on six roads, clearcuts, pipelines, power lines, mines,
different types of HCVF: (1) forest areas con- etc.); free from detectable human inuence for
taining globally, regionally, or nationally signi- periods that are long enough to ensure that it
cant concentrations of biodiversity values (e.g., is formed by naturally occurring ecological
endemism, endangered species, refugia); (2) processes (including res, wind, and pest
forest areas containing globally, regionally, or species); large enough to be resilient to edge
nationally signicant large landscape level effects and to survive most natural disturbance
forests, where viable populations of most if not events; containing only naturally seeded indige-
all naturally occurring species exist in natural nous plant species; and supporting viable pop-
patterns of distribution and abundance; (3) ulations of most native species associated with
forest areas that are in or contain rare, threat- the ecosystem.29 It is mainly used at a national
ened, or endangered ecosystems; (4) forest areas scale.
that provide basic services of nature in critical
situations; (5) forest areas fundamental to 3.5. Site-Scale Survey Methods
meeting basic needs of local communities; and
A wide range of survey methods exist including
(6) forest areas critical to local communities tra-
some that have specically been developed to
ditional cultural identity.26 Although designed
facilitate rapid surveys for conservation practi-
initially for site-level assessments, a landscape-
tioners, amongst these are the Rapid Ecologi-
scale methodology is being developed.
cal Assessment methodology developed by The
Nature Conservancy.30 Increasingly surveys by
3.3. Forest Quality Assessment outside experts are being augmented by inter-
views and collaboration with local communi-
WWF and IUCN have developed an approach
ties, which often have great understanding of
to landscape assessment of forest quality using
population levels of key plants and animals;
indicators to map social and ecological values,
these sources are usually referred to as tradi-
including identifying different elements of
tional ecological knowledge.
naturalness or authenticity, drawing on the
following: composition, pattern, ecological
functioning, process, resilience, and area (also 4. Future Needs
see Restoring Quality in Existing Native
Forest Landscapes). Assessment is based on Despite expertise in survey methods, there is
a seven-stage process: identication of aims, still much to be learned about accurate ways
selection of the landscape, selection of a toolkit
(relevant indicators), collection of information 27
Dudley et al, in press.
about each indicator, assessment, presentation 28
Bryant et al, 1997.
29
Smith et al, 2000.
26 30
Jennings et al, 2003. Sayre et al, 2002.
3. Impact of Forest Loss and Degradation on Biodiversity 21
of monitoring of both biodiversity and, more for Europe and the Food and Agriculture Organ-
critically, ecological integrity that would allow isation, Geneva and Rome.
proper assessment of restoration outcomes Jennings, S., Nussbaum, R., Judd, N., et al. 2003. The
over time and thus help set realistic goals for High Conservation Value Toolkit. Proforest,
Oxford (three-part document).
restoration. In general, quick and cost-effective
Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests
methods of monitoring the impacts of restora-
in Europe. 2002. Improved Pan-European Indica-
tion on biodiversity and ecology are still tors for Sustainable Forest Management: as
required in many ecosystems. adopted by the MCPFE expert level meeting,
October 78, 2002, Vienna, Austria.
Parks Canada. Undated. http://www.pc.gc.ca/progs/
References np-pn/eco_integ/index_e.asp.
Sayre, R., et al. 2002. Nature in Focus: Rapid Eco-
Bryant, D., Nielsen, D., and Tangley, L. 1997. The Last logical Assessment. The Nature Conservancy and
Frontier Forests: Ecosystems and Economies on the Island Press, Covelo and Washington, DC.
the Edge. World Resources Institute, Washington, Smith, W., et al. 2000. Canadas Forests at a Cross-
DC. roads: An Assessment in the Year 2000. Global
Dudley, N., Schlaepfer, R., Jackson, W., and Forest Watch, World Resources Institute,
Jeanrenaud, J. P. In press. A Manual on Forest Washington, DC. See also the Global Forest
Quality. Watch Web site: http://www.globalforestwatch.org.
ECE and FAO. 2000. Forest Resources of Europe, Vallauri, D., and Graux, H. 2004. Recrer des forts
CIS, North America, Australia, Japan and New tropicales sches en Nouvelle Caldonie. WWF
Zealand. U.N. Regional Economic Commissions France, Paris.
4
The Impacts of Degradation and
Forest Loss on Human Well-Being
and Its Social and Political Relevance
for Restoration
Mary Hobley
Forests: the poor mans overcoat (Westoby, 1989). part of their physical, material, economic, and
Forests have an important role to play in alleviating spiritual lives31). The World Bank has estimated
poverty worldwide in two senses. First, they serve a that 90 percent of the worlds 1.2 billion poorest
vital safety net function, helping rural people avoid people depend on forests in some way or
poverty, or helping those who are poor to mitigate another. Forest areas often coincide with areas
their plight. Second, forests have untapped potential of high poverty incidence and livelihood
to actually lift some rural people out of poverty dependence on forests. They often occur in
(Sunderlin et al, 2004). remote rural areas with poor infrastructure and
limited access to markets and other basic serv-
ices; the livelihood options in such areas are
Key Points to Retain highly circumscribed. The challenge facing
many communities is not just the restoration of
Poor people rely on forests as a safety net to
trees in their landscape but the growth of a
avoid or mitigate poverty and sometimes as
political and social landscape that facilitates
a way to lift themselves out of poverty.
their ability to make choices to secure their
It is important to recognise different levels of livelihoods.
poverty and different types of dependence on In this section we consider the impacts of
forests when trying to understand the likely forest loss and degradation on human well-
social implications of forest restoration. being. At the most simple level the rst ques-
tion must be: impact on whom? This is an
A series of tools and questions exist that can
important point because degradation and loss
help to identify potential benets from
of resources affects people in different ways. To
restoration, although these need to be used
explore this question we need to unpick the
with care to avoid overlooking some of the
concept of well-being and then look at the ways
poorest members of society.
in which forests and people are intertwined.
The major focus of this section, however, is
on those who are most adversely affected by
1. Background and changes in forest cover and qualitythe poor,
Explanation of the Issue and in particular those living in forest areas.The
second question to ask is why deforestation and
For many millions of people forests and forest degradation happen, since understanding the
products and services supply both direct and
indirect sources of livelihood, providing a major 31
Byron and Arnold, 1997.
22
4. The Impacts of Degradation and Forest Loss on Human Well-Being 23
answers to this question provides answers to intervention in the lives of beneciaries. Impact
whom it impacts on. As part of this process we can be related either to the specic objectives
need to set out the major concepts and terms of an intervention or to unanticipated changes
that support this understanding. These are caused by an intervention; such unanticipated
deforestation and degradation, well-being, liveli- changes may also occur in the lives of people
hoods, people, and impact. not belonging to the beneciary group. Impact
The drivers of forest loss and degradation are can be either positive or negative, the latter
complex and variable, moving from the being equally important to be aware of.34
extreme of deforestation for other land uses to Well-being is a concept used to describe all
more subtle forms of degradation through elements of how individuals experience the
multiple overuse, either happening slowly or world and their capacities to interact, and
more rapidly depending on the pressures includes the degree of access to material
driving change. Who drives the changes in the income or consumption, levels of education and
forests and who benets from them also helps health, vulnerability and exposure to risk,
to determine the impacts. These are not simple opportunity to be heard, and ability to exercise
events and do not have simple causal conse- power, particularly over decisions relating to
quences. For example, one persons loss as a securing livelihoods.35 When used in connection
result of forest degradation may be another with livelihoods it becomes a powerful concept
persons gain if for instance opportunities to for considering the effects of change on all
farm land are opened up. Timber companies aspects of the lived experience of an individual.
benet from timber extraction but generally A useful denition of livelihoods is as
the capture of benets at the local level is very follows: Peoples capacity to generate and
weak and the local social and environmental maintain their means of living, enhance their
costs of logging are high. well-being and that of future generations. These
Following Wunder32 and the U.N. Food and capacities are contingent upon the availability
Agricultural Organisation, deforestation (or and accessibility of options which are ecologi-
forest loss) is dened as a radical removal of cal, economic, and political and which are
vegetation to less than 10 percent crown cover. predicated on equity, ownership of resources,
For local people deforestation can be cata- and participatory decision making.36
strophic, as in the case of large-scale clear- The individual experience of well-being
felling by an outside agency that destroys varies along a continuum, with ill-being at one
resources without offering any alternatives, or end and well-being at the other, and is not
in other cases it can be the planned precursor static; it can vary during an individuals life
to an alternative land use system such as cycle. Those classied as extreme poor often
farming, which in terms of livelihood outcomes suffer ill-being, particularly expressed through
may provide more secure alternatives than that high degrees of exposure to vulnerability and
offered by the forest. risk, whereas those who can be classied as
Degradation is taken to mean a loss of forest improving poor generally experience higher
structure, productivity, and native species levels of well-being. It is important to be able
diversity. A degraded site may still contain trees to differentiate among peoples vulnerabilities
or forest but it will have lost its former ecolog- in order to understand the differential effects
ical integrity.33 Degradation is a process of loss that forest loss and degradation may have.
of forest quality that is in practice often part One of the most important issues to consider
of the chain of events that eventually leads to when looking at the effects of a change in
deforestation. access to or availability of forest products and
Impact: Impact concerns the long-term and services is a households exposure to vulnera-
sustainable changes introduced by a given
34
Blankenberg, 1995.
32 35
Wunder, 2001. World Bank, 2001:15.
33 36
Lamb and Gilmour, 2003: 4. de Satg, 2002:4.
24 M. Hobley
bility and risk. It is clear that households and Poverty is not a uniform experience for these
individuals within households experience dif- four types of forest-related people, and neither
ferent levels of vulnerability and exposure to is it possible to say, for example, that all shift-
risk. This is particularly important in the assess- ing cultivators are extremely poor or that all
ment of the effects of forest quality change, as farming communities are improving poor.
it has differential impacts within and between This makes it even more difcult to generalise
households. about the impacts that forest change will have
There are two main ways in which forests on individual livelihoods. Within the same com-
impact on livelihoods and reduce vulnerability: munity, dependence on forests and wildlands
will vary, although generally the extremely poor
as a safety net helping rural people avoid
will be the most dependent on the resources
poverty and helping those who are poor to
from natural habitats and the improving poor
mitigate their poverty;
will be less dependent. However, those whose
through their potential to lift some people
livelihoods are most interlinked with the forest
out of poverty.
resource, such as hunter-gatherer groups and
For the sake of understanding the likely shifting cultivators, are those who are the most
impacts of forest loss or restoration, it is useful vulnerable to any changes in that resource and
to dene people in terms of their vulnerability are also the least able to move into other liveli-
and their relationships with forests and forest hood options.
products (see Table 4.1 for examples of impacts It should be noted that these are by no means
of degradation and deforestation on these static categories; they change as the local and
different groups): national environment changes. For example,
increasing market penetration has profound
Extreme poor with very little or no capabil-
effects on the choices or enforced changes that
ity for social mobilisation
people have to make in their livelihood base.
Coping poor with little capability for social
The key point to recognise here is the diversity
mobilisation
of the types of relationships that people have
Improving poor with some capability for
with forests and therefore the diversity of
social mobilisation
impacts that changes in forests and associated
This typology helps to underline the impor- landscapes might have on the livelihoods of
tance of understanding the social situation of those living in and around them.
households and individuals. Attempts to
address restoration in a social context, without
1.1. Relationships to the Forest
recognising the differences that degrees of
poverty have on peoples relative vulnerability It is also important to move away from a
and opportunities, most often at best ignore broad-brush consideration of communities to
those in extreme poverty and at worst exacer- recognition of differences between individual
bate their condition. households and categories of well-being.38
Also important in this context are the differ- Many people assume that communities have
ent relationships that people have with forests common interests or, where they are conict-
which can usefully be categorised as37: ing, that disagreements could be resolved by
working with the different interest groups, but
hunters and gatherers,
this is not always the case. This becomes
shifting cultivators,
particularly important when considering the
farming communities with inputs from the
impacts of changes in forest cover and quality
forest, and
and how this is experienced by different house-
livelihoods based on commercial forest pro-
holds. For some of the most dependent people,
duct activities.
37 38
Byron and Arnold, 1997. de Satg, 2002.
Table 4.1. Examples of impacts of deforestation and degradation.
Impacts on people
Process Product Extreme poor Coping poor Improving poor
Deforestation Conversion of forests to Lose access to forest resources Lose access to safety net functions Lose access to safety net functions of
agriculture Will not obtain land for agriculture of forest resources forest resources; may acquire land
as generally do not have the May become labourers for others under clearance as have better
power to acquire the land on converted forest land access to inuence local decision
May be labourers for others but making
generally too marginalised
Degradation Foods: variety to diets, Diminishing access to foods, fuels, The importance of this range of With a more diverse livelihood
palatability, meet and medicines make their products to the coping poor is portfolio with more assets and
seasonal dietary livelihoods even more insecure two fold: (1) as a safety net, and opportunities for diversifying, this
shortfalls, snack food, and more vulnerable to hazards; (2) as an income earner group is not so vulnerable to
emergency foods in areas of high forest cover this to contributing household changes in forest condition; it is
during ood, famine, group in particular is highly forest economies; for women, these more able to access alternatives
war, etc. resource dependent and most are often the only source of to the forest products; nonetheless,
Fuels: rewood, charcoal particularly affected by changes income that they are allowed its need for the safety net functions
growing importance in access or reduction in quality to access and so although a of the forest remains, and without
for urban as well as of forest; this range of products small proportion of overall it these households could become
rural energy needs needs little or no capital household income, they are more vulnerable and less resilient
Medicines: range of investment and is therefore of high gender signicance to shocks
traditional plant more readily accessible to the
medicines essential to extreme poor
those in remote rural
areas distant from
other medical services
Timber Reduced access to timber usually This group, as for the extreme poor, With greater ability to take risk
has little impact on this group is unlikely to benet in any direct and invest in some relatively
because they have little power way from the economic benets low-cost technology such as
to control access to high value of timber harvesting; although chain saws, this group can
resources; benets of timber because of their better social access some limited benets
are mostly captured by the networks and levels of well-being from timber harvesting; being
elites often in urban centres they may have more opportunity better socially networked, this
to be labourers for timber group is more likely to be
contractors engaged as timber harvesters
Environmental services Across all groups the environmental functions of forests are important for maintaining water supplies, inputs to
agricultural productivity through improving soil fertility, and providing the range of biodiversity necessary
to maintain a robust local ecosystem
Degradation of environmental services is again most acutely felt by those For this group their more diverse
who have no other options portfolio and higher levels of risk-
4. The Impacts of Degradation and Forest Loss on Human Well-Being
Adapted from work by Brocklesby (2004) and Hobley (2004) differentiating between forms of poverty dependent on vulnerability and capability to have a voice.
26 M. Hobley
forest change can be devastating, whereas tions, including in particular the recognition of
for others with a broader livelihood portfolio the value of an NTFP on national and interna-
that includes only limited dependence on the tional markets, can disadvantage the very poor
forests, changes in forest quality and extent may as the elites seize control of valuable natural
only have relatively minor effects. In such cases, resources and dominate market access.
responses to forest restoration will also be
different between individual households in a
1.2. Implications of Differential
community. The importance of a broad-based
Social Impacts for Forest
and carefully structured participatory process,
Restoration
linked to social mobilisation and including
attempts to build the capacity of different
1.2.1. Guiding Questions for
social groups to have a voice, cannot be
underestimated. Restoration
For some of the poorest rural peoples there Forests can affect livelihoods in two principal
is extreme forest dependence, but for others ways that must be considered when any land-
who are not so poor (the coping poor), the scape restoration is under consideration39:
use of forests is indirect and more often is a
Poverty avoidance or mitigation, that is,
means of poverty prevention, providing impor-
where forest resources serve a safety net
tant seasonal safety nets. This latter role is often
function, or as a gap ller, including as a
transitory as poor people build other assets to
source of petty cash
move out of poverty. It is rarely the case that
Poverty elimination, that is, where forest
forests themselves are the means to poverty
resources help lift a household out of poverty
reduction. However, what happens to the
by functioning as a source of savings, invest-
forests, their products and services, does have a
ment, accumulation, asset building, and
profound impact on peoples livelihoods, par-
permanent increases in wealth and income
ticularly when this is linked with the effects on
other land uses such as grazing and agriculture. When restoration is planned to ameliorate
Risk and uncertainty are universal charac- the impacts of forest changes on the well-being
teristics of life in rural areas. Sources of risk of target groups a set of questions can help to
include natural hazards like drought and ood, guide responses as to the nature and extent of
commodity price uctuations, illness and death, restoration required.40 The usefulness of such
changing social relationships, unstable govern- questions depends to a large extent on the way
ments, and armed conicts. Some risky events in which they are asked. It is important to use
like drought or ood simultaneously affect participatory processes that lead to people
many households in a community or region. being able to inuence decisions about land use
Other risky events, like illnesses, are household- and control the outcomes of these decisions, but
specic and again have differential effects processes must also allow space for the voices
depending on the overall robustness of a par- of the extreme poor to be heard as well as those
ticular household and its livelihood strategies. of the more articulate and much less vulnera-
Catastrophic forest loss, for example through ble poor and wealthier groups:
re or clear-felling, thus affects whole commu-
What is the frequency or timing of use of forest
nities, but the intensity of the effects are not
products and the extent to which a house-
necessarily uniform.
holds labour is allocated to these activities?
It is not only total forest loss that leads to
What is the role of forest products in household
negative impacts on well-being. For example,
livelihood systems? What is their importance
loss of particular nontimber forest products
as a share of household inputs, and in
(NTFPs) from a surviving forest can be equally
catastrophic to those households who have
based their livelihoods around the use and sale 39
Sunderlin et al, 2004:1.
of these products. Changes in market condi- 40
Byron and Arnold, 1997.
4. The Impacts of Degradation and Forest Loss on Human Well-Being 27
meeting household livelihood strategy of access to the resources from which they
objectives? source these products, but are often not the
What is the impact of reduced access to forests? only users in that forest area. Forest manage-
Does the forest serve as a (critical) economic ment and control is likely to be best based on
and ecological buffer for its users, or are resource-sharing arrangements among several
there alternatives, such as trees outside stakeholder groups. Successful restoration
forests or nonforest/tree sources of needed activities need to recognise and be planned
inputs and income? with respect to these roles. Examples across the
What is the likely future importance of forest world include joint forest management in India
products? Do users face a growing or declin- and collaborative management in Ghana,
ing demand for forest products, or the poten- where the state and local forest users share
tial for expanded or decreased involvement both in management decisions and in the ben-
in production and trade in forest products? ets of forest products, which provide incen-
tives to both partners to manage the forests for
a range of benets. However, in many cases the
2. Examples state is still reluctant to allow these agreements
to cover high value forests, retaining control
Undoubtedly forest degradation and loss has and access to the benets and restricting local
major livelihood and well-being impacts for access to the forests and its products.42 Com-
many people, from those with secure liveli- munity forestry in the hills of Nepal is widely
hoods to the extreme poor. It is therefore cited as a successful example of transfer of
particularly important to understand the control of management and benets to local
differential effects of forest change and the communities; again, however, the government
implications for livelihoods and livelihood has demonstrated its reluctance to extend man-
options. agement authority to the high value forests of
Byron and Arnold41 provide a useful cate- the lowlands.
gorisation that aids this understanding and 3. Forest products play an important role but
directs practical intervention. Clearly there is are more effectively supplied from nonforest
no general solution that can be applied across sources. Management of a proportion of the
all situations. Any support to forest landscape forests needs to be geared towards agro-forest
restoration must be based on a careful assess- structures, and control and tenure need to be
ment that covers the range of the relationships consistent with the individual rather than the
between the people and the forests which they collective forms of governance that this shift is
use and/or manage, the current limitations to likely to require. Examples of these situations
their livelihoods, and the potentials and desires abound: PASOLAC (Programa para la Agri-
for change. They outline ve generalised (and cultura Sostenible en las Laderas de Amrica
potentially overlapping) situations: Central) in Central America has been working
with communities living in areas of high envi-
1. Forests continue to be central to livelihood
ronmental degradation and insecurity to reduce
systems. Local people are or should be the prin-
their vulnerability to extreme natural events.
cipal stakeholders in these forest areas. Meeting
This programme supports farmers to identify
their needs is likely to be the principal objec-
their own training requirements, provides
tive of forest management and restoration, and
nancial and in-kind compensation for the
this should be reected in control and tenure
management and maintenance of natural
arrangements (also see Land Ownership and
resources and their services and works to
Forest Restoration).
develop the integration of farmers and forest
2. Forest products play an important supple-
products into local markets. This integrated
mentary and safety net role. Users need security
41 42
Byron and Arnold, 1997. Arnold, 2001; Molnar et al, 2004.
28 M. Hobley
43
IISD et al, 2003.
44 45
Scherr et al, 2003. Arnold, 2001.
4. The Impacts of Degradation and Forest Loss on Human Well-Being 29
Facilitating access to green markets: Providing cal environment that is able to respond to
mechanisms and funds that allow local people these voices;
to access markets for ecosystem services such Recognition of the need to support the build-
as watershed protection, biodiversity pro- ing of livelihoods that reduce peoples expo-
tection, etc., is another important element of sure to risk and remove vulnerabilities;
changing the relationship between peoples Recognition that forests alone do not neces-
livelihoods and the forest resource. Forest cer- sarily move people out of poverty but actu-
tication can also be used to help forest man- ally can secure them in poverty;
agers to access higher value markets. There are Support to decentralised service provision
some successful experiences with community- that can be socially responsive and tailored
based certication in Latin America,46 although to particular ecological and economic
the certication costs are often very high for conditions47;
small community groups and much more still Impacts of restoration also need to be
needs to be done to provide standards that carefully considered. Just as the impacts of
facilitate access of community managed natural degradation are not equally felt across liveli-
timber into the green markets. hood groups, it is the case with restoration.
Securing tenure and management rights: Restoration of forest cover for some may
Clearly tenure or at least long-term manage- have negative livelihood implications. Often
ment rights are important elements in any the beneciaries of restoration are not those
forest restoration effort. There are now many living locally to the forest but are down-
models of communities that own forests with stream users of services, therefore, the distri-
evidence of the incentives this creates for wise bution of costs and benets of restoration
management. Tenure is often highly contested need to be carefully considered.
and requires careful work with governments to
build an environment in which it is possible to
shift tenure patterns. Often this requires signi- References
cant evidence that changing tenure arrange-
ments does lead to fundamental environmental Arnold, M. 2001. 25 Years of Community Forestry.
and social benets. FAO, Rome.
Blankenberg, F. 1995. Methods of Impact Assess-
ment Research Programme, Resource Pack
4. Future Needs and Discussion. Oxfam UK/I and Novib, the
Hague.
Brocklesby, M.A. 2004. Planning against risk: tools
In any process of restoration, and perhaps par- for analysing vulnerability in remote rural areas.
ticularly restoration projects driven by conser- Chars Organisational Learning Paper 2, DFID,
vation concerns, some key messages need to be London, www.livelihoods.org.
incorporated into the planning and implemen- Byron, N., and Arnold, M. 1997. What futures for the
tation of any programme: people of the tropical forests? CIFOR working
paper No 19. CIFOR, Bogor, www.cifor.cgiar.org.
Recognition of the differential importance of de Satg, R. 2002. Learning about livelihoods:
forests, products, and services on different insights from Southern Africa. Periperi Publica-
people and therefore the differential impacts tions, South Africa and Oxfam Publishing, Oxford.
of changes in forest quality and extent; Hobley, M. 2004. The Voice-responsiveness frame-
Recognition of the role of forests in poverty work: creating political space for the extreme
prevention as well as poverty reduction; poor. Chars Organisational Learning Paper 3,
The need to involve people in the decision- DFID, London, www.livelihoods.org.
making process to build voice and capacity to IISD, SEI, IUCN, and Intercooperation. 2003.
articulate voice in an institutional and politi- Livelihoods and climate change: increasing the
46 47
Molnar et al, 2004. Ribot, 2002.
30 M. Hobley
resilience of tropical hillside communities through Sunderlin, W.D., Angelsen, A., and Wunder, S. 2004.
forest landscape restoration. Information Paper 2 Forests and poverty alleviation. CIFOR, Bogor,
IUCN and SDC, www.iucn.org/themes/ceesp/ www.cifor.cgiar.org.
index.html. Westoby, J. 1989. Introduction to World Forestry.
Lamb, D., and Gilmour, D. 2003. Rehabilitation and Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
Restoration of Degraded Forests. IUCN and World Bank. 2001. World Development Report
WWF, Gland Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 20002001. World Bank, Washington.
Molnar, A., Scherr, S.J., and Khare, A. 2004. Who Wunder, S. 2001. Poverty alleviation and tropical
conserves the worlds forests? Community-driven forestswhat scope for synergies? World Devel-
strategies to protect forests and respect rights. opment 29(11):18171833.
Forest Trends, and Ecoagriculture Partners,
Washington, DC, www.forest-trends.org.
Ribot, J.C. 2002. Democratic Decentralisation of
Natural Resources: Institutionalising Popular Par- Additional Reading
ticipation. World Resources Institute, Washington,
DC. Forestry Research Programme (FRP). 2004. Com-
Scherr, S.J., White, A., and Kaimowitz, D. 2003. munity forestry gets the credit. Forestry Research
Making markets work for forest communities. Programme Research Summary 006, FRP,
International Forestry Review 5(1):6773. Kent.
5
Restoring Forest Landscapes in the
Face of Climate Change
Jennifer Biringer and Lara J. Hansen
31
32 J. Biringer and L.J. Hansen
49 50
Hansen et al, 2003. IPCC, 2001.
5. Restoring Forest Landscapes in the Face of Climate Change 33
provide nursery habitat for many sh species. project design will be necessary so that man-
Deteriorating water quality and coastal degra- groves are planted or are allowed to colonise
dation are anticipated to be magnied by naturally or regenerate (this takes 15 to 30
climate change. Globally, however, many man- years where stresses leading to degradation are
grove systems have already been degraded and no longer present) in areas that will be more
destroyed. Loss of these buffering systems pre- hospitable in the future. If the shoreline is
cludes any protection they might afford. This moving, for instance, mangroves may need to
has been recognised for some time, and many be restored some distance from their original
individual projects have attempted to rebuild location.
mangrove systems. However, in the past, the
emphasis of mangrove restoration projects has
been on planting trees, and this has led to poor
survival rates, such as in West Bengal, India,
3. Outline of Tools
where survival rates in some projects were
This section offers a framework for integrating
reported as low as less than 2 percent.51
knowledge about climate change to forest man-
New approaches are therefore required. In
agers who are considering restoration. It is
addition, simply restoring a mangrove where it
based on an understanding of how adaptation
has been degraded will not necessarily be
(in this case to climate change) needs to be inte-
enough in the face of climate change. Restora-
grated with both restoration and protection, as
tion in an environment where the climate is
outlined in Box 5.1 above.
rapidly changing will require taking into
account a few additional elements as opposed
to restoration in a stable context. Before start-
ing a restoration programme, two additional
3.1 Vulnerability Analysis
steps are required: (1) assess the cause of man- To understand how climate change will affect
grove loss and evaluate how to remove those an existing forest system, an analysis of the vul-
causes if possible; and (2) take into account the nerability of the dened area can be under-
added complexity relating to how climate taken. As a rst stop, climate change impacts on
change will affect the system: in this case pri- the major forest types are presented in WWFs
marily through sea-level rise. Buying Time: A Users Manual for Building
A large-scale mangrove restoration effort in Resistance and Resilience to Climate Change in
Vietnam has demonstrated that this approach Natural Systems,54 with examples from many
to mangrove management can benet local different regions collected from the literature.
resource users and enhance protection from For more specic information on a particular
storm surge and sea-level rise.52 The restoration site, a literature search may identify whether a
project in this region has planted more than vulnerability analysis has been made of the
18,000 hectares of mangrove along 100 kilome- project area in question.
tres of coastline. In addition to creating a more If limited information on climate change
stable coastline capable of surviving chang- impacts exists for the selected site, a vulnera-
ing marine conditions, harvestable marine re- bility analysis can be commissioned to feed into
sources are also increasing in number. project design activities. An expert conversant
Understanding the hydrology (both fre- in climate change science as well as biological
quency and duration of tidal ooding) is the science for the region can piece together a
single most important factor in designing suc- picture of regional vulnerability that will help
cessful mangrove restoration projects.53 Incor- to guide project activities so that they can take
porating projections of sea-level rise into account of likely alterations in environmental
conditions as the climate changes. At a large
51
Sanyal, 1998.
52
Tri et al, 1998.
53 54
Lewis and Streever, 2000. Hansen et al, 2003 (available on www.panda.org).
5. Restoring Forest Landscapes in the Face of Climate Change 35
scale, major shifts in biome types can be pro- resilience of species will be enabled where
jected by combining biogeography models such natural adaptation processes such as migration,
as the Holdridge Life Zone Classication selection, and change in structure are allowed
Model with general circulation models (GCMs) to take place due to sufcient connectivity and
that project changes under a doubled CO2 sce- habitat size within the landscape.
nario. Biogeochemistry models simulate the Restoration can provide a series of critical
gain, loss, and internal cycling of carbon, nutri- interventions to reduce climate change im-
ents, and water-impact of changes in tempera- pacts.56 Basic tenets of restoration for adapta-
ture, precipitation, soil moisture, and other tion include working on a larger scale to
climatic factors that give clues to ecosys- increase the amount of available options for
tem productivity. Dynamic global vegetation ecosystems, inclusion of corridors for connec-
models integrate biogeochemical processes tivity between sites, inclusion of buffers, and
with dynamic changes in vegetation composi- provision of heterogeneity within the restora-
tion and distribution. Studies on particular tion approach. Key approaches are as follows:
species comparing present trends with paleo-
Reduce fragmentation and provide connectivity:
ecological data also provide indications for how
Noss57 provides an overview of the negative
species will adapt to climate change.55
effects of ecosystem fragmentation, which
A vulnerability analysis can help to assess
are abundantly documented worldwide.
what systems or aspects of the systems have
Edge effects threaten the microclimate and
greater resilience and resistance to climate
stability of a forest as the ratio of edge to
change impacts. This type of information can
interior habitat increases. Eventually, the
help to identify sites that have greater long-
ability of a forest to withstand debilitating
term potential as ecosystem refugia from
impacts is broken. Fragmentation of forest
climate change impacts. Some refugia exist due
ecosystems also contributes to a loss of bio-
to their unique situational characteristics, but
diversity as exotic, weedy species with high
their resilience could be enhanced by manage-
dispersal capacities are favoured and many
ment and restoration.
native species are inhibited by isolation.
Restoration strategies should therefore often
3.2 Restoration as a Resilience/ focus rst on those areas where intervention
Adaptation Strategy can connect existing forest fragments into a
more coherent whole.
After completing a vulnerability analysis to
Provide buffer zones and exibility of land uses:
determine how a forest system may be im-
The xed boundaries of protected areas are
pacted by changing climatic conditions, the next
not well suited to a dynamic environment
step is to look at the range of adaptation
unless individual areas are extremely large.
options available in order to promote resi-
With changing climate, buffer zones might
lience. An effective vulnerability analysis will
provide suitable conditions for species if con-
determine which components of the system
ditions inside reserves become unsuitable.58
species or functions, for examplewill be most
Buffer zones increase the patch size of the
vulnerable to change, together with considera-
interior of the protected area and overlap-
tion of which parts of the system are crucial for
ping buffers provide migratory possibili-
ecosystem health. An array of options pertinent
ties for some species.59 Buffer zones should
to adapting forests to climate change are avail-
ideally be large, and managers of protected
able, both to apply to forest communities at
areas and surrounding lands must demon-
high risk from climate change impacts as well
strate considerable exibility by adjusting
as for those whose protection should be priori-
tised given existing resilience. Long-term 56
Biringer, 2003; Noss, 2001.
57
Noss, 2000.
58
Noss, 2000.
55 59
Hansen et al, 2001. Sekula, 2000.
36 J. Biringer and L.J. Hansen
41
42 J. Morrison et al
conservation and social goals simultaneously context of larger scale (landscape and ecore-
maximises the chances that the activities will gion) visions. The thinking behind using large
be sustainable and that they will have local biogeographic units as the framework in which
support. An example of this integration is pro- to achieve conservation goals is that natural
vided by the activities in the Upper Paran communities, species, and even human threats
Atlantic Forest. Within this ecoregion forest to biodiversity move and operate at large
patch connectivity is being improved through scales, often irrespective of political boundaries.
the incorporation of native plants that can also Actions conceived at the same scale as the eco-
be sustainably used by local people (see case logical entities and processes that the actions
study Finding Economically Sustainable are trying to protect should be more robust and
Means of Preserving and Restoring the Atlantic efcient than uncoordinated efforts at a site
Forest in Argentina). scale. At WWF, the global conservation organ-
What are the primary conservation goals that isation, this evolution has taken the form of
we should be trying to achieve? Ecoregional Conservation (ERC). Ecoregion
conservation is really a philosophy that
espouses using large, biogeographically dened
1.1. The Four Goals of Biodiversity
units as an arena within which to achieve the
Conservation and Ecoregion
four goals of conservation outlined above. The
Conservation65
actual process of ecoregion conservation plan-
The goals of biodiversity conservation and eco- ning has followed a number of paths, generally
region conservation are as follows: relying on experts, computer algorithms, or
even a mixture of the two to identify conserva-
1. Representation of all distinct natural com-
tion priorities.
munities within conservation landscapes and
A range of spatial scales has been addressed
protected areas networks
to date, under the heading of ecoregion con-
2. Maintenance of ecological and evolution-
servation. A system of ecoregional boundaries
ary processes that create and sustain
of the world has been stitched together by
biodiversity
WWF.67 This system is also used by the Nature
3. Maintenance of viable populations of
Conservancy. Conservation effort is not applied
species
equally across this system. WWF has dened
4. Conservation of blocks of natural habitat
825 terrestrial ecoregions (Fig. 6.1), of which a
large enough to be resilient to large-scale
large proportion is forest ecoregions of various
disturbances and long-term changes
subtypes (tropical dry, tropical moist, temper-
Because these conservation goals often ate moist, etc.). A further analysis by WWF
operate over large spatial and temporal scales, identied 237 groupings of these terrestrial
the design of conservation programmes ecoregions as being of particular importance
requires a perspective that spans nations and to conservation and named these the Global
centuries.66 Large-scale conservation initia- 200 Ecoregionsit is usually these Global 200
tives have become standard in a number of con- ecoregions that are the focus of WWF Ecore-
servation organisations over the last decade. gion Action Programmes.68 In the process of
This evolution is seen as a reaction to the often analysing ecoregions, priority areas or prior-
disjointed, isolated, and nonstrategic activities ity landscapes are often identied that become
that once characterised site-level conservation. the subject of further conservation planning
While site-level conservation will always be and initiatives. Thus the general hierarchical
an important and, many would argue, the most spatial scale, from largest to smallest, is Global
important scale of conservation intervention, 200 ecoregion, terrestrial ecoregion, and prior-
site-level activities can be planned in the ity landscapebut this is not a steadfast rule,
65 67
Noss, 1992. Olson et al, 2001.
66 68
Scott et al, 1999. Olson and Dinerstein, 1998.
6. Restoration as a Strategy to Contribute to Ecoregion Visions 43
and there are very small ecoregions (tens of Forest restoration activities range from
km2) and very large priority landscapes (thou- active planting, to management (e.g., invasive
sands of km2). Most of the principles discussed species removal), to more passive restoration
below hold for a range of scales, from the land- (creating the conditions that will allow natural
scape to the ecoregion. processes to regenerate high-quality forest).
Because active restoration is so resource inten-
sive, it should generally be the last option
1.2. Protect, Manage, and Restore
selected to meet a conservation objective. The
More than likely, any comprehensive conserva- key point is that from a conservation perspec-
tion strategy in an ecoregion will involve a tive restoration activities should not be under-
combination of protection, management, and taken for the sake of restoration; rather, the
restoration, plus the abatement/amelioration of activity should be a strategic response to a spe-
threats. The relative proportion of each strategy cic need identied during the formation of
that is appropriate is a function of both the conservation goals. The Forests of the Lower
overall conservation status of the ecoregion, Mekong ecoregion has endeavoured to nd the
and the location in the ecoregionand this will right balance of protection, management, and
change over time. For example, restoration is restorationall stemming from the conserva-
not necessarily an appropriate strategy in all tion goals highlighted during the ecoregional
ecoregions or landscapes. One can imagine that vision process.
restoration may not currently be the highest pri-
ority in those ecoregions that are composed
mostly of wilderness or large forest blocks, such 2. Examples: Restoration and
as in the Amazon. A primary output of many
ecoregional visions is a map of priority areas,
the Four Conservation
where conservation activities are more focussed Goals
than in the surrounding matrix of the ecoregion.
Yet even in the matrix, some proportion of pro- Conceptually, it is a relatively simple matter to
tection, management, and restoration activities decide whether restoration is necessary or not.
will be appropriate, and in the case of the By selecting conservation targets that are appli-
wilderness ecoregions mentioned above, over cable to the aforementioned four goals of
the long-term, restoration may rise in priority in conservation, it should quickly become clear
those ecoregions as more comprehensive pro- whether or not the relevant ecoregion or prior-
tection and better management are instituted. ity landscape still contains the necessary com-
From a conservation standpoint, the deci- ponents to satisfy all four goals. If there are
sions about how much protection, manage- elements missing or the ecoregion/landscape is
ment, and restoration will be a natural too fragmented, some restoration is probably
consequence of attempting to achieve the necessary. At the basic level of the four conser-
above four conservation goals in a strategic vation goals, the following discussion illustrates
fashion in an ecoregion or a landscape within how the need for restoration can be identied.
that ecoregion. Is there enough of a given target
habitat present in the ecoregion or landscape
2.1. Representation
to meet representation objectives that we can
simply protect a (greater) proportion of it? Or Conservationists need to represent all natural
will some areas containing that habitat need communities in some sort of a conservation
active or passive restoration in order to meet network, which is generally a mix of different
the prescribed target for that habitat? Can levels of protection. It is important that the mix
existing multiuse buffer zones of forest simply of natural communities is one that has existed
be managed in their current state to provide before a major disturbance rather than the
landscape connectivity, or will some areas need existing mix. But all of these original commu-
to be rehabilitated to restore connectivity? nities may no longer be present in the quantity
6. Restoration as a Strategy to Contribute to Ecoregion Visions 45
and quality necessary, and that is where the type to support a natural range of seral stages
potential application of restoration comes in. must be protected, or if necessary enhanced,
This is especially true during periods of climate and this may also require some forest restora-
change when species will need to move in tion activities. An example is the relative lack
response to changing conditions. of primary, or old-growth forest, in many tem-
One of the rst steps in any conservation plan- perate forest ecoregions compared to historic
ning initiative is to obtain or develop a map of levels. Efforts to increase the proportion of late
historic (sometimes called potential) natural seral stages are an appropriate application of
community types across the entire ecoregion/ forest restoration in this case.
priority landscape. A number of coverages may Many ecoregional programmes, especially
sufce for this purpose, including historic vege- those in developed or densely populated coun-
tation maps, potential vegetation maps, or maps tries, have found that the amount of lowland
of plant communities or ecosystems. In the case and riparian communities are in short supply
where land conversion has made this task they have already been converted for human
impossible, maps of environmental domains, uses. Clearly in such situations, restoration will
which are unique combinations of substrate necessarily be an important component of the
(soils or geology), elevation, and climate classi- overall conservation strategy if representation
cations, may be developed. If these environ- targets are to be met.
mental domains are carefully developed, they
should represent unique environmental classes
2.2. Viable Populations
that correlate with the species living in them.
It is common practice for a target level of The idea behind this goal is that all species
representation to be chosen for each natural should have conserved viable populations, but
community type (or environmental domain). in practice it is never possible to plan for all
This is not always easy, but endeavouring to species (if for no other reason than that all
determine what these levels should be (prefer- species are never really identied). During any
ably on an individual habitat-by-habitat basis large-scale conservation initiative, therefore,
rather than a blanket prescription) is one of the focal species are selected for special attention.
highest callings of a conservation biologist. It Focal species are chosen because they are key-
is altogether appropriate to begin with coarse stone, highly threatened endemics, habitat
estimates that can be improved over time. specialists, or because they are very area-
Custom representation targets are preferable sensitive and act as umbrellas for a number of
to blanket prescriptions. Once an appropriate species with smaller area requirements. The
level of representation of each historic natural number of focal species chosen will vary from
community is decided (20 percent, 30 percent, ecoregion to ecoregion, and certainly from pri-
50 percent, etc.), it may be discovered that less ority landscape to priority landscape, but is gen-
intact habitat of a particular type(s) remains erally a manageable number of ve to 20
than the target representation amount. This is a species from the above categories.
sign that some restoration is in order. Mada- After determining what the list of focal
gascar and the dry forests of New Caledonia species is, the next step is to determine the
are prime examplesforest conversion has number of breeding individuals that represent a
proceeded so far in these ecoregions that forest viable population, or potentially a viable sub-
restoration is required to meet the most basic population in the case of a priority landscape.
habitat representation goals. This is not a trivial determination, and there is
It should also be noted that each natural an extensive literature discussing rules of thumb
community is itself made up of seral stages, and for the number of breeding individuals that
the appropriate mix of seral stages, or more constitutes a viable populationwith little
likely the allowable ranges of seral stages, cor- consensus. In some cases a species-specic and
responding to a natural range of variation, must resource-intensive population viability analysis
be specied. The ability of a natural community (PVA) will be necessary. If a viable population
46 J. Morrison et al
estimate is difcult to come by or there are The reconnection of now disjunct habitat
severe limits to the number of individuals that patches is a common application of forest
are possible, the bottom line is that a target level restoration activities. This is the focus of the
should be chosen that represents the largest current work in the Terai Arc in the Eastern
conceivable achievable population level. Himalayas: reconnecting 10 protected areas
For restoration purposes, the specic needs by encouraging the growth of community-
of each focal species must be analysed individ- managed forests (Fig. 6.2). Tigers are loath to
ually. A number of related metrics, including cross more than 5 km2 of nonhabitat, but the
minimum patch size, connecting patches to existing protected areas are not large enough
enlarge the effective habitat area or feature to maintain viable populations of tigers. Some
(breeding, feeding, or nesting areas/cavities), mixing of the respective populations is desir-
corridor width, specic habitat requirements able. Therefore, community forests are being
(plant species), access to water, etc. must be encouraged where gaps in forest cover are
considered. During the course of the analysis noted between the existing protected areas.
to determine the habitat and total area re- This will allow tigers, greater-one horned rhi-
quirements for each species, it should quickly noceroses, and Asian elephants to disperse
become clear if there is not enough habitat between patches of prime habitat. Restoration
necessary for a viable population of a particular is an important activity in other fragmented
speciesand restoration will be necessary. This ecoregions that still contain large carnivores,
is frequently the case in those ecoregions that including for jaguars in South Americas
have been highly degraded. Atlantic Forest and for wolves and grizzly bears
Figure 6.2. Reconnecting protected areas (dark) with forest restoration (light). (Source: WWF.)
6. Restoration as a Strategy to Contribute to Ecoregion Visions 47
restoration activities will be necessary to allow The current condition of the forest area in
the continued persistence of the mangroves, questionhow much effort/time is required
and with them the important ecological (and to restore?
social) functions they perform.69 Proximity to other viable habitats, to allow
species to disperse or facilitate later
reconnection
2.5. Deciding Where to Do Proximity to the existing or anticipated
Restoration When There urban frontier
Are Choices
This last bullet point highlights an entire class
In the preceding discussion, the need for
of information that can help to assure that
restoration fell into two broad categories:
restoration activities (and in fact any con-
increasing the area of a particular forest type
servation activities) have the greatest chance of
for representation or for particular species/
success. The mapping of human population
processes, and restoring particular landscape
density, distance from access corridors, govern-
features, especially corridors, which allow spe-
ment capacity, ethnic stability and homogene-
cic ecological processes to operate. Sometimes
ity, and similar factors can help a project see
there are choices of where restoration is most
where the threats and opportunities lie across
appropriate. All other things being equal, it is
the ecoregion or landscape. Additionally, the
generally easier to restore the less degraded
incorporation of socioeconomic information
example of a forest type, since less effort or
and consultation will help to assure that
time will be required. All other things are rarely
restoration activities undertaken for ecological
equal, however. How does one decide which
reasons will also benet local people either
semi-irreplaceable example of a forest type to
through ecological services or even through
restore if there are several choices? Obviously,
employment in restoration activities.
many factors must often be weighed.
The rst step is to be clear about the end
objective(s). For example, is primary forest the
only possible objective, or would secondary
3. Outline of Tools
forest do just as well (or even better) for the
As already noted, ecoregion conservation in
focal species being considered? Factors to con-
the WWF network is more of a philosophy than
sider when determining which area to restore
a particular methodology, and a number of
are the following:
methodologies have been used to achieve the
four goals of conservation. This is altogether
69
Noss, 2001. appropriate, since there is a great variety of
6. Restoration as a Strategy to Contribute to Ecoregion Visions 49
data availability, social structures, infrastruc- habitat for inclusion in protected area net-
ture, and professional capacity in the ecore- works, and these tools can be used to work with
gions across the planet. There is no tool maps of previously existing potential vegeta-
especially tailored to help set restoration prior- tion. However, further renement of these tools
ities. These priorities should emerge from a and associated techniques to identify areas that
generic comprehensive planning process. could be restored to meet representation goals
A full discussion of the tools available for is needed.
ecoregional conservation planning is beyond
the scope of this paper. Some of the primary
tools include: References
WWFs approaches to ecoregion conserva- Dinerstein, E., Powell, G., Olson, D., et al. 2000. A
tion,70 including specic advice about actions workbook for conducting biological assessments
in priority conservation landscapes71 and case and developing biodiversity visions for ecoregion-
studies72 and a detailed guide to implemen- based conservation. World Wildlife Fund,
tation within ecoregions73 Washington, DC. http://www.worldwildlife.
The Nature Conservancys approach to org/science/pubs2.cfml.
Groves, C.R., Valutis, L.L., Vosick, D., et al. 2000.
ecoregion conservation74
Designing a geography of hope: a practitioners
Systematic conservation planning appro-
handbook to ecoregional conservation planning.
aches as developed in New South Wales, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA. www.
Australia75 conserveonline.org.
The use of a geographic information system Loucks, C., Springer, J., Palminteri, S., Morrison, J.,
and Strand, H. 2004. From the Vision to the
(GIS) is practically mandatory when consider-
Ground: A Guide to Implementing Ecoregion
ing spatial planning for conservation. The GIS
Conservation in Priority Areas. World Wildlife
allows spatial maps to display conservation Fund, Washington, DC.
options, and more powerfully, allows the user to Margules, C.R., and Pressey, R.L. 2000. Systematic
combine biological and socioeconomic infor- conservation planning. Nature 405:243253.
mation to analyse ways of meeting conserva- Noss, R.F. 1992. The wildlands project: land conser-
tion goals at the least socioeconomic cost. vation strategy. Wild Earth (Special issue) 1025.
Additional tools that work alongside and with Noss, R.F. 2001. Beyond Kyoto: forest management
a GIS are decision support software tools, in a time of rapid climate change. Conservation
which allow numerous competing variables to Biology 15(3):578590.
be combined. Depending on the particular tool Olson, D.M., and Dinerstein, E. 1998. The global
200: a representation approach to conserving the
used, a single best conservation conguration
earths most biological valuable ecoregions. Con-
may be generated or a range of choices can be
servation Biology 12:502515.
portrayed. In some of these tools, once a deci- Olson, D.M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E.D.,
sion is made regarding a particular portion of et al. 2001. A new map of life on earth. BioScience
the landscape, the entire study area can be 15:933938.
recalculated to portray the next best options. Palminteri, S. 2003. Ecoregion conservation: securing
living landscapes through science-based planning
and action. A users guide for ecoregion conserva-
4. Future Needs tion through examples from the eld (draft).
CD-Rom. World Wildlife Fund US, Washington,
Further development is needed for tools to DC.
prioritise restoration needs. Current decision Scott, J.M., Norse, E.A., Arita, H., et al. 1999. The
support tools are able to identify remaining issue of scale in selecting and designing biological
70 reserves. In: Soule, M.E., Terborgh, J. Continental
Dinerstein et al, 2000.
71
Loucks et al, 2004. Conservation; Scientic Foundations of Regional
72
Palminteri, 2003. Reserve Networks. Island Press, Washington, DC.
73
WWF, 2003. WWF. 2003. Ecoregion Action Programmes A Guide
74
Groves et al, 2000. for Practitioners. WWF International, Gland,
75
Margules and Pressey, 2000. Switzerland.
50 J. Morrison et al
51
52 N. Dudley et al
tant than individual sites, and that in a world of and in some cases distorted options for restor-
competing interests, conservation aims need ing a balanced forest mosaic.
to be integrated with those of, for example,
poverty alleviation, human health, and other
legitimate forms of social and economic devel- 2.1. Switzerland: Restoration for
opment and welfare. Conservation cannot, or Environmental Services but
should not, take place divorced from issues with Additional Economic and
relating to human well-being, and people Biodiversity Values
working for conservation are usually also con-
Following severe erosion and ooding prob-
cerned about social justice and sustainable
lems in the past resulting from historical defor-
development. The appropriate approach,
estation, during the 19th and 20th centuries
therefore, is to identify where and how these
Switzerland devised a system of continuous
different but overlapping interests can best be
cover forestry to protect slopes and provide
integrated into a multifunctional landscape.
resources and fuel. The government has one of
Such integration will necessarily include nego-
the few forest policies that explicitly rank social
tiation and trade-offs.
and protective functions above commercial
functions. The country has 1,204,047 hectares of
1.4. The Process of Restoring
forest and woodland, covering 29 percent of
Forest Functions in
the country.78 Trees within managed forests
a Landscape are generally native and around 60 percent are
Deciding what forms of restoration to apply conifers, with almost half the growing stock
requires a suite of different activities, including being Norway spruce. Although forest manage-
careful analysis of what is needed, assessment of ment is less intensive than in many European
what is possible, and agreement amongst rele- countries on a stand level, it affects virtually the
vant stakeholders about the aims of restoration entire forest area, and there are very few old-
and the appropriate actions to undertake. It is growth forests. Around 0.5 percent of forests
axiomatic of forest landscape restoration that in are in natural forest reserves. Landscape-scale
most cases we are not looking at a single project planning has played a critical role in identifying
or a single forest use, but rather at a range of where best to restore forests, with an emphasis
different restoration efforts that will, as far as is being placed on avalanche control, stabilisation
feasible, be coordinated and complementary. of slopes, provision of local rewood, and bio-
The extent to which this is attainable in practice diversity conservation.79
depends on the willingness of different groups
of stakeholders to cooperate, the negotiation
skills of those involved, and hard-to-dene 2.2. Guinea: Traditional
issues such as ownership patterns and other Management Including
demands on the landscape. In areas where much Forest Restoration
of the land is in private ownership, many
Careful research with villages on the forest-
common goods including conservation can
savannah interface in Guinea, in West Africa,
only be addressed through voluntary agree-
found that rather than contributing to defor-
ments, land purchase, or overarching policy
estation as was once thought, local communi-
decisions, and all of these options are slow and
ties were actually planting and tending forest
laborious to achieve in most situations.
patches. Once villages were abandoned (a peri-
odic response to declining soil fertility so that
2. Examples communities moved every few decades), such
forests tended to decline and disappear as a
Some examples show how different countries
or regions have approached issues of restora- 78
Holenstein, 1995.
tion and how different priorities have shaped 79
McShane and McShane-Caluzi, 1997.
54 N. Dudley et al
The order given is one possibility but in practice many stages may take place simultaneously, or at different
times in different parts of the landscapee.g., stakeholder negotiation is likely to occur throughout this process in
some form or other, and early development of a monitoring and evaluation system has proved very valuable.
Computer-aided design packages: including diagrammatically in Figure 7.1 (also see Box 7.1
those involved in the development of sys- for the detailed steps):
tematic conservation planning
Conservation by design: developed by TNC,
using a ve-step process (identifying targets, 3.3. Implementing Conservation in
gathering information, setting goals, assess- Priority Areas
ing viability, assembling portfolios) and the 5-
S framework (systems, stresses, sources, WWF also has a science-based methodology
strategies, success) for continuing ecoregion planning inside prior-
ity conservation landscapes, containing a set of
There are many other examples; a selection are guidelines to develop and implement a conser-
available on the Web-based Earth Conserva- vation landscape, which could be used to
tion Toolbox.83 include restoration issues.85
83
www.earthtoolbox.net.
84 85
Aldrich et al, 2004. Loucks et al, 2004.
56 N. Dudley et al
lessons are both used to improve pro- many individual projects, along with
grammes as they develop and are also some additional indicators that transcend
transmitted around and beyond the individual project work, will be needed
immediate conservation programme. At to measure progress over the whole
a larger scale, combining monitoring of landscape.
References
4. Future Needs
Aldrich, M., et al. 2004. Integrating Forest Protec-
Although restoration needs are increasingly tion, Management and Restoration at a Landscape
being addressed within broader-scale conserva- Scale. WWF, Gland, Switzerland.
tion, they generally remain less well supported Dudley, N., and Mansourian, S. 2000. Forest Land-
in terms of approaches and methodologies scape Restoration and WWFs Conservation Pri-
orities. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland.
than, for example, planning of protected areas.
Dudley, N., and Stolton, S. 2004. Biological diversity,
These needs include the following:
tree species composition and environmental pro-
Prioritisation: There is a need for better tools tection in regional FRA-2000. Geneva Timber and
for prioritisation of areas for restoration, for Forest Discussion Paper 33. United Nations Eco-
example to balance the importance of con- nomic Commission for Europe and Food and
Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations,
nectivity with core areas, identication of
Geneva.
microhabitat gaps in current forest cover, cal-
Fairhead, J., and Leach, M. 1996. Misreading the
culation of minimum viable areas, etc. African Landscape: Society and Ecology in a
Decision support: Methodologies are needed Forest-Savanna Mosaic. Cambridge University
for balancing social and ecological values, Press, Cambridge, UK.
including participatory methods. Garforth, M., and Dudley, N. 2003. Forest Renais-
Incorporating a range of management schemes sance. Published in association with the Forestry
into existing decision support tools: Cur- Commission and WWF UK, Edinburgh and
rently, decision support tools consider an Godalming.
area either protected, or not, based on the Holenstein, B. 1995. Forests and Wood in Switzer-
input of the user. More sophisticated tools land. Federal Ofce of Environment, Forests and
Landscape. Swiss Forest Agency, Bern.
are needed that can handle a wider range
Iacobelli, T., Kavanagh, K., and Rowe, S. 1994. A
of protection schemes (e.g., sustainably
Protected Areas Gap Analysis Methodology: Plan-
managed forests). ning for the Conservation of Biodiversity. World
Wildlife Fund Canada, Toronto.
86
Iacobelli et al, 1994. Loucks, C., Springer, J., Palminteri, S., Morrison, J.,
87
UNEP-WCMC, 2002. and Strand, H. 2004. From the Vision to the
58 N. Dudley et al
Ground: A Guide to Implementing Ecoregion Parrish, J.D., Reitsma, R., and Greenberg, R., et al.
Conservation in Priority Areas. WWF-US, 1999. Cacao as Crop and Conservation Tool in
Washington, DC. Latin America: Meeting the Needs of Farmers and
McShane, T.O., and McShane-Caluzi, E. 1997. Swiss Biodiversity. Island Press/America Verde Publi-
forest use and biodiversity conservation. In Freese, cations, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington,
C.H., ed. Harvesting Wild Species: Implications Virginia.
for Biodiversity Conservation. John Hopkins UNEP-WCMC. 2002. European forests and pro-
University Press, Baltimore and London, pp. 132 tected areas gap analysis 2002. http://www.
166. unep-wcmc.org/forest/eu_gap/index.htm.
8
Addressing Trade-Offs in Forest
Landscape Restoration
Katrina Brown
59
60 K. Brown
Trade-offs between different interest priori- turned it into the current landscape and the
ties, as per the example above main drivers of the changes.
Trade-offs between short and long-term A facilitated discussion takes place to negotiate
horizons the general state of the landscape and its pos-
Trade-offs between different spatial scales, sible future state(s) (characteristics, products,
notably sites and landscapes and services it could offer, etc.).
Trade-offs between different sections of Each group develops a precise and detailed
society and biodiversity conservation, typi- vision for the landscape 10 years from the
cally farmers or plantation owners and con- present, identifying the most important char-
servation NGOs acteristics (i.e., the nonnegotiables), categoris-
Trade-offs between different aspects of bio- ing the possibly negotiable characteristics and
diversity, as it may not always be possible to the denitely negotiable characteristics.
restore a landscape to secure all species in a The visions of different groups are then placed
landscape; decisions on which species will side by side, and a negotiation process begins
take priority will require trade-offs that will culminate in a common vision for
Trade-offs between different social groups the future, restored landscape, that is accept-
traditionally more inuential groups may able to all.
have taken decisions, but primary stakehold-
Such a process most certainly takes a signi-
ers are those whose livelihoods are directly
cant amount of time. It requires clear identi-
affected; in a truly representative process,
cation and representation of stakeholders, a
trade-offs will need to happen across social
genuine neutral broker (or group of brokers),
groups and scales.
and different tools and processes to allow each
Trade-offs among economic priorities, social
stakeholder group to understand the implica-
welfare, and conservation.
tions of different decisions.
The skills needed to assess and evaluate such
trade-offs and support negotiations about them
are often lacking amongst conservation organ-
3. Outline of Tools
isations, although they are more likely to exist
Some of the tools available to allow the nego-
within aid or development bodies. Developing
tiation of trade-offs are as follows:
negotiating skills is one of the key priorities in
developing the capacity to work at landscape level
3.1. Focus Groups
(see Negotiations and Conict Management).
Working in small groups builds condence,
especially amongst stakeholders who may be
2. Example: An Hypothetical reluctant to air their views in large meetings or
Example for Negotiating the are not used to public speaking. It enables spe-
Restoration of a Landscape cic stakeholders to rehearse and deliberate in
a safe structured environment, prior to larger
There are as yet few examples where a truly meetings or workshops.
negotiated discussion and trade-offs led to a
restored landscape. 3.2. Surveys
A theoretical process to achieve this was pre- Surveys can be valuable in generating baseline
sented at a workshop in Madagascar.94 Possible data and information to build believable
steps to reach a negotiated outcome for a re- scenarios or visions of the future and to illus-
stored landscape are as follows: trate management options. They are a means to
Each stakeholder group describes the land- learn about and approach different stakehold-
scape as it was 50 years ago, the steps that ers. A particularly useful contribution is to feed
94
Taken from a presentation by Tom Erdmann given at a back information generated from surveys to
workshop on Forest Landscape Restoration in Madagascar stakeholders as part of a social learning and tri-
in March 2003. angulation process.
62 K. Brown
96 97
Pickett and Parker, 1994. Clewell and Rieger, 1997.
65
66 D. Vallauri et al
questions like natural dynamics, nursery and wardship, sustainability, and sustained use. We
plantation techniques for native species, etc. have already outlined some possible elements
However, very little money is available to in a protectmanagerestore programme in
nance pure research programmes unless they the introduction to this book. This approach
can be linked to real implementation and includes identifying a series of conservation
visible successes in the eld. Bearing this in targetsin this context, what forest functions
mind, restorationists should dene short-term we wish to restoreand reconciling these
goals and activities that get restoration under- with the needs, tastes, and expectations of
way, along with long-term goals for how it can other stakeholders, especially the indigenous
be sustained over the time period required. A populations.
critical, pragmatic aim is to achieve at least Conceptualisation of the process of imple-
some rapid eld results, for example on care- menting restoration programmes is very new.
fully selected pilot sites, to build support for We propose below an outline of a planning
longer term efforts. framework, following a ve-step logical plan-
Finally, forest landscape restoration, as ning process. In the context of a broad-scale
developed in this book, requires a concerted conservation strategy, then, the following steps
approach among stakeholders and communi- help lead to the development and realisation of
ties, to develop a shared and accepted vision restoration achievements.
and goals for the future of the landscape in
question. This also takes time and should be
planned for, but at the same time should lead 1.2.1. Step 1: Initiating a Restoration
rapidly to tangible changes or outcomes that
Programme and Partnerships
really engage stakeholders and people living in
the region in a lasting and meaningful manner. An essential rst step of any forest landscape
Success in forest restoration depends on wise restoration programme is the identication of
planning,98,99 both in time and in space, balanc- the problem being addressed and agreement on
ing short-term goals with long-term goals, and the solutions and the targets for restoration.
allocating the funding available for the restora- Such targets should ideally contribute to wider
tion programme as efciently as possible. ecological and socioeconomical objectives at a
Accordingly, a clear step-by-step plan of action landscape scale. Very often, restorationists must
is needed for success. This was very often start from zero to raise awareness on the state
lacking in past restoration programmes, espe- of degradation in the landscape, analyse the
cially site-oriented ones, and has led to many root causes, and then convince other stake-
failures or difculties that often emerge only holders of both the need for and the feasibility
decades after the rst restoration efforts were of forest restoration. Depending on the context
begun. (the existing level of awareness, politics, funds
available, etc.), this step could last for several
1.2. Restoring Step by Step years and require extensive effort.
Experience suggests that restoration usually
Where restoration is to be carried out as part only works in the long term if it has support
of a wider conservation effort, at the landscape from a signicant proportion of local stake-
or ecoregional levels, we would propose that it holders. Finding out the needs and opinions
be planned as an embedded element within an of stakeholders is therefore important: What
integrated programme that also involves pro- forest functions do they want to restore and are
tection of whatever is left of untouched nature, there potential clashes of interest? It should be
and the promotion of good ecosystem man- recognised that the restorationists (conserva-
agement, as guided by the principles of ste- tion NGO or other) are themselves stakehold-
ers with a particular interest (i.e., restoring
98
Aronson et al, 1993. biodiversity), which may need to be reconciled
99
Wyant et al, 1995a,b. with other stakeholders priorities.
9. An Attempt to Develop a Framework for Restoration Planning 67
set of goals, strategies, and tactics for each (evolution of the socioeconomic context, for
zone and problem in the landscape; example) could alter the most preferable
set of priorities in space and time; restoration trajectory. This could even lead in
identication of restoration trajectories, tech- some cases to redening overall project goals.
nical options, steps, and phases, (especially Such modications should not be considered as
remembering the monitoring and ne- a failure of the overall programme, but rather
tuning phases necessary to fully achieve as a normal step in the restoration of a complex
long term restoration goals); and set of ecosystems within a larger landscape
A written restoration plan, strategy, and set matrix.
of tactics, with identied time frames, maps, Thus, the restoration work is not nished
allocated funds, and quantied targets. after planting. To sustain restoration success
in the long run, and to anticipate potential
problems, a simple monitoring and evaluation
1.2.4. Step 4: Implementing Restoration framework (see section Monitoring and Eval-
uation) needs to be set up from the outset of
This step is the most visible part of the work,
the programme in order to facilitate adaptive
and usually the most costly. Some projects
management and corrective actions.
start here, for example, by directly investing all
Outputs of this step are:
the available funds to plant trees on an
emblematic or strategic site. However, this
regular evaluation (social, economical,
ignores the previous planning steps recom-
ecological);
mended above and can easily end up wasting
restoration trajectory reappraisal; and
time and resources in restoration activities that
design and implementation of corrective
either do not work or are in suboptimal loca-
actions.
tions. It is of course judicious to start small-
scale actions, such as one or more pilot sites, for
the sake of learning by doing, to demonstrate
the feasibility of key restoration goals and to 2. Examples
test silvicultural techniques (for example plant-
ing, but also natural regeneration). But we As yet, there are few full-scale forest landscape
would strongly recommend that larger scale restoration programmes, although their num-
activities also be undertaken in the context of bers are rapidly increasing. The following ex-
careful planning and assessment as outlined in amples show both the need for planning and
steps above. broad-scale restoration planning in practice.
Outputs of this step are: These examples show not only how a planning
framework can be implemented, but also how
development of pilot sites; problems can arise by forgetting one step.
implementation of large-scale actions;
lessons learned from rst results, both suc-
cesses and failures; and 2.1. New Caledonia: From
design and implementation of changes/ Awareness to Restoration of
adaptation in the restoration programme. Tropical Dry Forests (Step 1)
It took 15 years from the rst alarm signals by
scientists to the rst signicant pilot plantings or
1.2.5. Step 5: Piloting Systems Toward
protection of sites within a forest landscape
Fully Restored Ecosystems
restoration initiative in New Caledonia. Atten-
In practice, a few years or decades after start- tion to the tropical dry forests of New Caledo-
ing implementation, even if restoration has nia began to grow in the early 1990s. In 1998,
hitherto been successful, unexpected results WWF, the global conservation organisation,
of previous work or changing circumstances launched an effort to organise a consortium of
9. An Attempt to Develop a Framework for Restoration Planning 69
1. Background and
1.2. Types of Threats
Explanation of the Issue
Direct threats are those with immediate and
The key to any successful restoration pro- clear causal links to the negative impact of
gramme lies in good project design that is based forest degradation or loss. Indirect threats,
on sound science, a thorough understanding of often referred to as root causes,101 are the
threats and opportunities, and a strategic and underlying drivers behind direct threats. Poten-
pragmatic suite of interventions chosen to mit- tial threats are those threats that, while cur-
igate identied threats while capitalising on key rently not posing a signicant challenge to
opportunities. A comprehensive threat assess- forest restoration, have the potential to under-
ment goes beyond merely identifying the
factors, behaviours, and practices that pose a
challenge to forest restoration, but includes an 101
Wood et al. 2000.
73
74 D. Robinson
relevant native pioneer species a signicant Armed with these analyses and research
challenge, requiring over 8 years of research results, FVSA continues to engage in a par-
and a multimillion dollar investment to develop ticipatory process with individual private
appropriate protocols for forest restoration. landowners, local cooperatives, government
Perhaps the greatest challenges faced by part- representatives, and others to develop appro-
ners now are how to scale up interventions priate long-term land use management options
beyond initial target restoration sites and to that include a mix of reforestation, timber har-
engage new collaborators in order to effectively vesting, nontimber forest product production,
address the true magnitude of threats driving and other uses. By including a spatially explicit
forest degradation and loss across the entire component of such land use management plans,
region. stakeholders are continuously able to see not
only how restoration practices benet them, but
also how they are contributing to a broader
2.2. Atlantic Forest in Argentina
sustainable vision for the entire region. Cur-
In the Andresito region of Misiones, Argentina, rently, the major challenge for this project
Fundacin Vida Silvestre Argentina (FVSA) also involves scaling up. FVSA is focussed
and WWF are helping to restore key areas of on helping stakeholders expand the adoption
forest adjacent to the Green Corridor, the of new production alternatives, sustainable
largest remaining area of contiguous Atlantic resource use management practices, and devel-
forest in the world. The area has been signi- oping carbon credit schemes to mitigate high
cantly deforested by rapidly growing human restoration costs in order to achieve restoration
populations to support small-scale agriculture goals over the long term.
and meet human fuelwood needs.
To develop a detailed restoration strategy for
2.3. Using a Three-Dimensional
the region, FVSA undertook a thorough analy-
Model to Identify Threats
sis of threats and opportunities, combining on-
in Vietnam
the-ground surveys, economic analyses, and
GIS tools. FVSA began by developing detailed In the area surrounding the Song Thanh Nature
land use maps for each parcel of land in the Reserve in the Quang Nam Province of
region based on the current tenure. Detailed Vietnam, WWF and partners undertook a par-
land use maps were then overlaid with biolog- ticipatory landscape planning process with
ical and socioeconomic data to identify key community members from nine villages.102 A
opportunities for creating forest restoration papier-mch 1 : 10,000 model of the 30,000-
corridors that could meet overarching forest hectare landscape surrounding the reserve
restoration goals. Research on biodiversity- was used to facilitate planning and decision
friendly production practices for local forest making amongst villagers and forestry sector
and shade products was also undertaken with employees.
several universities in Argentina to assess Using paints, pins, and yarn to depict land
potential economic gains from alternative con- use, natural resource elements, threats, and
servation friendly enterprises. Pilot restoration relationships, animated discussions and debates
plots using different species and production helped inform an integrated management plan
techniques were established to assess both eco- focussed on a suite of protection, management,
logical and economic costs and benets (also and restoration activities. In particular, through
see case study Finding Economically Sustain- the modelling process, threats from illegal gold
able Means of Preserving and Restoring the mining activities were identied and hotly
Atlantic Forest in Argentina). With poverty on debated, and have been raised with relevant
the rise in the region, alternative income gen- authorities. Elderly people, women, and chil-
eration opportunities are a critical incentive dren were all able to contribute to the model-
for landowners to begin undertaking forest
restoration. 102
Hardcastle et al, 2004.
76 D. Robinson
ling exercise, facilitating broader community models are particularly good for teasing out
involvement in decision making and buy-in root causes, integrating interdisciplinary per-
for the planning process. While the three- spectives and are generally supported by a mix
dimensional (3D) mapping of threats provided of quantitative and qualitative background
a good way to engage communities in restora- data. They can be quite participatory if multi-
tion planning, solid facilitation and conict res- ple stakeholders are brought in as part of facil-
olution skills were critical in ensuring success. itated discussions. However, conceptual models
This relatively cost-effective activity is now can get very complex and make it challenging
being replicated in other areas in the region in to identify and prioritise interventions.
order to develop an integrated land and Threat matrices are a useful way to link
resource management plan at a larger land- threat assessment to project goals and specic
scape scale. activities. Matrices can vary from relatively
simple to complex logframes where forest
restoration targets are explicitly stated, with
3. Outline of Tools relevant threats, activities, and potential indica-
tors for monitoring change over time explicitly
A variety of tools for undertaking threat assess- tied to these targets. Matrices are good for tying
ment and integrating such analysis into forest threat analysis to specic activities and strate-
restoration programmes have been tested gic interventions and are easily updated as
around the world. While no one tool is ideal for adaptive management is practised. The under-
all situations, certain aspects are useful for pro- lying assumptions linking threats to targets and
gramme implementers to consider when select- activities can be obscure and should be explic-
ing and modifying existing tools to meet specic itly stated and supported by both qualitative
forest restoration goals, including stakeholder and quantitative analysis.
participation, exibility/adaptability of analysis, Threat mapping104 can be used to assess
costs (e.g., time, human resources, nancial threats for a forest restoration areain the
resources, etc.), iterative nature of information form of either a pictorial map or 3D models
gathering and analyses, processes to include made out of clay, wood, or other materials (see
new and updated information, communicability above example in Vietnam).These maps are the
of outputs to appropriate audiences, and ability basis for discussion of changes in forest habitat
to incorporate different types of data (i.e., qual- quantity or quality, often with community
itative vs. quantitative). groups. The process involves facilitated discus-
Research studies, literature reviews, ecologi- sion to ensure that different members of the
cal and socioeconomic surveys, focus groups, community with differential knowledge of
and key informant interviews are all techniques threats offer their insights. For example, elders
that are used to gather relevant information may have knowledge of the historical extent of
needed to undertake threat analyses. A number the forest, women and men may have very dif-
of tools can be used, singularly or in combina- ferent perceptions of threats related to the dif-
tion, to carry out the actual analysis. ferent forest resources they use and manage,
Conceptual modelling103 is commonly used and so on. When used appropriately this is
to show linkages and complex relationships a highly participatory tool that effectively
between threats and their impacts while pro- incorporates qualitative data and generates a
viding a strategic framework for thinking about product that multiple stakeholders can use.
appropriate project interventions. Conceptual Threat mapping is often most effective when
models explicitly identify the restoration used in combination with some of the other
factors that programmes are intended to inu- more quantitatively oriented tools.
ence while characterising both direct and indi- GIS-based tools offer more advanced threat
rect forces affecting these factors. Conceptual mapping by reecting quantitative data in
103 104
Robinson, 2000; WCS, 2004. Biodiversity Support Programme, 1995.
10. Assessing and Addressing Threats in Restoration Programmes 77
sophisticated spatial maps. Direct threats, such the factors affecting restoration, more informed
as habitat fragmentation, can be represented in and pragmatic decisions can be made regarding
maps by showing changes in data over time. trade-offs that inevitably must be made in the
GIS-based threat assessment tools can range real world.
from simple maps that reect data collected
on the ground to complex decision-support
systems incorporating threat data into pro-
grammes that model alternative scenarios and
References
outcomes using criteria established by users.
Biodiversity Support Programme. 1995. Indigenous
Visual products reect alternative scenarios, peoples, mapping and biodiversity conservation:
and an appropriate and transparent criteria and An analysis of current activities and opportunities
value-setting process can help generate signi- for applying geomatics technologies. Washington,
cant buy-in from stakeholders engaged in the DC, 83 pp.
process.These tools are heavily reliant on quan- Hardcastle, J., Rambaldi, G., Long, B., Le Van Lanh,
tiable data, and depending on the specic and Do Quoc Son. 2004. The use of participatory
technology, their utility may suffer from limited three-dimensional modelling in community-based
or unreliable data. GIS-based threat assess- planning in Quang Nam province, Vietnam. PLA
ment requires technical skills and equipment. Notes 49:7076.
Robinson, D. 2000. Assessing Root CausesA
These tools are particularly useful for gener-
Users Guide. WWF Macroeconomics Programme
ating baseline data sets and for monitor-
Ofce, Washington, DC, 40 pp.
ing change over time from restoration Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). 2004. Creat-
interventions. ing conceptual modelsa tool for thinking strate-
gically. Living Landscapes Technical Manual 2,
8 pp.
4. Future Needs Wood, A., Stedman-Edwards, P., and Mang, J. 2000.
The Root Causes of Biodiversity Loss. WWF/
A key challenge to forest restoration pro- Earthscan, 398 pp.
grammes is more effective integration of rele-
vant threat analysis that is critical for making
pragmatic and real decisions. Threat analysis Additional Reading
has been seen as a discrete background
research activity that, once completed, often Salafsky, N., and Margoluis, R. 1999. Threat reduction
gets put on a shelf, never to be revisited as part assessment to: a practical and cost-effective
of strategic programme development and adap- approach to evaluating Conservation and Devel-
tive management. The gap between threat opment Projects. Conservation Biology 13(14):
assessment, often seen as primarily scientic 830841.
and academic investigations, and actual project Verolme, H.J.H., and Moussa, J. 1999. Addressing the
implementation needs to be more effectively Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest
breached. DegradationCase Studies, Analysis and Policy
To improve the rigour and utility of threat Recommendations. Biodiversity Action Network,
Washington, DC, 141 pp.
assessments for forest restoration, approaches
Wildlife Conservation Society. 2004. Participatory
for undertaking integrated and multidisci- spatial assessment of human activitiesa tool for
plinary analyses also need to be rened. conservation planning. Living Landscapes Techni-
Biologists, social scientists, conservation prac- cal Manual 1, 12 pp.
titioners, policy makers, economists, community WWF. 2000. A guide to socio-economic assessments
leaders, and investors all bring a different lens for ecoregion conservation. Ecoregional Conser-
to threat analysis. Through a combined view of vation Strategies Unit, 18 pp.
11
Perverse Policy Incentives
Kirsten Schuyt
78
11. Perverse Policy Incentives 79
tion. There is also a general lack of adequate will offer benets to conservation and to a wide
monitoring and enforcement mechanisms, range of stakeholders. In this respect, forest
meaning that incentives are easily misused. landscape restoration offers important tools for
The Convention on Biological Diversity107 good practices in restoration, and the key lies
identies three common types of perverse in promoting these tools to redirect existing
policy incentives: perverse incentive schemes toward restoration
that benets conservation and society. Some
Environmentally perverse government subsi-
examples are provided below.
dies: Many different denitions exist in the
literature as to what a subsidy is. In general,
they include direct subsidies (such as grants
and payments to consumers or producers);
2. Examples108
tax policies (tax credits, exemptions, allo-
2.1. Public Incentives for Plantation
wances, and so on); capital cost subsidies
Development, Indonesia
(preferential loans or debt forgiveness);
public provision of public goods and services Deforestation is a major problem in Indonesia.
below cost; and policies that create transfers The Indonesian government began promoting
through the market mechanism (such as the development of industrial tree plantations
price regulations and quantity controls). in the 1980s to boost industrial development
Such subsidies may have a negative impact in wood-based industries and the oil palm
on biological resources by directly encourag- sector. Several government incentives were
ing behaviour that leads to biodiversity loss. put in place to stimulate timber plantation
Another example of perverse effects of sub- development, including interest-free loans, allo-
sidies is that they may drain scarce public cation of state-owned land, absence of land
nances that could have been used to con- taxes, and so on. Large sums of money could
serve biodiversity. also be obtained through the Reforestation
Persistence of environmental externalities: Fund. Another incentive came from the
Some governmental policies may contribute International Monetary Fundbacked restruc-
to the persistence of negative externalities. turing of the corporate and banking sector in
For example, government policies may weaken the late 1990s, which was poorly implemented
traditional property rights systems, where such and led to subsidies and nancing being pro-
rights reside within customary law or cultural vided to badly managed and corrupt forest
traditions. This absence of well-dened prop- companies.
erty rights at private or communal level In an attempt to redirect some of these
may lead to pollution and overexploitation public incentives,WWF, the global conservation
of natural resources, resulting in negative organisation, has collaborated with the Centre
externalities or costs to third parties. for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
Laws and customary practices governing to restructure debt agreements related to the
resource use: An example of formal law gen- forest and oil palm assets of the Indonesian
erating perverse incentives is benecial use Bank Restructuring Agency. This reform is to
laws requiring land users to make productive include a series of checks and balances among
use of water and forest resources to secure the state, private sector, and civil society to mit-
land entitlement. On the other hand, the igate structural pressures on the economy and
clearing of land may be rooted in customary forests, which should help prevent the use of
law to indicate a claim to an area, leading to funding for unsustainable and sometimes illegal
perverse incentives. plantation development as has happened in the
past.
Perverse incentive schemes, however, can be
redirected to promote restoration practices that
107 108
CBD, 2002. Perrin, 2003.
80 K. Schuyt
109
Perrin, 2003.
110 111
CBD, 2002. CBD, 2002.
Case Study: The European Unions
Afforestation Policies and Their Real
Impact on Forest Restoration
Stephanie Mansourian and Pedro Regato
The European Commission has been promot- land out of agriculture, many governments
ing afforestation since 1992 under the and companies used the scheme to establish
Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) (Direc- timber plantations. In Ireland, for example,
tive 2080/92) as a solution to reducing agri- the subsidies were used to establish planta-
cultural land and therefore, agricultural tions with a high economic return (Sitka
surpluses (which are currently supported spruce, pines) in order to achieve the
nancially through subsidies). More recently countrys aim to double its forest area over
a sister scheme has been developed, the the next 30 years.
Special Action for Pre-accession Measures Unequal distribution of subsidies and
for Agriculture and Rural Development double dipping: Six countries accounted
(SAPARD), which is applicable to European for more than 90 percent of the total area
Union (EU) accession countries and covers planted (Spain, the U.K., Portugal, Ireland,
the period 2000 to 2006, with a budget of over Italy, and France). In addition, individual
333 million Euros. examples show that funds were easily mis-
Today, Directive 2080/92 is part of the Rural spent. In Spain, the largest recipient of the
Development Regulation (RDR), which EU afforestation funds, double dipping
establishes a new framework for European was discovered to be common, with farmers
Community support for sustainable rural planting, clearing, and replanting the same
development. plots all with subsidised funds from the
While the afforestation measures under the EU.
EU had spent four billion euros by 1999 and Unnecessary manipulation of natural
planted 900,000 hectares of trees, the results processes: In many cases, subsidies were
in terms of the original aims of the scheme, applied to reforest areas that were regener-
and also in terms of restoring forest cover and ating naturally. It is estimated that up to
forest functionality remained disappointing. 62.5 percent of the area beneting from the
Some of the key problems with the CAP subsidy did not actually qualify as produc-
afforestation directive include the following: ing an oversupply of crops.
Inappropriate methods and species: Over
Limited role in taking land out of agricul- 65 percent of afforestation was carried out
ture: In most member states, only 1.3 to 1.4 in areas believed at risk of re under
percent of land has actually been set aside Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2158/92 on
from agriculture following its application. protection of the communitys forests
Conicting objectives: While the subsidy against re. Planting was often done in an
scheme was largely centred around taking ad hoc fashion, without selecting optimal
82
Case Study: The European Unions Afforestation Policies 83
areas to restore forest cover, nor were these people. WWF Discussion Paper, WWF, Gland,
properly integrated into land use plans. Switzerland.
Report to Parliament and the Council on the appli-
cation of Regulation No. 2080/92 instituting a
community aid scheme for forestry measures in
References agriculture, 1996.
Perrin, M. 2003. Incentives for forest landscape
restoration: maximizing benets for forests and
12
Land Ownership and
Forest Restoration
Gonzalo Oviedo
84
12. Land Ownership and Forest Restoration 85
work in a given situation. Such rights can be customary tenure. In this sense, and in cases
listed114 as the rights to (1) possess and exclu- where traditional forest-owning communities
sively physically control, (2) use, (3) manage, (4) still exist and inhabit their traditional lands,
draw income, (5) transmit or destroy capital, (6) there is an overlap of state property and com-
have protection from expropriation, (7) dispose munal, customary tenure.
of interest on death, (8) potentially hold prop- Partly due to the recognition of customary
erty forever, (9) reversionary/residual interests tenure as legal communal (or individual) prop-
arising on expiration, (10) liability to seizure for erty, forest ownership is undergoing a major
debts, and (11) prohibitions on harmful use. change in the world, with the main trend being
There are many differences in the way in which the transfer or devolution of ownership rights
these various rights are dened and apply to to the local level, and the consequent expansion
forests in different countries and social and his- of community-owned forests.
torical contexts; some of these specic rights
appear to be particularly important when
1.3. Degree of Dependence
dealing with sustainable forest management
on Forests
and forest restoration, as will be discussed later.
The literature distinguishes four main types From the perspective of goods and services that
of property applicable to lands and forests: forests (standing or future) offer, there are
private (individual or corporative), state, com- roughly two types of owners: forest-dependent
mon or communal, and open access. These people and nonforest-dependent people (and
systems have been studied extensively, and institutions). This distinction is important
their advantages and disadvantages with regard because of the expectations of the end result
to natural resource use are well documented of forest restoration and their implications.
(for a useful typology and comparative analy- Forest-dependent communities basically expect
sis, see GTZ, 1998). from restored forests an array of goods and
In country regimes of the 20th and 21st cen- services of direct economic value. They may
turies, the rule for forest ownership is typically value other associated benets, such as ecolog-
a combination of these four types of property, ical services at a landscape scaleclimate
with signicant changes in the composition of change mitigation, regulation of the hydrologi-
property according to historical moments and cal cycle, watershed protection, etc.but they
with great differences among countries. Gener- will normally not place higher values on asso-
ally, however, the predominant pattern is for ciated ecological services than on those related
the majority of forest areas to be in the hands to direct forest produce.115 In the cases of
of government, and only a small proportion nonforest-dependent owners, such as the
being communal forests. In modern times, absentee forest owner and the state and public
legally speaking there is little if any open access agencies, the scale and hierarchy of values may
in forestlands, as any forestlands without vary for some areas, and their expectations,
private owners are automatically converted by therefore, may not directly be linked to the
law to state lands. In practice, however, state- economic importance of forest produce, but to
owned forest has in many cases meant open ecosystem protection and services, biodiversity
access, as governments, particularly in develop- conservation, aesthetic aspects (which in turn
ing countries, have had little capacity to control can become economic values for example from
access to their forests. In developing countries, tourism), etc.
however, the establishment of large state-
owned forest areas was in most cases the result 115
Some exceptions exist to the hierarchy of values of
of the expropriation of forestlands from their forest restoration from the perspective of forest-dependent
traditional users, who until colonial times were owners, but they are exceptions that do not contradict the
primary expectations on forest produce or alternative
owners of those lands (or parts of them) under livelihoods. For example, this is the case of restoration of
degraded forest areas with sacred or particular spiritual
114
Ziff, 1993, cited by Clogg, 1997. value to local communities.
86 G. Oviedo
116 116a
Neef and Schwarzmeier, 2001. Dachang, 2001.
12. Land Ownership and Forest Restoration 87
ownership remains at the community level, but In areas where this type of reform took place,
user rights (especially for trees) are allocated fragmentation often made forest management
to smaller groups that act as forest manage- extremely inefcient, and restoration virtually
ment units. For example, in Honduras group- impossible, as a critical size is required in
based management has proven better than plots of forestland to make restoration or refor-
community-based management, but the experi- estation viable; tree planting in these conditions
ence also shows that links between both are is often reduced to small numbers of trees
critical at decision-making levels on broader around houses and within agricultural plots
issues such as natural resources linked to normally fruit trees.
forests: What is required, therefore, is an insti-
tutional arrangement that retains forest man-
1.8. Equity Issues
agement under group control, but which also
provides a protocol for liaison between group Stratication of local communities in relation
and community and possibly some form of to forest ownership is one of the equity issues
prot-sharing117 i.e., an arrangement where that need to be addressed in community-owned
land and forest ownership remains in the com- forests. Experience shows that often the most
munity, where decision making for the entire forest-dependent groups have the least user
area or landscape lies, while user rights for trees rights, especially women,119 a situation that
and other products are allocated to forestry creates obstacles to developing solid, long-
groups who act on behalf of the community. term, rights-based incentives for forest restora-
The same logic applies to the duality tion. As in the case of the relationship
community-households in many communal group/community, nding the appropriate
ownership regimes. articulation of forest ownership and use rights
An effective articulation of forest ownership between specic groups of users, including indi-
and use rights between small units (even indi- vidual users, and larger units (forests groups
viduals) and larger units (community) seems and communities), in a stable, long-term policy
therefore a critical element for successful forest framework, is critical to forest rehabilitation
management and restoration (although not the success.
only element, as already indicated). It is also a
fundamental tool to deal with the very impor-
tant elements of equity and social stratication 2. Examples
or differentiation. It has been documented that
as much in agricultural lands as in forestlands, 2.1. China: Restoration Benets
the egalitarianism that dominated ideological and Incentives
paradigms of agrarian reform and forest estate
Liu Dachang120 has extensively researched the
reform in the 20th century produced large frag-
experience of China on forest policies, and con-
mentation of lands and forests as a result of the
cludes that generally user rights on trees are of
distribution of family plots. The intention of
greater importance than forest ownership per
the reformers, who were probably aware of
se for sustainable management and particularly
the need to address problems of stratication
for tree planting, reforestation, and restoration.
within rural communities, was to overcome
For example, Liu Dachang shows that despite
community differentiation by allocating equal
clear tenure policies on forestlands in China, in
plots to all families.118
periods of stringent protective regulations on
trees there was no incentive for reforestation;
117
strict market regulations, aimed at protecting
Markopoulos, 1999, p. 46.
118
As an example, in China, under the Land Reform Cam-
forests by discouraging commercialisation of
paign initiated in 1950, all rural households in a given geo-
graphical area were given equal forest resources (Liu
Dachang, 2001, p. 241). Exceptions to this policy were Tibet
119
and the ethnic minority areas in the South of Yunnan, Neef and Schwarzmeier, 2001.
120
where community forests were established. Dachang, 2001, 2003.
88 G. Oviedo
timber, ended up discouraging tree planting around the houses. . . . In contrast to the Hmong, the
and therefore slowing down or totally stopping Black Thai and Tay societies have strong matrilineal
reforestation of degraded lands owned by elements. Although land inheritance of women is not
villagers. The conclusion here is that, at least in common, there are a few exceptions giving women
fully individual use rights, including the rights to
the case of China, regulations to protect forests
plant trees. . . . Marketing of forest products such as
by restricting tree owners rights to trees and
bamboo shoots, medicinal plants and fuelwood is
timber in fact removed incentives for tree mainly done by women. Despite the strong involve-
planting and therefore for reforestation and ment of women in collection and marketing of prod-
restoration. Successful forest restoration ucts from the forests, they do not play a role in
depends on incentives for tree owners to use setting management rules.121a
the trees when they are mature, and for forest
owners to use also other forest products and
services; it thus depends on the clarity, extent, 2.3. Strengthening User Rights for
and enforceability of user and owner rights Forest Restoration in Northeast
over trees and forest products, where timber Highlands of Ethiopia122
use seems to play a major role.
But, if forest ownership rights are insufcient The Meket district in the North Wollo adminis-
or even ineffective for successful restoration trative zone of Ethiopia ranges in altitude from
when not combined with user rights on trees 2000 to 3400 m above sea level and has a mix of
and products, total lack of regulations on the agroclimatic zones. Its inhabitants are almost
use of timber and forest products can create wholly dependent on agriculture. As rising
perverse market incentives, especially when the numbers of people have put more pressure on
conditions of clarity and enforceability of rights the land, fallow periods have shortened, and
are not present in other adjacent forest areas. continuous ploughing has become common-
In such conditions, perverse market incentives place. Local people say that within a genera-
discourage owners and users from tree plant- tion, there has been dramatic deforestation, and
ing, as the pressures from unregulated markets the grazing has declined in both quantity and
where competition exists from unsustainably quality. Expanding cultivation and increasing
managed forest areas (for example, areas demand for wood have left even the steepest
subject to illegal timber extraction) would slopes unprotected. Only about 8 percent of the
make it impossible for forest owners to meet total area remains under forest. Much of the
the opportunity costs of tree planting and forest rainfall is lost through runoff, causing severe
restoration. soil erosion and oods. Indigenous trees are not
commonly allowed to regenerate (except on
some church lands), and efforts to plant trees
2.2. Forest Rights in Ethnic Groups have had little impact.
of Thailand and Vietnam The Ethiopian people have had negative
experiences of land reallocation over the last 20
The concept of individual rights to planted years, and are hence unwilling to invest effort
trees on agricultural elds applies to virtually in reforestation or regeneration activities. Dif-
all ethnic minority groups in the uplands of ferent types of forest ownership (individual,
northern Thailand and Vietnam,121 but there church, service cooperative, and community)
are considerable differences in gender-specic can be found in the district, but none has
rights to plant trees due to distinct inheritance reversed the natural resource depletion.
laws. Weak land-tenure and user rights were
In strictly patrilineal societies like the Hmong,
clearly hindering effective community-led
women are not allowed to inherit land. Thus, tree environmental conservation in Meket.
planting by women is usually limited to the area
121a
Neef and Schwarzmeier, 2001.
121 122
Neef and Schwarzmeier, 2001, p. 22. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, 2000.
12. Land Ownership and Forest Restoration 89
In mid-1996, SOS Sahel, an international within the future enclosures. Some villages have
nongovernmental organisation (NGO), began even begun a similar process without outside
working with local authorities and agriculture intervention or support.
ministry staff to seek a way to work with com- Farmers seem to have accepted the introduc-
munities and solve these problems. Central to tion of cut-and-carry fodder systems. This may
these was the establishment of ofcial user prove to be one of the most signicant impacts
rights for villagers. for the Ethiopian highlands.
In the community reforestation project,
communities were allowed to dene their own
objectives for their sites, but long-term plans (5
2.4. Limited Success in the
to 10 years, or more if indigenous trees were
Protection Forest Walomerah,
established) were required. Within communi-
Indonesia123
ties, reforestation groups were established, and
each group decided how to share the benets The province of East Nusa Tenggara consists of
among its members, and this had to be included the main island of Flores, Sumba, the Western
in the management plan. Similarly, each village part of Timor and a number of smaller islands.
developed its own strategy for guarding the site. In 1992 the population of the province totalled
The proposed plan was then presented for 3.3 million. With an average rainfall ranging
approval at the kebele (subdistrict) level by from 2196 mm in Manggarai district to 805 mm
relevant bodies: community representatives, in Alor district and not so fertile soils, the con-
subdistrict ofcials, and church leaders. It was ditions for agriculture are not very favourable.
then submitted to district ofcials and the agri- About 36 percent of the land area of the
culture ofce. If the plan was approved, ofcial island of Flores has by ministerial decree been
user rights were given to the group for their classied as forest land and one third of this
site. forest land as Protection Forests. The largest
As a result of this approach, farmers partic- part of this has in reality little or no tree cover
ipation in reforestation efforts increased. At and has for generations been tilled by the pop-
rst, 14 villages received ofcial user rights; ulation living there.
20 more communities have since become The protection forest of the mountain
involved, directly beneting more than 2000 Walomerah in Ngada district is one such area.
households. As part of the Presidential Instruction Pro-
Natural regeneration of indigenous grass, gramme (INPRES) for the development of
shrub, and tree species has been dramatic. Indonesia, this particular protection forest was
There are very clear differences when com- to be reforested. The project, which began in
pared with unprotected sites. 1995, was to start with the reforestation of 500
Sufcient short-term benets have been hectares, including part of the village Wangka,
realisedsuch as improved forage and which covers 9000 hectares. Almost all of the
increased production of thatching grassto 2400 inhabitants secure their livelihoods from
motivate communities to strengthen and subsistence farming, as their ancestors have
expand their enclosure sites. done for generations. They are totally depend-
More secure user rights have created con- ent on the land. Their traditional rights to land
dence among the communities. They have had been recognised by the government, but
expressed strong interest to plant indigenous all 9000 hectares of this village lie within the
species (e.g., Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus protection forest. According to the legislation
procera, Olea africana) instead of eucalyptus. applying to such areas, the villagers were not
Communities have started to expand their allowed to occupy this area on a permanent
sites, and new communities want to establish basis.
their own enclosures. Some are seeking com-
pensation from the subdistrict administration
for individual farmers who are cultivating land 123
Vochten and Mulyana, 1995.
90 G. Oviedo
The Forest Service decided it was necessary secondary forests among national and local
to consult with these villagers with the purpose stakeholders. 14) Strengthen the rights of forest
of better understanding their living situation dwellers and indigenous people. 15) Establish a
and see to what extent the reforestation project transparent mechanism for conict resolution
could be modied to accommodate their needs where property and access rights are not clear.
and aspirations. Several problems directly or 16) Provide incentives for stabilizing colonists/
indirectly connected with the proposed refor- farmers in agricultural frontier zones.
estation were identied by the villagers who 3. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) or
took part in such consultations. The problem participatory rapid rural appraisal have been
concerning the status of their land tenure rights described many times in the literature.124 A
surfaced as a key conict. Even though they methodological illustration of a PRA exercise
had been paying their land ownership taxes for forest restoration in Indonesia125 is as
regularly, rights to use forest products could not follows:
be granted to them.
The PRA facilitator team included 14 people:
This key issue, land tenure rights, was not from the government . . . , from local NGOs . . . ,
solved in this reforestation project. Some useful and the authors. . . . The main actors were the res-
compromises were reached, and an attempt was idents of two of the four hamlets of the village
made to balance the undisputed need for refor- Wangka, which adjoined the proposed reforesta-
estation with the primary need of farmers tion site. They collected the information, analysed
land. But clearly it was not possible to move the problems, considered the options, and drew
ahead with enough condence in the projects up the nal reforestation plan. The facilitators
success without addressing further the issue of supported this by introducing certain techniques
land and forest produce rights. to structure the information. They also listened
and learned. The entire PRA lasted only three
days in the eld, from October 1214, 1993. It was
3. Outline of Tools preceded by a one day gathering of the facilita-
tors to exchange information about the PRA
Tools useful to addressing ownership issues techniques to be used and to inform themselves
in forest restoration are basically the same about the village of Wangka. At the start of the
that have proven useful in the case of examin- PRA, the facilitators introduced themselves and
the purpose of their visit and then split into two
ing land and resource tenure in different
groups each to cover one of the hamlets. On the
conditions. rst day a map of the village including the pro-
1. Land and resource mapping: This can be posed reforestation site was made. Then a sea-
done at any level, to learn about the environ- sonal calendar, presenting the main events and
mental, economic, and social resources in the activities of the community (agricultural, reli-
gious, festivals, etc.) was made. On the second day
community. A variation of mapping is the tech-
a transect of the respective hamlets and the pro-
nique of transects, which focusses on specic posed reforestation site was made. Later in the
areas of a communitys land, for learning about day a matrix ranking was done to learn about the
the communitys natural resource base, land preferred tree species. On the nal day the results
forms, and land use, location and size of farms of the PRA exercise in both hamlets were com-
or homesteads, and location and availability bined and presented by the villagers who had
of infrastructure and services, and economic been involved in the PRA at a village meeting.
activities. This was also attended by representatives from
2. The International Tropical Timber Organ- the other two hamlets, the village head (kepala
isation (ITTO) restoration guidelines are a desa), and the head of the Forestry Service of
useful tool addressing ownership issues. To Ngada District. During this meeting, spiced with
animated discussions, problems were reviewed
ensure secure land tenure, these guidelines rec-
ommend (recommended actions 13 to 16): 13)
Clarify and legitimise equitable tenure, access, 124
Notably, Chambers, 1994; Chambers and Guijt, 1995.
use and other customary rights in degraded and 125
Vochten and Mulyana, 1995.
12. Land Ownership and Forest Restoration 91
126 127
WWF-US, 2000a,b. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, 2000.
92 G. Oviedo
Box 12.1. Dos and Donts from International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (2000)
ments, is a task that needs to be undertaken stand how rights systems (including from
on the basis of specic cases of forest restora- creation or granting of rights to law enforce-
tion. It is therefore recommended that such ment and judicial processes) impact on the
initiatives include in their plans the ongoing resultsin the short, medium, and long
accompaniment of the process by researchers terms. In undertaking such research, it is
equipped to understand the links between fundamental to use a conceptual and meth-
rights and incentives. odological framework that is based on the
Use experience to synthesise guidance in understanding of the complexities of the
the form of option menus for dealing with bundle of forest ownership rights, avoiding
tenure issues in different situations. For the for example an exclusive focus on land
moment, most of the experiences of forest tenure.
restoration offer lessons of mostly local or
national value on ownership matters, difcult
to generalise and to apply to other situations.
An analytical effort of learning more from References
those lessons and then systematising them
for guidance would be valuable, always with Chambers, R. 1994a. The origins and practice of par-
ticipatory rural appraisal. World Development
the understanding that lesson-based guid-
22(7):953969.
ance is indicative only, and any mechanistic Chambers, R. 1994b. Participatory rural appraisal
application of experiences from one place to (PRA): analysis of experience. World Develop-
another needs to be avoided. ment 22(9):12531268.
Research further on experiences (successful Chambers, R. 1994c. Participatory rural appraisal
and unsuccessful) of forest restoration under (PRA): challenges, potentials and paradigm.
different types of ownership, to better under- World Development 22(10):14371454.
12. Land Ownership and Forest Restoration 93
Chambers, R., and Guijt, I. 1995. PRAFive years US Ecoregional Conservation Strategies Unit,
later. Where are we now? Forests, Trees and Research and Development, Washington, DC.
People Newsletter 26/27:413. Ziff, B. 1993. Principles of Property Law. Carswell.
Clogg, J. 1997. Tenure reform for ecologically and Scarborough, Canada.
socially responsible forest use in British Columbia.
A paper submitted to the Faculty of Environmen-
tal Studies in partial fullment of the requirements
for the degree of Master in Environmental Additional Reading
Studies, York University, North York, Ontario,
Canada. Agrawal, A., and Ostrom, E. 1999. Collective action,
Dachang, L. 2001. Tenure and management of non- property rights, and devolution of forest and pro-
state forests in China since 1950: a historical tected area management. Research paper. S/l.
review. Environmental History 6(2):239263. Barton Bray, D., Merino-Perez, L., Negreros Castillo,
Dachang, L., ed. 2003. Rehabilitation of Degraded P., Segura-Warnholtz, G., Torres, J.M., and Vester,
Forests to Improve Livelihoods of Poor Farmers in H.F.M. 2003. Mexicos community-managed
South China. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia. forests as a global model for sustainable land-
International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. scapes. Conservation Biology 17(3):672677.
2000. Sustainable Agriculture Extension Manual. Chambers, R. 1983. Rural Development: Putting the
IIRR, Silang, Cavite, Philippines. Last First, Longman, London.
Markopoulos, M.D. 1999. The Impacts of Certica- Chambers, R. 1993. Challenging the Professions.
tion on Campesino Forestry Groups in Northern Frontiers for Rural Development. Intermediate
Honduras. Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI), Technology Publications, London.
Oxford, UK. Chambers, R. 1996. Whose Reality Counts? Inter-
Molnar, A., Scherr, S., and Khare, A. 2004. Who mediate Technology Publications, London.
conserves the worlds forests? Comunity-driven Chambers, R. 2002. Participatory Workshops: A
strategies to protect forests and respect rights. Sourcebook, Institute of Development Studies,
Forest Trends, Ecoagriculture Partners,Washington, Brighton, UK.
DC. Chambers, R., and Leach, M. 1990. Trees as Savings
Neef, A., and Schwarzmeier, R. 2001. Land Tenure and Security for the Rural Poor. Unasylva
Systems and Rights in Trees and Forests: Interde- 161(41):3952.
pendencies, Dynamics and the Role of Develop- Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United
ment Cooperation, Case Studies from Mainland Nations, FAO. 2001. SEAGASocio-Economic
Southeast Asia. GTZ, Division 4500 Rural Devel- and Gender Analysis Package. FAO Socio-
opment, Eschborn, Germany. Economic and Gender Analysis Programme.
Vochten, P., and Mulyana, A. 1995. Reforestation, Gender and Population Division, Sustainable
protection forest and peoplending compro- Development Department, Rome.
mises through PRA, Forests, Trees and People GTZ. 1998. Guiding Principles: Land Tenure in
Newsletter, FAO, issues 26/27. Development Cooperation. Deutsche Gesel-
White, A., and Martin, A. 2002. Who Owns the lschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit, Abt. 45,
Worlds Forests? Forest Tenure and Public Forests Div. 45.
in Transition. Forest Trends, Washington, DC. Jaramillo, C.F., and Kelly, T. 2000. La deforestacin y
World Wildlife Fund USA. 2000a. A Guide to los derechos de propiedad en Amrica Latina.
Socioeconomic Assessments for Ecoregion Con- http://www.imacmexico.org/ev_es.php?ID=
servation. WWFUS Ecoregional Conservation 5587_203&ID2=DO_TOPIC.
Strategies Unit, Washington, DC. Lamb, D., and Gilmour, D. 2003. Rehabilitation and
World Wildlife USA. 2000b. Stakeholder Collabora- Restoration of Degraded Forests. IUCN/WWF,
tion: Building Bridges for Conservation. WWF Gland, Switzerland.
13
Challenges for Forest Landscape
Restoration Based on WWFs
Experience to Date
Stephanie Mansourian and Nigel Dudley
94
13. Challenges for Forest Landscape Restoration 95
ferent outputs required from most landscapes. through natural processes (e.g., by fencing an
In a landscape context, restoration goals for area against grazing or preventing articial re)
conservation organisations will often be closely is usually considered to be the most desirable
linked to other activities relating to protected solution, being simpler, cheaper, and more akin
areas and sustainable forest management. Thus, with natural processes. However, there comes
restoration may seek to complement a pro- a point (a status of degradation or particular
tected area or relieve pressure on it. Equally, set of ecological and social conditions) when
restoration can happen within and around the active restoration is necessary, either because
estate of a managed forest. Forest restoration recovery needs to be speeded up to protect
goals within a landscape generally have to threatened biodiversity or because ecological
address both social and ecological needs; they conditions have changed so profoundly that
may, for instance, relate to restoration of natural processes need some assistance. The
species habitat in one location but also to the challenge for conservation planners is some-
establishment of fuelwood plantations else- times whether to wait for passive restoration,
where. In all cases, the key will be to attempt to and risk further degradation and in the future
balance those goals to provide optimal benets a more expensive restoration process, or to
(also see Goals and Targets of Forest Land- jump straight into active restoration. Develop-
scape Restoration, Negotiations and Conict ment of a more sophisticated set of criteria
Management, and Addressing Trade-Offs in or tools for helping make these kinds of deci-
Forest Landscape Restoration). sions will be one of the major needs in the
future.
1.2. Ensuring that Restoration Is
Not Used as an Excuse for 1.4. Promoting the Concept of
Uncontrolled Exploitation Multifunctional Landscapes
One reason many conservationists still balk at If conservation organisations are to address
restoration is that it can be seen to provide a the big emerging issues related to forestry and
justication for failing to address the problems biodiversity, we will need to engage much
of degradation. Given the cost, duration, and more closely with social actors, an example is
difculty of restoration, we do not believe that the emerging WWF-CARE partnership. An
this is a viable argument. However, the fact that emphasis on multifunctional landscapes, that
conservation organisations encourage restora- is, landscapes that provide a mixture of envi-
tion should not be interpreted as licence for ronmental, social, and economic goods and
degradation, because in many circumstances services through a mosaic of sites managed with
restoration activities will not be able to recover differing but harmonised objectives, can help to
all of the values that have been lost. There is a provide balanced approaches in landscapes that
ne line between actively offering restoration contain both environmental and social prob-
as a solution to dwindling natural resources lems. One implication of this is that forest
without undermining efforts at protection or restoration in most cases will not be a viable
good management of these resources. activity unless it goes hand in hand with forest
management and usually also with forest
protection.
1.3. Active or Passive Restoration?
In some cases it is clear that restoration is
1.5. Sustainability of Restoration
already urgently necessary. At this point the
Valuing Forest Goods, Services,
rst question for a community, conservation
and Processes to be Restored
organisation, or government becomes one of
choice between passive and active restoration. Active restoration is an expensive process,
Passive restoration, which means creating and in most cases conservationists (both state
suitable conditions for restoration to happen government and NGOs) still opt to direct avail-
96 S. Mansourian and N. Dudley
able conservation budgets toward protection particularly for organisations such as WWF,
instead. However, in many cases these decisions which work in time-limited programmes and to
are not being taken in full knowledge of the targets that are often agreed to between NGOs
long-term costs and benets. For instance, it is and donors. In practice, targets need to be set
often easier to build political support for setting at the level of a specic landscape. For instance,
aside a mountainous area of forest to protec- is the ultimate aim of a forest landscape
tion because it appears to entail limited cost, or restoration programme to return a certain
at least delayed costs, whereas the apparent endangered animal species to a viable popula-
cost of restoring a more accessible or econom- tion? Or is it to improve water quality? Or is it
ically valuable habitat such as a lowland forest to reverse the decline in forest quality? Many
appears immediately. But if the long-term value restoration projects have multiple aims, such as
of a restored forest were properly estimated, restoring habitat for species but also increasing
then on balance the net costs might not appear nontimber forest products for local communi-
to be as high. In some cases, it may make more ties. By setting goals, conservation organisa-
sense to focus efforts on protection, in others tions should be able to establish meaningful
more on restoration or a mixture of both. One programmes, whilst recognising that forest
future challenge is to increase skills and tools landscape restoration is never a short-term
for valuation of the costs and benets of various project with a clear beginning and end. Efforts
approaches so that more balanced judgements should be longer term, and specic measures of
can be made. success will necessarily be steps along a trajec-
tory toward a healthier and more sustainable
forest landscape.
1.6. Long Term Monitoring and
Evaluating Impact of
Restoration within 1.8. Resources
Large Scales Forest restoration at the scale of large land-
Monitoring and evaluation are essential in any scapes can be enormously costly. In addition,
conservation programme, to help facilitate the longer we wait before undertaking restora-
adaptive management, and have been identi- tion, the more degraded the landscape is likely
ed as one of the most critical elements in to have become (for instance, seeds of original
success. They become particularly crucial in a species may no longer be present, soil condi-
large-scale restoration effort, which will span tions will have changed) and therefore the
several decades and will involve many different higher the costs of restoration are likely to be.
actors. Mistakes need to be redressed and Many restoration efforts have failed through
improvements need to be made. Proper moni- lack of resources. Ideally, systems that integrate
toring tools that are adapted to a large scale the cost of restoration within landscape-level
need to be developed and then applied activities via taxes (for instance on ecotourists)
rigorously. or via payment for environmental services (for
instance, for the provision of clean water, also
see Payment for Environmental Services and
1.7. When Can We Claim Success?
Restoration) should provide long-term and
When Is a Landscape
sustainable nancing for restoration activities.
Restored?
However, this assumes both that costs and ben-
There is no clear end point for restoration. A ets can be measured accurately, which is still
natural forest is itself not a xed or static often a challenge, and that there is sufcient
ecosystem but is generally in constant evolution political support for restoration that such
and ux. In any case, many restoration projects payments can be levied. Establishing means
will not be aiming to re-create an original for long-term funding that go beyond donor
forest. Agreeing and then nding ways of meas- project cycles remains a key challenge for the
uring an end point is therefore a challenge future.
13. Challenges for Forest Landscape Restoration 97
programme for New Caledonia. While this may niques (from simply fencing to weeding or
seem a long time to invest in building a part- active planting) are being tested and monitored
nership, the fruits of such an effort are now in order to identify the approach that is best
being felt as the programme is taking off. suited to local conditions and which can then
The programme carries much more weight in be propagated along the corridor.
the eyes of all stakeholders because of the
partnership.
References
2.4. Malaysia: The Challenge of Allnutt, T., Mansourian, S., and Erdmann, T. 2004.
Identifying Priority Species Setting preliminary biological and ecological
for Restoration restoration targets for the landscape of Fandriana-
Marolambo in Madagascars moist forest eco-
While restoration along the Kinabatangan river region. WWF internal paper. WWF, Gland,
was identied as a priority in order to recon- Switzerland.
nect patches of forest for biodiversity, the selec- Mansourian, S. 2004. Challenges and opportunities
tion of appropriate species was not clearly for WWFs Forest Landscape Restoration pro-
done. For this reason a demonstration site has gramme. WWF internal paper. WWF, Gland,
been set up where different species and tech- Switzerland.
Section VI
A Suite of Planning Tools
14
Goals and Targets of Forest
Landscape Restoration
Jeffrey Sayer
The most fundamental (question) relates to the de- countless examples of attempts at restoration
nition of the goals and targets for restoration projects. failing because one persons restoration is
It would seem that denition would be simple, but often another persons degradation. Here are
it is often complex and involves difcult decisions some examples:
and compromises. Ideally, restoration reproduces the
entire system in question, complete in all its aspects
Attempts by the Indonesian Ministry of
genetics, populations, ecosystems, and landscapes.
Forestry to restore Imperata grasslands
This means not merely replicating the systems com-
position, structure and functions, but also its dynam- by planting trees failed because local people
icseven allowing for evolutionary as well as had no use for the trees (they belonged to
ecological change (Meffe and Carroll, 1994). the foresters) but they made extensive uses
of the grasslands. The grasslands provided
fodder for their cattle and grass for roong.
Attempts to plant spruce forests to restore
Key Points to Retain the degraded moorlands of northern
England and Scotland were opposed by
Outside experts cannot alone set goals and amenity and conservation groups because
targets because they are never self-evident. the moorland scenery had come to be
Careful multi-stakeholder processes are accepted as natural and beautiful and it
needed to set goals and targets that will be was the habitat of rare birds.
broadly accepted. Government attempts to restore tree cover
on the uplands of Vietnam were opposed
Goals and targets will change with time and by local people because the types of trees
need to be adapted. planted by the government were not the ones
Pristine pre-intervention nature is only that local people needed or could use.
one of many possible goals. Government-sponsored tree planting
schemes in China have denied local people
access to medicinal plants and have damaged
the habitats of rare plants and animals in the
dry mountainous areas of South Western and
1. Background and Western China.
Explanation of the Issue Attempts to restore pristine nature in
degraded areas in the United States are
A broadly shared understanding and accept- opposed by some conservationists who con-
ance by all stakeholders is fundamental to the sider that such articially restored areas can
success of any restoration project. There are never have the value of a pristine landscape.
101
102 J. Sayer
Pretending that restoration is possible is seen restoration projects are moving in the right
as a ploy by commercial interests to justify direction:
activities that degrade nature.
The basic problem is that what is perceived as 2.1. Answer the Questions:
degraded by one interest group may be per- Restoring What, for Whom
ceived as desirable by another group. Foresters and Why
consider land degraded if it does not support a
These are the most important questions yet
crop of commercially valuable trees. Ecologists
they are frequently not properly addressed in
consider a forest degraded if it does not have
restoration projects.
multiple layers of vegetation and a reasonable
These questions should be answered by
number of dead or decaying trees as habitat for
real stakeholderslocal people, conservation
birds and invertebrate. Amenity groups do not
organisations, etc.those who will do the work
like dense forests; they want mosaics of wood-
or incur the costs and benets.
land and open land with extensive views.The list
Avoid programmes that are expert driven
is endless. The basic lesson is that there can
and ensure that development assistance agen-
never be a single vision of an end point for
cies stay honest, that they are explicit about
restoration that will automatically meet with
their real objectives and recognise that they
the approval of all interested parties.
also are interested parties.
130 131
Dunwiddie, 1992. Sayer and Campbell, 2004.
14. Goals and Targets of Forest Landscape Restoration 103
explore what the landscape should look like in grammes (also see Restoring Water Quality
order to respond to the needs and wishes of dif- and Quantity).
ferent interest groups. Amenity: The Netherlands, the United
Kingdom, and the United States have
restoration programmes with a heavy
3. Outline of Tools emphasis on amenity. This is the realm of
landscape architecture.138
Stakeholders may decide that a certain land- Avalanche control: This is an important issue in
scape conguration and condition is ideal for temperate and boreal countries and there is
their objectives. But usually different stake- an abundant literature.
holders have different ideals. To ne-tune a Timber: Timber is the real objective of much so-
landscape vision, some specic approaches can called restoration. Caution is needed because
be used depending on the restoration goal: narrow timber production objectives are
rarely consistent with the broader objectives
Biodiversity: Modelling tools developed by the
of local people and the environment.
United Nations Environment Programme-
Tree crops: Tree crops include oil palm, coffee,
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
cacao, rubber etc. More can be found on this
(UNEP-WCMC) are useful.135 Some assump-
topic in the chapter on agroforestry, cited
tions about corridors and connectivity have
above, but also in publications on extractive
to be treated with caution.136 One should not
reserves and jungle rubber.
always assume that protected areas should be
as big as possible. There are often signicant
opportunity costs that protected areas create
for local people. Protected areas should be 4. Future Needs
of an optimal size, not necessarily as big as
possible.136 The importance of seral stages 4.1. Improved Economic Analysis
in vegetation development is often underes-
Restoring landscapes is expensive, but can and
timated. Many wildlife species require early
should yield economic benets. The valuation
successional vegetation for their survival.
of environmental goods and services is still an
Poverty mapping and assessment: The World
imprecise science. The valuation of the sub-
Agroforestry Centre has a lot to offer on this
sistence products used by poor subsistence
topic (see Agroforestry as a Tool for Forest
farmers is also a challenge. But all large-scale
Landscape Restoration).
restoration initiatives have to be rooted in
Land care: The Landcare programme in Aus-
economic realism. The cost-benet ratios are
tralia and now expanding elsewhere is an
essential in determining what is possible and
interesting model for participatory multi-
desirable. There are countless examples of
stakeholder restoration programmes.
forest restoration programmes that have cost a
Water: Lots of common assumptions about the
lot of money and yielded few real benets.
value of land cover for water quality and
It is especially important to remember that
quantity are not borne out by empirical evi-
investments in restoration carry opportunity
dence. Forest cover may consume more
coststhe same money could be invested in
water than it conserves; it all depends on the
employment creation, establishing protected
type of trees, the frequency and intensity of
areas, etc. Even though complete economic val-
rainfall, and the nature of the underlying sub-
uation will only rarely be possible or necessary,
strate. Expert advice should be sought on the
it is always important to thoroughly examine
hydrological implications of restoration pro-
options from an economic perspective.
135
UNEP-WCMC, 2003.
136
Simberloff et al, 1992.
137 138
Zuidema et al, 1997. Liu and Taylor, 2002.
14. Goals and Targets of Forest Landscape Restoration 105
Gobster, P.H., and Hull, R.B., eds. 1999. Restoring Luken, J.O. 1990. Directing Ecological Succession.
Nature: Perspectives from the Social Sciences and Chapman and Hall, London.
Humanities. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Nilsen, R., ed. 1991. Helping Nature Heal: An Intro-
Holl, K.D., Loik, M.E., et al. 2000. Tropical montane duction to Environmental Restoration. A Whole
forest restoration in Costa Rica: overcoming bar- Earth Catalogue, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, Cali-
riers to dispersal and establishment. Restoration fornia (Deals with restoration in a U.S. context.)
Ecology 8(4):339349. Perrow, M.R., and Davy, A.J. 2002. Handbook or
IUFRO. 2003. Occasional paper no. 15. Part 1: Ecological Restoration, vols. 1 and 2. Cambridge
Science and technologybuilding the future of University Press, Cambridge, UK.
the worlds forests. Part II: Planted forests and bio- Reiners, W.A., and Driese, K.L. 2003. Propagation
diversity. ISSN 1024-1414X. IUFRO, Vienna, pp of Ecological Inuence Through Environmental
150. Space. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
Jordan, W.R. III, Gilpin, M.E., and Abers, J.D., eds. UK.
1987. Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach Smout, T.C. 2000. Nature Contested; Environmental
to Ecological Research. Cambridge University History in Scotland and Northern England Since
Press, Cambridge, UK. 1600. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, UK.
Lamb, D. 1998. Large scale ecological restoration Whisenant, S.G. 1999. Repairing Damaged Wild-
of degraded tropical forest lands: the potential landsA Process-Oriented, Landscape-Scale
role of timber plantations. Restoration Ecology Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cam-
6(3):271279. bridge, UK.
Case Study: Madagascar: Developing
a Forest Landscape Restoration
Initiative in a Landscape in the
Moist Forest
Stephanie Mansourian and Grard Rambeloarisoa
Starting in March 2003, WWF, the global con- 2. Reconnaissance to focus on one land-
servation organisation, and its partners began scape (JuneAugust 2003): The criteria were
developing a Forest Landscape Restoration then further rened by a national working
programme in the moist forest ecoregion of group set up at the workshop. Using the
Madagascar. This case study highlights the dif- selected criteria (which included both ecolog-
ferent steps in the process. ical and social issues, for instance, distance
Only about 10 percent of Madagascars from large forest patch, literacy rate, presence
forests are left, and much of this is in poor or absence of land tenure conict), the
condition. For this reason forest landscape members of the national working group
restoration was identied as a useful approach visited the ve short-listed landscapes and
to tackle conservation and development rated each according to the criteria in order to
concerns in the country. In March 2003, select one priority one.
when WWF began its restoration programme, 3. Proposal development and funds raised
a moist forest ecoregion process was already (August 2003June 2004): A proposal was
underway to develop a comprehensive developed, submitted, and approved for the
conservation programme for the whole priority landscape.
area (i.e., data were being gathered, maps 4. Beginning the process for selecting bio-
developed highlighting key habitats, the logical and ecological targets (June 2004): To
range of different species were being sur- begin identifying the biological and ecological
veyed, etc.) which helped to feed crucial data priorities for the landscape, data from the
into the development of the restoration ecoregion process was used to dene what
initiative. might be priority areas for restoration within
The key steps in the development of the the landscape and with which biological/
restoration programme are as follows: ecological objective (e.g., restoring the habitat
for a specic lemur, buffering a protected
1. Short-listing priority landscapes (March area, etc.).
2003): In a national workshop with partici- 5. Socioeconomic analysis (September
pants representing civil society, researchers, December 2004): Before taking the biological
government, and the private sector, a number data further, it was felt that a better under-
of potential landscapes were selected for standing of the social and economic situation
restoration based on coarse criteria developed inside the landscape was needed, leading to the
together in the workshop. commissioning of a socioeconomic analysis.
107
108 S. Mansourian and G. Rambeloarisoa
140 141
Peterken, 1996. Janzen, 2002.
109
110 N. Dudley
been identied, protected, and monitored over probability of future climate change and other
time, so that they have an associated body of forms of environmental disturbance means that
understanding about their ecology. They will targets should be tailored with this in mind, also
often, although not invariably, be old forests, suggesting the limitation of following reference
although younger forests can provide valuable landscapes too closely, when they may be
reference for successional stages. Even quite undergoing change themselves. More generally,
newly identied reference forests can provide targets for restoration should be developed
valuable information if their history is known with an understanding of likely changes. The
and it will often be necessary to nd a reference idea that vegetation evolves to some climax
forest or reference landscape as part of the type and then stays the same is now largely dis-
planning for forest restoration at a landscape proved, at least at the level of a particular stand,
scale. Sometimes reference forests need to be where ux is expected and is likely to be con-
re-created theoretically from historical records stant. In the end, choices usually need to be
and pollen diagrams.Although most valuable in made about levels of biodiversity, naturalness,
relating to forest types in the same ecosystem, and livelihood values contained in particular
reference forests also provide information of restored forests, and reference forests can only
value to forests far away. It is important to provide information to help with these more
understand the relationship between the his- political choices.
torical reference forest and the future forest
being re-created or modied; the reference
forest is not necessarily the same as the target 2. Examples
forest being restored. Sometimes it will be pos-
sible, over time, for the latter to become very The presence of reference forests has played
similar to its reference, while in other cases this a fundamental role in understanding forest
will be impossible either because of other pres- ecology and in developing responses to forest
sures on and needs from the forest or because loss and degradation. Some reference forests
conditions have changed and certain elements are outlined below.
of the original forest are irrecoverable. A clear
understanding of this relationship is important
2.1. Oregon, United States
when setting targets for restoration.
Reference landscapes provide information The H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest was
on different aspects of ecology, particularly protected by the U.S. Forest Service in 1948 as
composition, ecological processes and function- part of a network of forests intended to serve
ing, and, crucially but often the most difcult to as living laboratories for studies by the services
pinpoint, cyclical changes over time. Locating scientic research branch. The forest is admin-
forests undisturbed enough to exhibit natural istered cooperatively by the U.S. Department of
changes either through a gradual process of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service Pacic
aging and renewal or from evidence of natural Northwest Research Station, Oregon State
catastrophic events is now increasingly difcult University, and the Willamette National Forest,
in many areas, yet an understanding of how with funding from the National Science Foun-
forests renew themselves is important in re- dation, U.S. Forest Service, Oregon State Uni-
creating near-to-natural forests and in under- versity, and others. Long-term eld experiments
standing likely pressures on managed forests. have focussed on climate dynamics, stream
Other elements to consider in dening ow, water quality, and vegetation succession.
targets for restoration include long-term Currently, researchers are working to develop
human interaction with forests and the evolu- concepts and tools needed to predict effects
tion of cultural landscapes (many forests have of natural disturbance, land use, and climate
never existed without the presence of humans change on ecosystem structure, function, and
so that the idea of a pristine, human-free species composition. Over 3000 scientic pub-
ecosystem is often little more than a myth). The lications have used data from the forest. The
15. Identifying and Using Reference Landscapes for Restoration 111
for determining targets. Some of the other tools elements, such as old growth characteristics,
that may be used as surrogates for living refer- have been found to translate rather poorly
ence forests are outlined below. from one forest ecosystem to another.
Comparison with original forest types:
Although it is often impossible to nd a
3. Outline of Tools wholly unaltered forest ecosystem, numerous
well-thought-out attempts have been made
In most cases, reference landscapes are devel- to describe ancient or natural forests: some
oped using a suite of different tools, the main examples are given in Table 15.1.
ones of which follow: Historical records: Written records can tell
us a great deal and sometimes stretch back
Reference forests: As described above, these for hundreds or even thousands of years.
are probably the most valuable single source The oldest known written records of forest
of information. management are 2000 years old and refer
Comparison with other ecologically similar to forests maintained to supply timber for
forests: Even if no nearby forests exist to act Shinto temples in Japan. Records from
as a reference, use of cumulative data around written histories, religious scriptures, sagas,
the world can help to build our understand- and trade accounts can all provide valuable,
ing about a forests ecology. For example, albeit usually fragmentary, information
knowledge about breeding patterns and pop- about forests. Many supposedly natural
ulation in many birds of prey allows ornithol- forests in the U.K. can be traced back to
ogists to make reasonably good predictions recorded planting (often with the names of
about stable reproduction rates for species the people who planted them). More recent
based on body weight. Understanding about travellers accounts are frequently used to
forest re ecology can, with caution, be trans- provide information on past vegetation
ferred from one ecosystem to another, at patterns, such as the records kept by Italian
least to develop working hypotheses. Other travellers in Eritrea a century ago that
Ancient woodland Woodland that has been in existence for many centuries: precise time varies but in
the U.K., 400 years is commonly used1
Frontier forest Relatively undisturbed and big enough to maintain all their biodiversity, including
viable populations of the wide-ranging species associated with each forest type;
criteria include primarily forested; natural structure, composition, and
heterogeneity; dominated by indigenous tree species2
Native forests Meaning is variable: often forests consisting of species originally found in the area
may be young or old, established or naturally occurring, although in Australia often
used as if it were primary woodland3
Old-growth in the Pacic A forest stand usually at least 180220 years old with moderate to high canopy
Northwest, United States cover; a multi-layered multi-species canopy dominated by large over-storey trees4
Primary woodland Land that has been wooded continuously since the original-natural woodlands were
fragmented. The character of the woodland varies according to how it has been treated.5
Wildwood Wholly natural woodland unaffected by Neolithic or later civilisation6
1
Bunce, 1989.
2
Bryant et al, 1997.
3
Clark, 1992.
4
Johnson et al, 1991.
5
Peterken, 2002.
6
Rackham, 1976.
15. Identifying and Using Reference Landscapes for Restoration 113
now provide information for restoration is derived from more detailed tertiary
activities. sources.145
Forest fragments: Even quite unnatural
forest fragments or remnant microhabitats
can with care and caution, be used as partial 4. Future Needs
surrogates in areas where full reference
forests no longer exist. For instance, park Although a lot of the tools are in place, there is
land and hedgerows both contain important still little experience in combining them to
elements of natural forests in Western develop realistic targets for restoration exer-
Europe and can help set targets for restora- cises. Gaps go right back to the philosophical
tion. Similarly sacred sites, preserved for roots of restoration and at what is being aimed
religious reasons, can contain species that forfor example, original vegetation or just a
have disappeared from the surrounding area, workable ecosystem at the present time. Much
as in forest gardens and sacred groves in, better understanding of the likely process of
for instance, Indonesia, Laos, China, Kenya, forest restoration itself is needed, along with
and Malawi. more accurate methods of measuring progress.
Pollen analysis and soil microcarbon analysis:
Analysis of pollen in peat cores, lake beds, or
soil proles can identify plants from thou- References
sands of years ago, as pollen is highly resist-
ant to decay, particularly in the anaerobic Broekmeyer, M.E.A., Vos, W., and Koop, H., eds.
conditions found in peat, and can often be 1993. European Forest Reserves. Pudic Scientic
identied to the level of individual species. Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Analysis along a core can show how vegeta- Bryant, D., Nielsen, D., and Tangley, L. 1997. The Last
tion changed over time, the presence and fre- Frontier Forests: Ecosystems and economies on
the edge. World Resources Institute, Washington,
quency of res, and sometimes information
DC.
about pollution. Such analysis is often the Bunce, R.G.H. 1989. A Field Key for Classifying
only sure way of building a picture of past British Woodland Vegetation. Institute of Terres-
vegetation where changes have been dra- trial Ecology and HMSO, London.
matic and living reference landscapes have Clark, J. 1992. The future for native logging in
disappeared. Australia. Centre for Resource and Environmen-
Gap analysis using enduring features: This tal Studies Working Paper 1992/1. The Australia
approach consists of a coarse-lter conserva- National University, Canberra.
tion assessment of protected areas based on Iacobelli, T., Kavanagh, K., and Rowe, S. 1994. A
a landscape approach using enduring fea- Protected Areas Gap Analysis Methodology: Plan-
tures (essentially land forms or physical ning for the Conservation of Biodiversity. World
Wildlife Fund Canada, Toronto.
habitats) as geographic units that reect bio-
Janzen, D.H. 2002. Tropical dry forest: Area de Con-
logical diversity. The gap analysis involves servacin Guanacaste, northwestern Costa Rica.
three main stages. First, natural regional In: Perrow, M.R., Davy, A.J., eds. Handbook of
frameworks are reviewed to ensure that Ecological Restoration, vol. 2, Restoration in Prac-
natural region boundaries reect broad phys- tice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,
iographic and climatic gradients. Next, within pp. 559583.
each natural region maps are used to identify Johnson, K.N., Franklin, J.F., Thomas, J.W., and
enduring features. An enduring feature is a Gordon, J. 1991. Alternatives to Late-Successional
land form or landscape element or unit Forests of the Pacic Northwest. A Report to the
within a natural region characterised by rel- US House of Representatives, Washington, DC.
atively uniform origin of parent material, Luoma, J.R. 1999. The Hidden Forest: The Biography
of an Ecosystem. Owl Books, New York.
texture of parent material, and topography-
relief. Finally, the relationship of biodiver-
sity to enduring features of the landscape 145
Iacobelli et al, 1994.
114 N. Dudley
Moussouris, Y., and Regato, P. 1999. Forest harvest: Peterken G. 2002. Reversing the Habitat Fragmen-
Mediterranean woodlands and the importance of tation of British Woodlands. WWF UK, Goldalm-
non-timber forest products to forest conservation. ing, UK.
Arborvitae supplement, WWF and IUCN, Gland, Rackham, O. 1976.Trees and Woodland in the British
Switzerland. Landscape. Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London.
Peterken, G.F. 1996. Natural Woodland: Ecology and
Conservation in Northern Temperate Regions.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
16
Mapping and Modelling as Tools to
Set Targets, Identify Opportunities,
and Measure Progress
Thomas F. Allnutt
115
116 T.F. Allnutt
of targets, biological and socioeconomic. Al- To evaluate species-based targets, one rst
though not all targets are spatial in nature needs to know the current distribution of all
(e.g., prevent the extinction of species x), target species within the landscape at the nest
many are. Some examples of spatial targets level of detail possible. Range maps are one
include Protect x hectares of habitat y or potential surrogate for this information and
Establish x hectares of community forest they are increasingly available for a number of
reserves. Planning for and evaluating progress taxa worldwide.149 In other cases, modelling
toward a target such as the latter type requires may be used to predict species distributions
appropriate spatial data. from eld collections coupled with environ-
mental data.150 Often, and particularly at ne
scales, eld-based inventories will be required
1.1.1. Biological Targets
to assess the presence or absence of certain key
Often, biological targets are derived directly species.
from existing large-scale conservation plan- Another common type of biological target
ning processes such as ecoregion conservation involves particular habitat and/or vegetation
(ERC).146 An initial product of an ERC vision types. Several sources of data are available to
is a set of priority landscapes designed to meet evaluate this type of target. Existing maps and
specic biological objectives, such as the con- classications are often used, from national or
servation of an endangered primate. Where this regional inventories, for example. In other
is the case, these targets can be used directly to cases, new maps may be created from raw pho-
prioritise and implement restoration areas, for tographs or the processing of photographs or
example, preferentially conduct restoration digital images. The most widespread source
adjacent to known populations of the target is remote sensingtypically photographs or
primate. digital imagery from airplanes or satellite-
In other cases, no such information may exist. borne sensors. New, high-resolution imagery
Here, participants may rely on basic principles (submetre) provides a good source for mapping
of biological conservation to guide what targets natural habitats as well as human land uses,
to select, and thus what spatial data sets are though cost can be a signicant constraint.
needed. In general, space-based biological tar- In areas of high species and habitat hetero-
gets involve individual species (e.g., cheetah),147 geneity, optical remote-sensing may not be able
habitat, or vegetation types (e.g., wetlands), or to distinguish biological differences to a neces-
ecological and evolutionary processes (e.g., sary degree. Forest that is indistinguishable
migration, hydrology).148 Targets for these fea- spectrallyfrom the perspective of a camera
tures are typically expressed as quantitative or satelliteis often very diverse biologically.
areas or percentages of the total distribution of Here, habitat modelling can be used to map
the biological element in question (e.g., 1000 areas where one expects species to differ sig-
hectares of oak-savannah). nicantly. A range of approaches are available,
Once biological targets are established, from the quick and approximate, to more
several classes of spatial data are necessary to formal statistical methods.151 Elevation, for
map where they may be achieved on the example, is often used as a proxy for species
ground. In many cases, existing map sources distributions, and can be used to quickly divide
may be used; in others, maps will have to be a continuously mapped forest type into several
created using modelling or technologies such as or more forest habitats (lowland, sub-montane,
remote sensing. montane, etc.).
146 149
Dinerstein et al, 2000. Ridgely et al, 2003.
147 150
Lambeck, 1997. Boitani et al, 1999.
148 151
Pressey et al, 2003. Ferrier et al, 2002.
16. Mapping and Modelling 117
The spatial conguration of the restoration from aerial and remote sensing sources coupled
landscape is of critical importance for biodi- with ground truth. The map of current land uses
versity conservation for several reasons. One, serves as the starting point; a map of future land
the long-term survival of many species often uses shows those areas where changes in land
depends directly on the size and connectivity of uses will be necessary to meet socioeconomic
available habitat. The reasons for this are gen- targets.
erally (a) individuals and populations require
sufcient outbreeding opportunities that are
only available in habitat blocks of a particular 1.1.3. Land Tenure and Land Value
size, and (b) the species in question has ecolog-
The legal status and ownership of land (land
ical requirements (e.g., seasonal migration) that
tenure) within the landscape, and the economic
require large connected blocks of habitat. In
value of that land are also important for plan-
both cases, research may be necessary to assess
ning forest landscape restoration. Sometimes
the habitat conguration necessary for the
this information can be derived from existing
target species. Two, many environmental and
maps available from local or national govern-
ecological processes will not be maintained
ment organisations, particularly in the case of
once habitat fragments drop below a particular
land tenure. In other cases, ground surveys will
threshold of isolation or fragmentation. The
need to be conducted to establish tenure and
maintenance of natural hydrological ows in
land value of unknown areas. Spatial economic
watersheds, for example, can depend on the size
modelling has also been used to estimate land
and connectivity of intact forest blocks.
value. Rules are constructed that allow one to
estimate the value of every parcel of land
1.1.2. Socioeconomic Targets within the area of interest, based on variables
such as market access, for example.
The second major class of targets are socioeco-
nomic. In some cases, socioeconomic targets
will have been specied when the landscape
1.3. Mapping Opportunities:
was identied within a priority setting exercise
Integrating Biological and
(e.g., the visioning process in ecoregion conser-
Socioeconomic Data to Meet
vation), though this is less often the case than
Targets and Map Opportunities
with biological targets. Socioeconomic targets
that require spatial data generally specify target Some areas are more suitable than others for
amounts of land uses within the landscape. This particular uses. Analysis of spatial data has the
may involve zoning one portion of the land- potential to efciently allocate areas to one use
scape for a particular land use. For example, or another. This idea is formalised in land-use
participants may wish to have one third of the plans or more formally via suitability modelling
landscape devoted to community forestry. In otherwise known as multicriteria evaluation
other cases, the entire landscape (apart from (MCE).152
those areas reserved for biodiversity conser- Suitability modelling or MCE using GIS
vation) may be zoned for particular land uses, can be used to systematically combine spatial,
akin to a traditional land-use plan or zoning biological, physical and socioeconomic data
map. detailed above in order to meet biological and
Mapping areas to meet socioeconomic socioeconomic objectives via restoration. Here
targets requires a detailed and up-to-date land- are two generic examples:
cover map. This map shows the current distri-
1. Map suitability for a single biological or
bution of natural and human-oriented areas in
socioeconomic target. As an example, imagine
as much detail and at as ne a scale as possible
and it can be derived from existing land-use/
land-cover maps for the area, or may be created 152
Eastman et al, 1993.
118 T.F. Allnutt
conjunction with a set of stakeholders from tion research and spatial decision making with
the region. Similarly, GIS is being used in GIS. Recently, several new GIS models are in
Madagascar to map and prioritise suitable use that have been used extensively for spatial
areas for restoration within a large landscape planning in conservation, notably C-Plan156 and
that needs to be restored. Here, biological SITES/Marxan.157 These particular applications
targets are being established for six IUCN red- are currently, generally speaking, spatial opti-
listed vertebrates. Criteria are being established misation tools designed to meet representation
to map suitable habitat for each species in order targets in conservation plans. There is tremen-
to evaluate current status within the landscape. dous potential, however, especially with the
Where current habitat is insufcient for long- simulated-annealing algorithm used by Marxan
term viability of each population, areas will be (and now SPOT among other tools) to optimise
prioritised for restoration based on connectiv- any given set of objectives (such as restoration)
ity, proximity to known populations, and habitat in a spatial model. Research is urgently needed
characteristics. Socioeconomic data will be used to expand these tools to meet other objectives
as a constraint where options exist to meet bio- beyond simple reservation and representation.
logical targets. This work is in its initial stages
and is expected to continue through 2005.
References
3. Outline of Tools Boitani, L. (coordinator), Corsi, F., De Biase, A., et
al. 1999.A databank for the conservation and man-
Standard vector-based GIS softwareESRI agement of African Mammals. Institute of Applied
(ArcMap, ArcView, Arcinfo)is the standard Ecology, Rome, Italy.
GIS virtually worldwide. It is available at low Dinerstein, E., Powell, G., Olson, D. et al. 2000.
A Workbook for Conducting Biological Assess-
cost to conservation organisations, and it per-
ments and Developing Biodiversity Visions
forms all types of GIS functions, from basic for Ecoregion-Based Conservation. Conservation
mapping to advanced analyses, especially when Science Programme, World Wildlife Fund,
customised or linked to other programmes Washington, DC.
(e.g., statistical software, etc.). Eastman, J.R., Kyem, P.A.K., Toledano, J., and Jin, W.
Standard raster-based GISIDRISI, ESRI 1993. GIS and Decision Making, UNITAR. Explo-
(Spatial Analyst, GRID for Arcview, ArcMap, rations in GIS Technology, Vol. 4. UNITAR,
and Arcinfo), ERDAS. The IDRISI and ESRI Geneva.
products are low cost (for educational or non- Eghenter, C. 2000. Mapping Peoples Forests: The
prot companies) GISs capable of doing raster- Role of Mapping in Planning Community-Based
based analyses (e.g., most analyses involving Management of Conservation Areas in Indonesia.
Biodiversity Support Programme, Washington,
remotely sensed imagery). IDRISI includes
DC.
functions for easily stepping through suitability Ferrier, S. 2002. Mapping spatial pattern in biodiver-
models and MCE as part of its decision support sity for regional conservation planning: where to
package. ERDAS is a much more expensive from here? Systematic Biology 51:331363.
software designed primarily to analyse satellite Halperin, J.J., Shear, T.H., Munishi, P.K.T., and
imagery and other remotely sensed data. Wentworth, T.R. 2004. Multiple-objective forestry
planning in biodiversity hotspots of east Africa.
In preparation.
4. Future Needs Herrman, S., and Osinski, E. 1999. Planning sustain-
able land use in rural areas at different spatial
A key need is for participatory GIS-based deci- levels using GIS and modelling tools. Landscape
and Urban Planning 46:93101.
sion-support tools designed specically for
restoration in a biodiversity conservation con-
text. Similarly, research is needed into tools to 156
Pressey et al, 1995
strengthen linkages between site-based restora- 157
Leslie et al, 2003; McDonnell et al, 2002.
120 T.F. Allnutt
Lambeck, R.J. 1997. Focal species: a multi-species UNEP-WCMC. 2003. Spatial analysis as a decision
umbrella for nature conservation. Conservation support tool for forest landscape restoration.
Biology 11:849856. Report to WWF.
Leslie, H., Ruckelshaus, R., Ball, I.R., Andelman, S.,
and Possingham, H.P. 2003. Using siting algorithms
in the design of marine reserve networks. Ecolog-
ical Applications 13:S185S198. Additional Reading
McDonnell, M.D., Possingham, H.P., Ball, I.R., and
Cousins, E.A. 2002. Mathematical methods for George, T.L., and Zack, S. 2001. Spatial and tempo-
spatially cohesive reserve design. Environmental ral considerations in restoring habitat for wildlife.
Modelling and Assessment 7:107114. Restoration Ecology 9:272.
Pressey, R.L., Cowling, R.M., and Rouget, M. 2003. Huxel, G.R., and Hastings, A. 2001. Habitat loss, frag-
Formulating conservation targets for biodiversity mentation, and restoration. Restoration Ecology
pattern and process in the Cape Floristic Region, 7:309.
South Africa. Biological Conservation 112:99127. Jankowski, P., and Nyerges, T. 2001. Geographic
Pressey, R.L., Ferrier, S., Hutchinson, C.D., Sivertsen, Information Systems for Group Decision Making.
D.P., and Manion, G. 1995. Planning for negotia- Taylor and Francis, New York.
tion: using an interactive geographic information Loiselle, B.A., Howell, C.A. Graham, C.H., et al.
system to explore alternative protected area net- 2003. Avoiding pitfalls of using species distribution
works. In: Saunders, D.A., Craig, J.L., Mattiske, models in conservation planning. Conservation
E.M., eds. Nature Conservation: The Role of Net- Biology 6:15911600.
works. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney, pp. 2333. Wickam, J.D., Jones, B.K., Riiters, K.H., Wade, T.G.,
Ridgely, R.S., Allnutt, T.F. Brooks, T., et al. 2003. and ONeill, R.V. 1999. Transitions in forest frag-
Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the mentation: implications for restoration opportuni-
Western Hemisphere. Version 1.0. CD-ROM. ties at regional scales. Landscape Ecology 14:
NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. 137145.
17
Policy Interventions for Forest
Landscape Restoration
Nigel Dudley
121
122 N. Dudley
modify the way in which funds are used, both of forest management including natural regen-
to increase natural forest restoration and to eration and increase of retention of deadwood
ensure that established forests are retained and and humus components. Research suggests that
gain higher value (see detailed case study innovative use of carbon markets has aided
Monitoring Forest Landscape Restoration in forest regeneration, with the side benet of also
Vietnam). increasing tourism in these areas.162
161 162
Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 2002. Miranda et al, 2004.
124 N. Dudley
need to establish a biodiversity monitoring including both ofcial incentive schemes and
system in partnership with WWF, in order incentives through the market, such as certi-
to dene guidelines for ecological quarry cation. Targeted incentives have been used very
rehabilitation. successfully to encourage restoration, for
In 2001 Lafarge adopted a formal quarry instance through conservation easements to
rehabilitation policy with the participation of take land out of production, as has occurred
WWF to spread best practice in terms of quar- widely in the U.S., through direct support for
rying work and relations with local stakehold- tree planting as successfully implemented on
ers. The most important elements of this policy a large scale in parts of Pakistan, or through
are to plan restoration from the outset and tax incentives as in several Latin American
coordinate restoration with quarrying activities. countries.164
In addition to biodiversity issues, land planning Case studies show that restoration can work
considerations are also taken into account and pay for itself. The case of the restored
when dening a rehabilitation project in order quarry near Mombasa showed that restoration
both to preserve the environment and to gen- was not an impossibly expensive task and
erate income for the local communities. In this helped to encourage Lafarge, the company con-
framework quarry rehabilitation often leads to cerned, to introduce a wider policy. Case studies
the creation of wetlands and natural reserves or only work, however, if they are carefully pre-
leisure areas. pared and include all the relevant information
needed to make policy decisions, and if they
reach the attention of the right policy makers.
3. Outline of Tools Advocacy entails campaigns or lobbying
to encourage change.165 Targeted lobbying has
Stimulating policy changes requires hard and been successful, for example, in changing some
convincing analysis, including economic analy- conditions in the Kyoto Protocol to allow
sis, a clear message, and sometimes some tar- greater latitude for natural regeneration.
geted and effective advocacy. In cases where Codes of practice are developed by working
nancial support is being changed around in with other stakeholders (e.g., industry) to agree
favour of more balanced forms of restoration, and implement them voluntarily and to encour-
it may also include economic incentives. Some age restoration. The International Tropical Tim-
key tools are as follows: ber Organisation recently completed detailed
Economic analysis is useful to make the case guidelines for natural regeneration, in associa-
for restoration or for different kinds of restora- tion with IUCN and WWF, which provide an
tion. Examples might include demonstrating example of this approach.166 As with case
that retention of deadwood within managed studies, however, such codes are only worth the
forests does not entail excessive cost, or investment in developing them if they are
showing that natural regeneration is cheaper implemented in practice.
than replanting. For example, a WWF/World
Bank economic analysis convinced the govern-
ment of Bulgaria to change plans for establish- 4. Future Needs
ing intensive poplar plantations on islands in the
Danube with natural regeneration,163 and an Many of these ideas remain in their infancy. We
analysis for Forestry Commission economists in still require far better understanding of the
Wales, U.K., persuaded the government agency economic and other benets of environmental
to use natural regeneration in an area of forest goods and services from restoration in order to
because it proved cheaper than replanting. make the case, for example, for natural regen-
Economic incentives encourage individuals
and groups to make space for restoration, 164
Piskulich, 2001.
165
Byers, 2000.
163 166
Ecott, 2002. ITTO, 2002.
17. Policy Interventions for Forest Landscape Restoration 125
eration rather than other land uses or for Joint Nature Conservation Committee. 2002. Envi-
changes in major funding initiatives such as ronmental effects of the Common Agricultural
those under the European Common Agricul- Policy and possible mitigation measures. Report to
tural Policy. More generally, major changes are the Department of Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs, Peterborough, UK.
still needed in global trade policy to remove the
Miranda, M., Moreno, M.L., and Porras, I.T. 2004.The
perverse incentives that currently act against
social impacts of carbon markets in Costa Rica:
restoration in many areas. the case of the Huetar Norte region. Internatio-
nal Institute of Environment and Development,
London.
Piskulich, Z. 2001. Incentives for the Conservation of
Private Lands in Latin America. Biodiversity
References Support Programme.The Nature Conservancy and
USAID, Arlington, Virginia.
Byers, B. 2000. Understanding and Inuencing Rotbergs, U. 1994. Forests and forestry in Latvia. In:
Behaviour. Biodiversity Support Programme, Paulenka, J., and Paule, L., eds. Conservation of
Washington DC Forests in Central Europe. Arbora Publishers,
Ecott, T. 2002. Forest Landscape Restoration: Zvolen, Slovakia.
Working Examples from Five Ecoregions. WWF, Sithole, B. 2000. Where the Power Lies: Multiple
Gland, Switzerland. Stakeholder Politics Over Natural ResourcesA
International Tropical Timber Organisation. 2002. Participatory Methods Guide. Center for Interna-
ITTO Guidelines for the Restoration, Man- tional Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia.
agement and Rehabilitation of Degraded and Tarasofsky, R. 1999. Assessing the International
Secondary Tropical Forests. ITTO, Yokohama, Forest Regime. IUCN Environmental Law Centre,
Japan Bonn, Germany.
18
Negotiations and Conict
Management
Scott Jones and Nigel Dudley
126
18. Negotiations and Conict Management 127
Figure 18.1. Building blocks in the conict management process: elements in a conict situation.
Acknowledge
and embrace
different
Test perceptions Accommodate
agreement(s) for cultural
achievability differences
[reality testing]
Try to achieve
mutual gainsaim Seek and
to achieve early engage with
agreement on diversity
something
Widen Understand
options and try to
before equalize
narrowing to Focus on power
solutions underlying
needs, not initial
demands
Process management is about how to build limits of your inuence, see Figure 18.2), using
and maintain effective ways of working with certain tools (e.g., stakeholder and gender
the parties, to retain exibility and patience, analysis), and applying key experience (e.g.,
while still keeping focussed on outcomes and with similar projects or with these people in
working toward success on the criteria that other projects). They also require key people
stakeholders have agreed to, for example, skills, among the most important of which are
how to convene an effective meeting with maintaining good rapport and effective com-
clear goals, or how to monitor an agreement. munications, and effectively engaging with the
multiple perspectives.169
Achieving these things requires adhering to
certain principles (e.g., mutual respect, being 168a
Modied from Warner, 2001.
accountable, recognising the potential and 169
Jones, 1998.
18. Negotiations and Conict Management 129
The loggers simply dont want to negotiate at government and the large Geneva-based and
all. They are going to go ahead and cut Washington, DCbased agencies.
those trees. BATNAPossibly see if a mediator can be
BATNAWhat about going to the news- found who would be acceptable to both
papers? Let the media know that this sides.
biodiversity hotspot is threatened and The negotiations went well and trust is high,
local people are suffering. but the government was unable to agree
The donor is not able to give you another grant involvement of their ofcials due to gov-
to add an extra component to this work. ernment rules.
BATNAPerhaps write a report that helps BATNAPerhaps work with another
to bring the donors expectations in line NGO with relevant expertise that can
with your capacity to deliver. complement you but has no government
The people in the community feel powerless restrictions over committing ofcial
to enter face-to-face negotiations with the staff.
bilities. At other times, it is a hard task to iden- to oil palm, they are now gradually allocating
tify any agency that feels able to take manage- part of their land for natural regeneration
ment responsibility. Again, this is an opportunity and plantation of local species (for more on
to explore why, and to undertake a collective this example see Restoring Quality in Exist-
search for a solution that supports stakeholders ing Native Forest Landscapes).
who are willing to put their names forward. In Jordan, negotiation between goat herders
and park authorities ensured a reduction
1.5. Negotiation Health Warning in grazing, thus allowing for more natural
regeneration (for more on this example see
Finally, it is important to note that like other Restoration of Protected Area Values).
aspects of conict management, negotiation is
a culturally bound process. Different societies,
groups, agencies, and organisations all have 3. Outline of Tools
different cultures and approaches to managing
conict. While much of the literature on nego- Learning and applying the tools and skills for
tiations is Western and business-oriented, there successful conict management cannot come
needs to be a high degree of cultural sensitivity from reading books or attending courses alone,
and contextually located understanding to but also involves long periods of trial and error,
proceed with negotiations, especially where and observationlearning by doing. Many
many different cultures are involved in multi- participatory techniques described elsewhere in
stakeholder negotiations. this book are relevant. Tools and skill sets for
conict management that are particularly rele-
vant include those relating to analysis, capacity
2. Examples building,communications,creative thinking,nego-
tiation, and project and process management.
There is very limited experience in applying
conict resolution and negotiation skills to
landscape initiatives in forest restoration. We 3.1. Negotiation Process
highlight here just a few examples from other
Negotiating involves meeting to discuss ways of
chapters in this book that have shown some
reaching a mutual agreement or arrangement.
successful or interesting outcomes through
A negotiation is a voluntary process in which
negotiations.
each person or group (often called a party) has
In Vietnam, a three-dimensional paper and a position that is not xed, but that does have
cardboard model was used to bring stake- its limits. A successful negotiation can create a
holders together around their landscape sense of ownership and commitment to shared
to identify specic elements within it. The solutions and shared follow-up actions. This
process was aimed at reconciling different sense of ownership and commitment makes
views of the landscape and what it could look negotiated solutions often more desirable, for
like in the future. It provided those around example, than legal solutions, where one party
the model with the opportunity to express may feel it lost out. In a conict, some things
their views on the importance of different cannot be negotiated, and some things can.
elements in the landscape (more information Usually it turns out that many more things can
on this example can be found in Assessing be negotiated than people rst thought. This is
and Addressing Threats in Restoration Pro- another reason why negotiated agreements are
grammes). a valuable way, though not the only way, of
In Malaysia, an ongoing negotiation process trying to manage conicts in forest landscape
with oil palm plantation companies is gradu- restoration. It follows that a rst step in nego-
ally ensuring a change in the companies poli- tiation is reaching agreement on what is nego-
cies related to restoration. Whereas initially tiable. Successful negotiations follow certain
the companies converted their entire estates important principles (see Box 18.2) and require
18. Negotiations and Conict Management 131
Box 18.2. Some Principles and Skills Involved in Negotiating Forest Landscape
Restoration (See also Figure 18.2)
Be clear on what everyone means by the The more you know about the others
issue and the problems, opportunities, and position, the better able you are to nd
people/agencies involved consensus-based solutions; do some
Adopt a positive attitude, for example, being homework to nd out their situation
clear that conicts are not just problems Maintain a creative, positive approach
but also opportunities Use paraphrasing and other communication
Have in mind some kind of a route map, skills to understand and describe the
some idea about ways in which key stake- others points
holders wish to proceed Create a positive environment for the
Address role, responsibility, and legitimacy negotiation (think about the physical set-
issues, including the limitations (bound- ting, the comfort and acceptability of the
aries) to your negotiating authority place, the time, and the way you manage
Build and maintain effective rapport and yourself)
relationships Look for an early, small successes (reach
Active listening agreement on something early, even if
Identify high-quality, relevant questions that is just the venue, then emphasise that
Embrace multiple perspectives and agreement; common groundstart small)
perceptions Make sure your preparations are as com-
Build on what is already there (including cul- plete and accurate as possible. Write down
tural aspects of conict management and what you have done to prepare. Check
problem solving) with a colleague. Check with another col-
Consider process (law, custom, institutional) league. Seek constructive feedback.
as well as structural conicts and conicts
of interest Keep in mind:
Keep in mind options for withdrawing or not
1. The process and conict management
getting involved further
style
Keep an eye on capacity building for
2. Your goals and boundaries (your limit or
self-development and organisational
bottom line)
development
3. Opportunities to address power inequalities
Separate and focus on the problem and not
4. Your colleagues needs, expectations, and
the personalities
ability to act as resources
Separate and focus on underlying needs and
5. Your personal values and principles
motivations, not initial positions
6. Time and space for reframing issues
Know what you would do if the negotiations
7. Capacity building needs that may emerge
did not work, perhaps because the other
8. The needs for more analysis that may
party broke the ground rules or tried to
emerge
use unacceptable force (this is also called
knowing your BATNA: best alternative to Multiple perspectives and perceptions can
a negotiated agreement; see Box 18.1) be useful. A diversity of opinion helps us
Seek, explore, and emphasise common shed light on the issue from different direc-
ground tions. Treat difference and diversity not as an
Put your case in terms of their needs, not just emotional trigger to ght against, but as a
why you want something moment of opportunity to engage with.
132 S. Jones and N. Dudley
knowledge, skills, and a positive attitude. It is ment, project management, and development
helpful to look at each of these things in rela- can be brought to bear in conict management.
tion to three phases in negotiations: Examples include participatory appraisal,170
a variety of approaches for measuring and
Preparationwhat we need to do before the
analysing sustainability,171 and more general
negotiation
tools that help to frame and guide further
Negotiation itselfcould take place in one
analysis, such as STEEP, SWOT, problem trees,
meeting or over several meetings
and forceeld analyses.172 The key is to use
Follow-upwhat we need to do after the nego-
those that are relevant for different stakehold-
tiation is over and agreement has been reached
ers and that help to bring understanding and
A negotiation can happen at any time. wider perspectives on the issues. Key analytical
Entering a community or a government of- tools, though, include the following:
cials ofce may require a negotiation.The gate-
Stakeholder analysis173
keeper may want to know some details before
Conict mapping and situation analysis174
people just walk in, including when a group or
Tools that address power relations, culture,
agency will arrive, how long it will stay, under
and gender175
whose authority, with what level of formality,
and to do what. A variety of analytical tools can feed into a
Having agreed to who are the stakeholders summary conict analysis. Conict analysis can
who need to be involved, a process of negotia- be done in the ofce (alone or in a group) or in
tions in forest landscape restoration will prob- the eld (for example, in participatory exer-
ably look something like this: cises) or in combination. Successful analyses
are clear about who undertook the analysis,
1. Each group works to understand the
when, and why, and make it clear how different
other groups initial positions relating to the
groups were involved in verifying and agreeing
landscape.
to analysis summaries from different stake-
2. Each group then asks high-quality ques-
holder perspectives. Of course, as events change
tions and uses listening skills to try to under-
and time moves on, analyses need to be revis-
stand underlying needs, fears, and motivations
ited. This is especially important when new
in identifying restoration interventions.
stakeholders enter the picture or established
3. The parties try to deploy creative thinking
stakeholders leave, and when critical events
and other skills to generate a wide range of
change key stakeholders circumstances.
options that could address these needs, fears,
Analysis helps to identify the domain of con-
and motivations.
ict (e.g., domestic, social, cultural, economic, or
4. This range of options is prioritised and
political) and whether conict is nested within
brought together in ways that allow everyone
several domains. Conict mapping with key
to gain as much as possible.
individuals or stakeholder groups, can help to
5. An agreement is sought, to which every-
summarise information and show up major
one can commit.
differences and possible ways forward. One
6. That agreement is tested against the real
example is given as a matrix (Fig. 18.3).
world to make sure it is achievable.
However, ow charts, Venn diagrams, and other
7. The parties agree on the next steps, on
visually powerful mapping tools can help
how to manage the restoration interventions
and the resources that are needed, and on
ways of monitoring the agreements and com- 170
Jackson and Ingles, 1998; www.fao.org/participation.
mitments they have made. 171
Bell and Morse, 2003; Dalal-Clayton and Bass, 2002.
172
Pretty et al, 1995.
3.2. Analytical Tools 173
DFID, 2002b, section 2; Ramirez, 1999; Richards et al,
2003.
A large number of analytical tools and skills 174
DFID, 2002b, section 3; Fisher et al, 2000; Wehr, 1998.
that are used in participatory forest manage- 175
Fisher et al, 2000.
18. Negotiations and Conict Management 133
communicate the outcomes from an analysis. It capacity building.176 Capacity building actions
is important to remember, though, that the also need to be linked with reection, so that
process of analysis itself is a part of managing interventions can be monitored and evaluated
conict. Done well, the process itself can help on an ongoing basis. This process, too, helps to
foster trust and mutual understanding. An early build condence and trust, when people appre-
agreement on the individual and collective ciate the fact that someone somewhere is taking
concerns and opportunities can help establish responsibility for empowering key stakeholders
the stage for positive negotiation of emerging to participate effectively.
issues.
3.4. Effective Communications
3.3. Capacity Building
Building and maintaining effective communi-
Undertaking a process of analysis often re- cations are key aspects of conict management
quires capacity building. Some stakeholders and multi-stakeholder partnerships in forest
will be familiar with negotiating from a business landscape restoration. Providing, managing,
perspective. Others will see negotiations as using, and facilitating access to information is
embedded within their own culture and part of any communication strategy.177 What is
societythe way they negotiate and problem additionally important in conict management
solve will be different. Others may use legal is ensuring that these things translate into
frameworks or a scientic approach to analysis. meaningful understanding. Indeed, effective
Again, addressing the process of analysis is communications are vital to generating and dis-
itself a part of the overall approach to manag- seminating the high levels of understanding of
ing conict. Capacity building skills and tools different stakeholders perspectives and needs
may need to be deployed at an early stage. that good conict management requires. Some
Identifying and responding to gaps in conict aspects of effective communications relate to
management skills or to gaps in resources general communications strategies: the frame-
requires a sophisticated approach to capacity works and mechanisms for enabling stakehold-
building backed up by appropriate levels of ers to engage with one another on relevant
resourcing (e.g., for training and stakeholder matters. This includes documents, meetings, the
support). Building capacity is best seen as an use of different media, and an overall informa-
ongoing activity rather than a linear one. High- tion, communication, and monitoring manage-
quality capacity building forms part of address- ment system, such as a logical framework or
ing inequalities in power relations. Strengths
and needs analysis and some form of training 176
Bartram and Gibson, 1997.
needs analysis are important rst steps in 177
Dalal-Clayton and Bass, 2002, Ch. 8.
134 S. Jones and N. Dudley
On-off listeningdrifting off into per- dent become more important than what
sonal affairs while someone is talking people are saying themselves
Switch off listeningwords that irritate us Fact listeningwe try to remember facts
so that we stop listening but the speaker has gone on to new facts
Open earsclosed mind listeningwe and we become lost
decide the speaker is boring and think that Pencil listeningtrying to put down on
we can predict what he or she will say, so paper everything the speaker says usually
we stop listening means we are bound to lose some of it and
Glassy eyed listening eye contact is also lost
Too deep for me listeningwhen ideas are Hubbub listeningthere are many dis-
complex or complicated there is a danger tractions that we listen to instead
we will switch off Ive got something to contribute listen-
Matter over mind listeningwhen a ingsomething the speaker says triggers
speaker says something that clashes with something in our own mind and we are so
what we think and believe strongly, we eager to contribute that we stop listening
may stop listening
Being subject-centred instead of speaker- An awareness of the above barriers to lis-
centreddetails and facts about an inci- tening can be a rst step in avoiding them.
Adapted from training materials, Centre for International Development and Training, University of Wolverhampton, UK.
action plan. Other aspects relate more to inter- thinking is about breaking these patterns to
personal communications, such as getting the look at situations in new waysthinking
balance right between telling and asking, or outside the box. Creative thinking is an
become a good listener (Box 18.3). important asset to conict management at all
In dealing with conict, one important dis- stages, not just analysis. Often, a breakthrough
tinction is between telling and asking. Giving can come when creative thinking allows the sit-
free information is an important part of uation to be reframedchanging the way we
building communications. However, if one is construct and represent the conict.178 Reach-
usually telling people, this can be perceived ing agreement requires strong skills in synthe-
as aggressive and dominating (e.g., Im going sisthinking creatively about how to develop
to tell you what the law saysand that is the an agreement and monitoring process that
end of the story). Asking relevant questions in everyone can live with can be challenging. A
an involving, open way can communicate a number of tools exist that can help enhance
sense of concern and interest, that someone has peoples creative thinking skills. One-on-one
bothered to identify questions that may help and in small groups, good facilitators and train-
mutual understanding. Of course, a balance ers can help to build creative thinking skills.
between the two is needed. Where things get trickier is moving through
organisations management and decision-
making structures to translate the creative,
3.5. Creative Thinking useful thoughts into actions that are helpful.
People and agencies tend to think and react in Creative thinking is culturally embedded.
the ways that they always have done. The way Indeed, culture plays a major part in resisting
we think is constrained by many things, includ-
ing our experience, worldview, education, and
degree of comfort with new ideas. Creative 178
Lewicki et al, 2003.
18. Negotiations and Conict Management 135
136
19. Practical Interventions that Will Support Restoration 137
tion, for instance, short-term measures may be Assisted natural regeneration (mainly some
needed even while long-term planning is still in land preparation and weeding around regen-
process. None of the proposed interventions erating species)
below replace larger scale efforts, nor are they Planting with native species (using species
meant to be implemented in isolation from a adapted to local conditions and including if
broad-scale planning process. Rather, they are possible both commercially valuable diptero-
to be seen as elements of the larger process and carp trees and fruit trees)
as possible entry points; success at a small scale Planting an exotic species as a nurse crop to
is one of the most effective ways of gaining foster natural regeneration
support for larger-scale programmes.
Each approach is to be monitored on a
When selecting one of the proposed entry
regular basis in order to determine which one
points listed below (see Outline of Tools), it is
yields the highest survival rates. The long-term
important to think of the desired impact of this
aim of this research is to disseminate the most
tactical intervention:
suitable restoration methods in all the areas set
Is it to inuence a specic group of stake- aside for restoration along this important bio-
holders? Which one and what is the desired diversity corridor.
effect?
Is it to understand better the dynamics (bio-
2.2. Changing the Forest Policy in
logical or social) in the landscape?
Bulgaria Thanks to a Cost-
Is it to change sociopolitical conditions in
Benet Analysis182
the landscape before engaging in restoration
within the landscape? Which conditions? Bulgarias 75 islands on the Danube river are
And what is the most cost-effective way to rich in biodiversity, and are an important
change them? stopover site for migratory birds. Yet, over the
What are the resources (human and nan- last 40 years, the government has systematically
cial) and time involved? Can we afford converted natural oodplain forest to hybrid
them? poplar plantations to supply the local timber
What are the priority issues that need industry. Until the year 2000, the government
addressing soonest? had plans to continue conversion of this
ecosystem, leaving only 7 percent of the origi-
nal forest. Thanks to a comprehensive cost-
benet analysis, sponsored by the World Bank
2. Examples and WWF, it was shown that nancial losses
from suspending timber production on certain
2.1. Research into Different islands could be offset by intensifying produc-
Restoration Methods in tion in areas already converted to poplar
Malaysia plantations. Additional benets that were high-
Some palm oil companies along the Kin- lighted by the analysis included the potential
abatangan River in Sabah, Borneo, have agreed use of original forest for recreational purposes,
to set aside land for restoration. Initial trials improved shing (by creating more spawning
showed limited success. Starting in 2004, in an grounds), the harvest of nontimber forest prod-
effort to identify the most successful techniques ucts, and possible ecotourism development. In
for restoration, tests began using different 2001 the government, therefore, changed its
methods on a small plot of land. These are the policy, adopting one that called for the imme-
methods proposed (during a eld visit by the diate halt of all logging and conversion of
author): oodplain forests to poplar plantations on the
Danube islands, restoration of native species
Natural regeneration with no intervention
(including a smaller study area fenced
against browsing animals) 182
Ecott, 2002.
138 S. Mansourian
in selected sites, as well as strengthening of tions. This is also a necessary choice in cases
the protected areas network on the islands. when a eld project cannot start until the threat
Although a longer term forest landscape has been addressed.
restoration programme for the Danube is Depending on the social and economic
underway, this tactical intervention helped to context, some threats may be much easier to
maintain a unique habitat that might well have address than others. For instance, illegal logging
disappeared before the more detailed pro- is in itself a very complex issue, which may well
gramme was implemented. be beyond the remit of a restoration project.
However, knowledge of key areas affected can
help determine where (or even whether) and
how to establish a restoration programme. It is
3. Outline of Tools important to recognise threats that cannot be
addressed, or resources may be pumped into a
3.1. Focussing on Removing or hopeless situation.
Reducing the Identied Threats
Sometimes it will be sufcient to remove,
3.2. Changing Government Policies
reduce, or mitigate a particular threat or pres-
sure on forests in a landscape to set them on Often, a change in government policy may
a positive path toward regeneration. Because provide the right conditions to promote
threats often originate from political or eco- restoration (also see Policy Interventions for
nomic decisions, changing them may require Forest Landscape Restoration). In some cases
signicant lobbying, backed up by negotiations, it may be necessary to lobby for more sup-
research, and building of strategic partnerships. portive policies, while in others, it may be
If these threats can be reduced or removed, necessary to remove destructive ones. The
natural regeneration can often be signicant (if European Unions (EUs) Common Agricul-
there are no other biophysical constraining ture Policy (CAP) has for instance invested
factors). signicantly in afforestation with limited social
Examples of threats that are common as and ecological results (see case study The
an impediment to natural forest regeneration European Unions afforestation Policies and
include the following: their Real Impact on Forest Restoration).
WWF and other local partners are trying to
Alien invasive species (e.g., electric ants,
address this in many EU countries (particularly
Wasmannia auropunctata, in New Caledonia)
in southern Europe) by demonstrating alterna-
Government incentives that foster forest
tive, more socially and environmentally appro-
conversion (e.g., Chiles subsidies for
priate forms of restoration that could be
plantations)
nanced by the same CAP subsidies. It will be
Infrastructure projects (e.g., the construction
important and relevant to focus efforts on gov-
of the Ho Chi Minh highway in Vietnam)
ernment policies when these have been identi-
Demand for cash crops (e.g., valuable soya
ed as a key factor in causing the loss and
expansion in Paraguay causing forest
degradation of forests (e.g., perverse incen-
conversion)
tives) or when there is a clear opportunity to
Unsustainable agricultural practices (e.g.,
engage the government in supportive policies
Slash and burn agriculture in Madagascar)
(e.g., a new forest plan being developed). In
Illegal logging (e.g., in Indonesia)
some countries, like Vietnam or China, there
Uncontrolled and unnatural res (e.g., in
are huge government programmes promoting
India)
investments in reforestation/afforestation.
Concentrating rst on removal of threats is Because of the scale of these programmes, it is
appropriate when it is clear that addressing the often wiser (and economically more efcient)
identied threat can lead to natural regenera- to engage in these processes than to invest
tion or restoration with only limited interven- efforts in a separate project.
19. Practical Interventions that Will Support Restoration 139
they would like to see restored. For example, Market research: Market research may be
in Vietnam WWF has engaged with commu- helpful when seeking to promote alternative
nities and the provincial government in the income generating activities.
central Annamites to identify the forest Upstream versus downstream: In a landscape
values that have been lost as a starting point context, it may be important to identify
for setting future restoration objectives. the types of activities upstream and their
impact downstream. For example, deforesta-
While recognising the value of forests is one
tion upstream may be causing sedimentation
important step, it is but the rst step. Govern-
problems downstream. To encourage restora-
ments and other decision makers then need
tion within the landscape context, such cause
to take necessary measures to ensure that
and effect will need to be clearly demon-
those values are protected and where relevant
strated to stakeholders and substantiated by
restored.183
suitable research.
The above represent but a few of the numer-
3.6. Specic Research ous research topics. There are many others that
Often a large-scale programme to restore a are specic to different conditions.
range of forest functions cannot start until
a number of specications of the landscape 3.7. Awareness Raising
are better understood. Initial research can be
carried out with limited funds as a way to start If there is no identied need from the local
a larger-scale programme. population for restoration, then attempts at
This research may be related to any of the restoration are likely to fail. It is important to
following, for example: ensure that relevant stakeholders understand
the linkages between restoration and the things
Restoration techniques: While a number of that matter to them (availability of useful
restoration techniques have been tried and plants, soil protection, provision of forest prod-
tested, it is not always easy to know which ucts, etc.), and this may necessitate an
one will work best under local conditions. A awareness-raising campaign. For example, in
small-scale trial plot can help identify those New Caledonia, WWF is one of nine partners
(see example on Borneo, above). engaging in the protection and restoration of
Species mix: Often exotic species have been the dry forest.The project has a number of com-
used because they are better understood ponents, including active engagement of stake-
than local ones. Research money may be well holders (particularly land owners), and it has
spent on identifying the growth rate of and spent considerable time and resources working
necessary conditions for specic local species with local landowners to mobilise their support
as well as on the optimal mix of species. for restoration and to help them understand the
Removal of invasive species: Invasive species implications of restoring the dry forest (bene-
can often be the single most important ts and costs).
impediment to natural regeneration or There are a number of different forms of
maintenance of forest quality within existing publicity (different media, workshops) and part
forests. Applied research can help test differ- of the skill in successful advocacy is in identify-
ent techniques to remove the invasive species ing the one that will reach the target audience
while promoting indigenous ones. (e.g., radio is often a good way of reaching rural
Communities and stakeholders: Socioeco- populations in poorer countries).
nomic research may be necessary to under-
stand better the proles of stakeholders in
3.8. Training and Capacity Building
the landscape and their motivations, pres-
sures, livelihood conditions, and aspirations. One tactical intervention may consist of offer-
ing training in relevant restoration techniques.
183
Sheng, 1993. For instance in Morocco, WWF has been
19. Practical Interventions that Will Support Restoration 141
invited to help redesign the universitys forestry For example, in Madagascar, the main threat
curriculum to include specic restoration to forests is slash-and-burn agriculture with
elements. short fallow periods. In a country with such high
The sorts of training that can be provided poverty levels, the only way to reduce this pres-
include the following: sure on forests is to provide alternative liveli-
hood options for those local communities. A
Nursery design and development: Training
number of successful microenterprise develop-
can be provided to farmers and other com-
ment programmes have been attempted by
munity members on managing tree nurseries.
entities such as USAID (US Agency for
This may also include elements of seed
International Development),184 the U.N., and
recognition and collection.
CARE. These programmes may not have been
Agroforestry techniques: When agricultural
explicitly intended to reduce pressure on
practices are an issue, training farmers in
forests, but in partnering with conservation
techniques such as agroforestry that are
organisations two objectives could be reached:
more compatible with some form of natural
improving livelihoods while ensuring that
forest cover can be a useful approach within
forests are protected and, where appropriate,
a forest landscape restoration initiative.
restored. When promoting such alternative
Training can be provided in alternative
livelihood options, it is important to undertake
income-generating activities (see below) to
suitable feasibility and market studies, and not
reduce the impact people are having on
engage people, for instance, in honey produc-
forests while offering them a realistic liveli-
tion if there is no market for it.
hood alternative.
Improved grazing practices may sometimes
be a simple way of returning areas of land to 3.10. Paying Communities for
natural forest. Better Practices
In relevant cases, training may involve better
It may sometimes be necessary or appropriate
re management practices (to remove re
to use project money to compensate communi-
risks, to control them, or to undertake pre-
ties for the loss they suffer by accepting restora-
scribed burns).
tion on land they own or use. This could be a
rst activity before developing alternative
livelihood options. It can also be a way of
3.9. Forest-Friendly Economic engaging communities that may not otherwise
Activities (Microenterprise be very receptive to the project. One risk with
Development) this approach is that of getting communities
In many countries the pressure on forests, accustomed to compensation and expecting it
the conversion of forests, or the hindering of over the long term. This clearly needs to be a
natural regeneration is driven by the poorest short-term activity with a clear plan to move
people, who rely on forests for their immediate into other activities.
needs but are under too much short-term pres-
sure to invest in long-term restoration strate-
gies. One way of addressing this may be by 4. Future Needs
providing training in improved practices that
will help both sustain their own resource base In an ideal world, a comprehensive restoration
and reduce forest degradation, or, on the other programme would be well thought out, would
hand, by offering new economic activities that address a range of stakeholders priorities,
reduce their detrimental impact on forests. For would be implemented at various scales
a conservation organisation, this will generally (national, local, regional), and would be given
require partnering with development organisa- the necessary resources and time to succeed.
tions with expertise in, for example, microen-
terprise development. 184
ARD-RAISE Consortium, 2002.
142 S. Mansourian
Unfortunately, this is often not the case, and Ecott, T. 2002. Forest Landscape Restoration:
therefore punctual interventions like those Working Examples from Five Ecoregions. WWF,
listed above may become necessary rst Gland, Switzerland.
actions. All of the actions listed above would Sheng, F. 1993. Integrating Economic Development
with Conservation. WWF International, Gland,
benet from being integrated into large pro-
Switzerland.
grammes that aim to restore forest functions
The Nature Conservancy (TNC). 2002. Geography of
within landscapes for the benet of people and Hope Update: When and Where to Consider
biodiversity. One future need, therefore, is for Restoration. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington,
decision makers and donors to allocate suf- Virginia.
cient resources to allow for the implementation
of the large-scale programmes that are required
to achieve the restoration of forest functions in Additional Reading
many regions of the world. Another need is
for more creative partnerships between public, Lamb, D., and Gilmour, D. 2003. Rehabilitation
private, and civil society organisations, as and Restoration of Degraded Forests. IUCN and
well as between development and conservation WWF, Gland, Switzerland.
organisations to achieve the ambitious aims of Mansourian, S., Davison, G., and Sayer, J. 2002.
restoring forest functions in landscapes. Bringing back the forests: by whom and for
whom? In: Sim, H.C., Appanah, S., and Durst, P.B.,
eds. Bringing Back the Forests: Policies and Prac-
tices for Degraded Lands and Forests. Proceedings
References of an International Conference, 710 October
2002. FAO, Thailand, 2003.
ARD-RAISE Consortium. 2002. Agribusiness and Ormerod, S.J. 2003. Restoration in applied ecology:
forest industry assessment. Report submitted to editors introduction. Journal of Applied Ecology
USAIDMadagascar, November 18. 40:4450.
Brooks, T.M., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Sayer, J., Elliott, C., and Maginnis, S. 2003. Protect,
et al. 2002. Habitat loss and extinction in the manage and restore: conserving forests in multi-
hotspots of biodiversity. Conservation Biology 16 functional landscapes. Paper prepared for the
(4):909923. World Forestry Congress, Quebec, Canada.
Section VII
Monitoring and Evaluation
20
Monitoring Forest Restoration
Projects in the Context of an Adaptive
Management Cycle
Sheila OConnor, Nick Salafsky, and Daniel W. Salzer
145
146 S. OConnor et al
2. Examples
Use/Adapt Analyse We present a case study showing how monitor-
ing and adaptive management were used to
improve forest restoration efforts and a cti-
Figure 20.1. A project/programme management tious case study illustrating some of the traps
cycle adapted for WWF use. (Adapted from the Con- that monitoring efforts commonly fall into.
servation Measures Partnership (CMP), 2004.)
of the sand hill ecosystem as well as its restora- which of these they should use. Overwhelmed
tion. Through the experimental implementa- and frustrated, the project manager is about to
tion of actions, they monitored the impact of give up on monitoring altogether.
the actions themselves (did it meet the assump- Finally, the team decides to put its monitor-
tions made in the conceptual model?) as well as ing work in the context of an adaptive man-
looked at the overarching improvement to the agement approach. The team takes the time to
values dened for the ecosystem. This allowed develop a conceptual model of its situation and
for a complete and iterative process to achieve realises that the major assumption behind its
the objective of the project as well as make work is that working with local communities to
progress toward the long-term goal, which was reduce hunting pressure on key seed dispersers
restoring a functional diverse sand hill system will lead to enhanced forest regeneration. To
and restoring a habitat for the endangered this end, the team members develop a series of
red-cockaded woodpecker and other long leaf simple indicators to assess whether the com-
pineassociated species of special concern. munity members are responding to their efforts
to reduce hunting and to measure whether
seedling regeneration is occurring. When they
2.2. Case 2: Common Mistakes implement this work, they realise that although
in Monitoring192 they are being successful with stopping the
Problem: Deciding what to monitor as part of hunting, the seedlings are not coming back as
the implementation of a large forest restoration expected, especially in large gaps. This forces
project. the team members to focus in more detail on
Solution: For the rst 2 years of the project, studying why seedlings are not coming back in
the team does no monitoring whatsoever; the gaps and leads to changing their focus to
it states that it is so busy taking important actively planting seeds in large gap areas.
restoration actions that it has no money or staff
resources to devote to monitoring.
The project team members rst begin to con- 3. Outline of Tools
sider monitoring at the start of the third year
because they realise that they need to report Different conservation groups have developed
on their results to their nancial donors. The more or less similar project management
project managers convene a meeting in which systems for helping practitioners to design,
they consider the indicators that they will manage, and monitor their conservation work.
assess. One biologist on the team, who studied An overview of some of these systems can be
deer for her graduate dissertation, recommends found in the Rosetta Stone of Conservation
doing an intensive and expensive long-term Practice that has been developed by the
study of the forest deer population. Another Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP).193
researcher discusses the need to start setting up Likewise, the Partnerships Open Standards
forest plots and belt transects in various types for the Practice of Conservation provides a
of the forest to assess plant species abundance. generic listing of the steps in this process.194
A third team member goes on the Internet and One specic system that can be useful to
pulls down a long list of indicators collected practitioners is the Nature Conservancys
by other forest projects including identifying (TNC) Enhanced 5-S Project Management
animal and plant species, surveying bird popu- Process,195 which can help identify the integrity
lations, tagging trees, counting hunting parties, of biodiversity targets (critical in forest restora-
sampling water quality, and tracking resource tion work), as well as help evaluate and priori-
extraction permit applications, and recom- tise critical threats and other factors from the
mends that the project team members consider
193
Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP), 2004a.
194
CMP, 2004b.
192 195
Adapted from Salzer and Salafsky, in press. The Nature Conservancy (TNC), 2004.
148 S. OConnor et al
situation analysis, develop objectives, and iden- Ideally, forest restoration practitioners could
tify critical indicators. This system is based on come together and begin to agree on a common
an Excel workbook tool that walks practition- way of designing, managing, and monitoring
ers through the steps in the process. A simpler such that it is inclusive yet functional. In par-
version of this process can be found in Mea- ticular, it would be useful to develop common
sures of Success,196 which uses visual conceptual assumptions, indicators, and methods as well as
models to help show the causal chains linking metrics of long-term success.
key factors in your situation analysis as a basis
for setting objectives and selecting indicators.
In addition, many government agencies that
References
work on forest management and restoration
Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP).
also have guidance and tools available to help 2004a. Rosetta Stone of Conservation Practice.
in the design of monitoring plans and the selec- www.conservationmeasures.org.
tion of specic indicators and methods (for Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP). 2004b.
example, in the United States there is extensive Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation.
literature on the subject from the Ecological www.conservationmeasures.org.
Restoration Institute or USDAs Collaborative Earl, S., Carden, F., and Smutylo, T. 2001. Outcome
Forest Restoration Programme). One example of Mapping. IDRC, Ottawa, Canada.
this type of effort is offered by the Forest Bio- Ecological Restoration Institute and the U.S.D.A.
diversity Indicators Project.197 They have devel- Collaborative Forest Restoration Programme.
oped an online Forest Biodiversity Indicators 2004. Handbook FIVE. Monitoring Social and
Economic Effects of Forest Restoration. USDA,
Selection Web Tool (www.manometmaine.org/
Washington, DC, and Ecological Restoration
indicators/) that provides for rapid searching Institute, Flagstaff, Arizona.
and comparison of different forest biodiversity Hagan, J.M., and Whitman, A.A. 2004. A primer
monitoring indicators. Indicator search criteria on selecting biodiversity indicators for forest
include spatial scale, forest type, forest sustainability: simplifying complexity. Forest
organisational level, indicator type, category of Conservation Programme of Manomet Center for
information need, regional context, and ecolog- Conservation Science. FMSN-2004-1. www.
ical values measured by the indicator. Indica- manometmaine.org/indicators/.
tors are rated based on their practicality, Hartanto, H., Lorenzo, M.C.B., and Frio, A.L. 2002.
relevance, utility, scientic merit, and ecological Collective action and learning in developing a
breadth. local monitoring system. International Forestry
Review 4(3): 184195.
Margoluis, R., and Salafsky, N. 1998. Measures of
Success: Designing, Managing and Monitoring
4. Future Needs Conservation and Development Projects. Island
Press, Washington, DC.
To date, most of the adaptive management Provencher, L., Litt, A.R., Galley, K.E.M., et al. 2001.
based monitoring approaches being developed Restoration of re-suppressed long leaf pine
by conservation organisations have not been sandhills at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. Final
rigorously tested with forest restoration proj- report to the Natural Resources Management
ects. In addition, almost all forest restoration Division, Eglin Air Force Base, Niceville, Florida.
work involves multiparties, yet there is still no The Science Division, The Nature Conservancy,
volume of best practices on how to design, Gainesville, Florida.
Ralph, S.C., and Poole, G.C. 2002. Putting monitor-
implement, and learn from multiple stake-
ing rst: designing accountable ecosystem restora-
holder monitoring work. Some early examples tion and management plans. In: Montgomery,
are cited elsewhere.198 D.R., Bolton, S., Booth, D.B., and Wall, L. eds.
Restoration of Puget Sound Rivers. UW Press,
196
Margoluis and Salafsky, 1998. Seattle, WA, pp. 222242.
197
Hagan and Whitman, 2004. Salzer, D., and Salafsky, N. (In press). Allocating
198
Ecological Restoration Institute/USDA CRFP, 2004. resources between taking action, assessing status,
20. Monitoring Forest Restoration Projects 149
150
21. Monitoring and Evaluating Forest Restoration Success 151
long run? Forest restoration successes are Naturalness/ecological integrity: Under forest
seldom complete or easy to evaluate, and the landscape restoration, some sites mayif
type of global indicators used by foresters (such appropriate and in a rst stagebe dedi-
as planted trees height or diameter growth, or cated to highly unnatural tree cover if these
plantation cover) give very little information to full legitimate social and economic needs.
help assessment in the modern sense of restora- However, restoration should have a net
tion in large-scale conservation. increase in naturalness and integrity (biodi-
Thus, monitoring and periodic evaluation of versity and ecosystem functioning) within the
advances in the restoration process is not an landscape.
optional extra, but a critical and essential part Environmental benets: Forest management
of restoration, that restorationists need to con- that results in environmental damagesuch
sider mainly in order to do the following: as soil erosion, fertiliser run-off, pesticide
spray drift, or downstream hydrological
Conrm the hypotheses used to develop the
effectsis incompatible with the wider aims
restoration programme and ensure that
of forest landscape restoration.
dened goals are reached and the time frame
Livelihoods and well-being: Forest landscape
respected. For example, from an ecolog-
restoration may not improve social well-
ical perspective, it is important to restore
being at every site, but should improve it on
damaged components of forest ecosystems
a landscape scale. The involvement of key
and reintegrate them within the landscape.
stakeholders in decision-making processes
Proceed to ne-tuning management actions
should help to ensure that issues relating to
that correct problems encountered during
human well-being are fully addressed.
restoration (e.g., lower or higher survival of
seedlings than expected) or incorrect choices. Not all projects will have such a broad range
Adapt restoration actions to changes along a of objectives: the framework outlined above is
restoration trajectory, which will inevitably one for restoration projects that seek to balance
last several decades, especially with respect social and environmental benets. We believe
to aspects that go far beyond what those ini- that this should become the norm.
tiating the project could forecast (e.g., social
issues such as demand for land, awareness of
1.3. How to Evaluate? The Difcult
environmental issues; economic issues such
Selection of Criteria and
as wood prices or demand for nontimber
Indicators
forest products (NTFPs); and ecological
issues such as climate change). A set of pertinent indicators should be agreed
Prove to stakeholders that the investments upon and tested to reect the restoration
(not only nancial) in the restoration pro- advances for each issue. They should reveal
gramme are worthwhile. current conditions, and reect on what has been
done in the past by foresters and other forest
managers. They should capture information on
1.2. What to Monitor and
ecosystem health (i.e., relative absence of
Evaluate?
disease or pests of epidemic proportions) as
First of all, the scope of restoration evaluation well as diversity and productivity at plot and
should t the goals of the programme or help landscape scales. They should also reveal to
to redirect them. Nowadays, for forest land- what extent the explicitly restoration-oriented
scape restoration as dened in this book, the project has improved the delivery of ecosystem
framework for monitoring restoration success services.
should analyse the following issues200: To be effective, each indicator should be
SM(a)RRT. That is:
Simple (e.g., vegetation cover [percent],
200
WWF, 2003. number of tree species present)
152 D. Vallauri et al
Measurable (e.g., percent of badlands in a scape, or, to use a newly emerging term, socio-
given landscape or watershed, biodiversity ecosystem, a degree of subjectivity can never be
indices, and indices of productivity for timber excluded. To increase objectivity and fairness,
and nontimber products, and money ow for two strategies pertain:
restoration and monitoring)
A complementary portfolio of several attrib-
Reliable (e.g., ecological function demon-
utes should be selected, covering at least two
strated, indicators of structure and composi-
different hierarchical levels (Table 21.1). In a
tion)
forest landscape restoration initiative, the
Relevant: It should be linked, if possible, to
evaluation at landscape level is compulsory.
critical stage(s) of ecosystem change in
It is both the most critical and the most
response to restoration or other manage-
difcult to evaluate of the four included in
ment (the notion of ecological thresholds;
Table 21.1.
e.g., criteria expressing or reecting biodi-
All such evaluations ideally should be con-
versity, ows and functions, structure, and
sidered as relative. Thus, the exercise can
contingency)
benet greatly if comparisons are carried out
Timely: Indicators should be chosen to take
between comparable sites within a landscape,
into account the contingency factors imposed
or among landscapes.
by past uses and degradation, and the
restoration process. The framework for mon-
itoring should be ideally developed starting
with an initial evaluation before the begin-
2. Examples
ning of the project and thereafter be reap-
2.1. Evaluating Ecological
praised regularly. The periodicity of the
Components of Badlands
evaluation needs to be in accordance with
Restoration in Southwestern
the planned process of restoration, taking
Alps (Saignon, France), 130
into account goals, phases, and stages.
Years After Planting
Ideally, indicators should also be sensitive
In the Saignon case study,202 a pioneer stage
to small changes in a systems trajectory, as
dominated by exotics (Austrian black pine)
expressed in structure, composition, and func-
planted in 1870 was evaluated only from the
tioning, and broadly able to be generalised to
perspective of erosion and forest production.
other systems and situations across a range of
Fine-tuning and corrective actions were limited
ecological and socioeconomic conditions.201
until the site faced problems 110 years after
planting: mainly lack of regeneration and spe-
1.4. Setting a Framework for cic infestation of the stands by mistletoe
Monitoring and Evaluation (Viscum album L.). Regeneration potential and
sanitary conditions and opportunities for the
A large number of descriptors and indicators
dissemination of native broad-leaved species
are possible, and many have been described in
should have been monitored earlier to avoid
the technical literature. How to choose among
problems and to speed up the ecological re-
them? In line with the above-mentioned cri-
storation processan error not to be repeated!
teria, and in light of the specic objectives and
In the 1990s a full set of indicators was identi-
budgetary constraints (data collecting is
ed and evaluated, aiming to highlight the func-
costly), it should be possible to collectively set
tions that have recovered and to identify the
priorities.
main constraints and trade-offs currently
It should be noted that in attempting the
affecting ongoing restoration of native broad-
diagnosis, evaluation, and monitoring of some-
leaved forest. Indicators captured information
thing as complex as a forest ecosystem, land-
201 202
Aronson and Le Floch, 1996; Aronson et al, 1993a,b. Vallauri et al, 2002.
21. Monitoring and Evaluating Forest Restoration Success 153
Table 21.1. Partial list of vital attributes, classied by hierarchical organisation level and according to
relation to the diversity, ows and functioning, structure, and contingencies of the ecological system.
System components
Hierarchical
level Diversity Flows and functions Structural factors Contingency factors
oped by the Forest Protection Department and specic forest functions (like erosion control
WWF. It aims to measure environmental and for example) by slope engineering and planting
social trends, communicate achievements, and seeding of trees, grasses, and shrubs. A
and identify threats and opportunities. Over second phase, since the 1950s, has been con-
60 meetings took place with stakeholders at the sidering afforestation for wood production in
national, provincial, district, and commune level the context of reducing re damage. The latest
to identify 20 core indicators to measure phase is currently considering ecological
progress on four fronts: forest condition and bio- restoration in the modern sense, both at the
diversity, forest ecosystem services, livelihoods, site level and at wider scales. To take advantage
and capacity for good natural resource manage- and learn from this long experience, a knowl-
ment. Many of the indicators come from exist- edge project (funded by the EU-Directorate
ing government statistics, sometimes with extra General V) was set up and conducted by the
analysis, and some additional indicators will be CEAM (Centro de Estudios Ambientales
monitored by other stakeholders. Indicators Mediterrneos) Foundation (Valencia, Spain)
include natural forest; private and public plan- and partners from ve Mediterranean countries
tations; legal and illegal timber production; non- (Spain, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and France).
timber forest products; measures of sustainable Named REACTION, (Restoration Actions
forest management; proportion of reforestation to Combat Desertication in the Northern
budget for natural regeneration; number of Mediterranean), this programme aims at estab-
restoration projects; areas needing restoration; lishing a database of land restoration in the
forest res; statistics relating to the wildlife northern Mediterranean by collecting well-
trade and protected areas; catchment protection documented restoration projects; selecting and
and irrigation; social indicators including, applying the most appropriate methodology
amongst others, life expectancy, health centres, to evaluate the results of restoration projects;
and education; government training; ratio of facilitating access to high-quality information
arrests for illegal hunting and wildlife trade to for forest managers, policy makers, and other
successful prosecutions; and specic targets of stakeholders; and providing restoration guide-
the initiative. It is notable that only a proportion lines in light of a critical analysis of contrasted
of indicators relate directly to biodiversity past and innovative techniques. Although it is
restoration; many are there to give context and still underway at the time of writing, this
to measure other aspects of the broader project, programme already provides online access
which aims to restore a range of forest functions to a wide range of evaluated restoration pro-
for people as well as biodiversity (see case study grammes in various ecological, historical, and
Monitoring Forest Landscape Restoration in socioeconomical contexts (http://www.ceam.es/
Vietnam). reaction).
Restoration plan, including monitoring and forest restoration. Adapting and eld testing
evaluation denition: Unlike forest manage- them will be necessary in the coming years.
ment plans, relatively few restoration plans A unied procedure for monitoring restora-
have been fully conceptualised and written in tion programmes: Attempts to develop a
a form that allows comparison. Furthermore, common form and approach to monitoring
monitoring and evaluation is very often and evaluating large-scale restoration efforts,
absent at the beginning of the programme. A such as the REACTION programme
list of indicators and monitoring protocols described above, are essential, although they
such as the periodicity of monitoring (which pose considerable challenges. Development
may be variable along the restoration trajec- of these programmes are needed in other
tory) should be dened before inclusion in geographical regions, coupled with eld tests
the restoration plan. and modications.
Restoration databases (learning from past Economic tools to secure funds for assistance
projects): A lot could be learned from past in long-term monitoring and ne-tuning: Sus-
restoration successes and failures. The analy- tainable nancing remains a key problem to
sis of databases of long-term restoration proj- restore forest ecosystems in the longer term.
ects is very useful, like the world database Designating a specic part of a states forest
launched by UNEP-WCMC (http://www. service to be responsible for forest restora-
unep-wcmc.org/forest/restoration/database. tion, and subsequently integrating restora-
htm) or the database of evaluated restoration tion into normal management procedures
programmes in the Mediterranean region (through the management plan) could be
(http://www.ceam.es/reaction). part of the solution.
Photographs, mapping, experimental design Finally, eld testing and learning from years
and statistics,203 and eld notes are important of experience are still essential to build up a
tools for understanding the restoration database of knowledge.
process.
Criteria and indicators: Although poorly
developed for restoration, there is already References
considerable experience in the development
and use of criteria and indicators for sustain- Aronson, J., Floret, C., Le Floch, E., Ovalle, C., and
able forest management, and some of these Pontanier, R. 1993a. Restoration and rehabilita-
could easily be adapted for restoration tion of degraded ecosystems in arid and semi-arid
lands. I. A view from the south. Restoration
projects, particularly when they are capable
Ecology 1:817.
of measuring trends in forest quality over Aronson, J., Floret, C., Le Floch, E., Ovalle, C., and
time. Pontanier, R. 1993b. Restoration and rehabilita-
tion of degraded ecosystems in arid and semi-arid
lands. II. Case studies in southern Tunisia, central
Chile and northern Cameroon. Restoration
4. Future Needs Ecology 3:168187.
Aronson, J., and Le Floch, E. 1996. Vital landscape
The needs for further development are impor- attributes: missing tools for restoration ecology.
tant here. They include the following: Restoration Ecology 4:377387.
Improvement in methodologies for monitor- Michener, W.K. 1997. Quantitatively evaluating
restoration experiments: research design, statisti-
ing and evaluating human well-being in the
cal analysis and data management considerations.
context of restoration: Although lists of attri- Restoration Ecology 5:324337.
butes, indicators, and methodologies exist in Sheil, D., Nasi, R., and Johnson, B. 2004. Ecological
the literature, very few have been adapted to criteria and indicators for tropical forest land-
scapes: challenges in search of progress. Ecology
and Society 9(1):7 (online). URL:http//www.
203
Michener, 1997. ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/Iss1/art7.
156 D. Vallauri et al
Vallauri, D., Aronson, J., and Barbro, M. 2002. An WWF. 2003. Indicators for measuring progress
analysis of forest restoration 120 years after refor- towards forest landscape restoration: a draft
estation of badlands in the southwestern Alps. framework for WWFs Forests for Life Pro-
Restoration Ecology 10:1626. gramme. Unpublished report, Gland, Switzerland.
Case Study: Monitoring Forest
Landscape Restoration in Vietnam
Nigel Dudley and Nguyen Thi Dao
The challenge: the government of Vietnam is opportunity to look at the programme afresh,
committed to forest restoration and protection to nd ways of realigning it to maximise envi-
and has major reforestation grants available. ronmental and social gains. The government
But although these can in theory support both has been working with various stakeholders,
natural regeneration and plantations, virtually with facilitation from WWF, in developing a
all funds have been used for exotic plantations, conservation strategy for the Central Truong
particularly of Acacia mangium. The structure Son (Annamites) Landscape across seven
of the Five Million Hectare Reforestation Pro- provinces in the middle of the country, which
gramme hampers exibility,and although large aims to use a mixture of protection, good
plantations have been established, it seems forest management, and restoration to create
likely that in several provinces a lot of money a landscape that will support both biodiversity
has been wasted. In some areas planting is and local livelihoods.204 There have already
rumoured to cover the same land repeatedly, been some good, local-level forest restoration
with seedlings quickly being cut and sold as projects (including some run by the German
rewood and the land used for swidden agri- technical development organisation GTZ and
culture before being planted again. Because WWFs MOSAIC (Management of Strategic
the job security of many Forest Protection Areas for Integrated Conservation) project),
Department ofcials is tied to the programme, which provide lessons that can be applied
they are under pressure to maintain the status more widely.205
quo even when this makes little environmen-
tal or economic sense. Restoration is needed
both in terms of tree cover and in particular
forest quality, especially in protected area Interventions
buffer zones and along the route of the Ho Chi
Minh highway. Successful restoration will A monitoring and evaluation system was
depend on the support of local communities developed to measure progress on forest land-
and the political will to take into account the scape restoration in the Central Truong Son
importance of indigenous plant species, yet Landscape Biodiversity Conservation Initia-
there is little experience of stakeholder tives Action Plan by WWF working in coop-
involvement or participatory approaches in eration with the Government of Vietnams
Vietnam. Forest Protection Department.206 Over 60
stakeholder meetings took place at the
national, provincial, district, and commune
The Opportunity level to identify around 30 core indicators.
157
158 N. Dudley and N.T. Dao
161
162 K. Schuyt
cultural discharge upstream. Under a pioneer- marked taxes to nance specic restoration
ing project for Ecuador, landowners in the activities. It is also possible to use tax measures
Paluarco river sub-watershed are being paid to that tax downstream beneciaries to fund
manage the forest in the watershed in order to restoration upstream.
protect water sources. In 2001 the municipality
approved an ordinance that established the
3.2. Multilateral and Bilateral
Water Regulation for the Payment of Envi-
Donors
ronmental Services from Forest and Paramo
Conservation. A fund was created to channel Given the declining trend in ODA, efforts must
payments from beneciaries (mostly domestic be directed at maintaining current funds from
water users) to those providing good quality of multi- and bilateral aid. In general, however,
water through maintenance of forest cover environment is no longer a top priority of
upstream. development and cooperation agencies, and it
has now been mainstreamed in all development
activities under the new sector approach
3. Outline of Tools211 embraced by many donor agencies. Therefore,
successful proposals for forest landscape
As outlined in section 1, new opportunities for restoration from multilateral and bilateral
nancing large-scale restoration are arising donors increasingly need to explain how forest
from the private sector. Opportunities, how- landscape restoration activities will address
ever, still exist in public funding sources. This poverty alleviation. Furthermore, it is also
section discusses how specic nancing sources, useful to use ODA to leverage private funding
including private and public sources as well as for restoration. The World Banks Sustainable
international organisations, can be mobilised Forest Market Transformation Initiative
for forest landscape restoration activities. (SFMTI) is a good example, which promotes
private sector participation in forest manage-
ment. Another example is USAIDs (US
3.1. Financing from Domestic
Agency for International Development)
Public Sources
Biodiversity Conservation Network, which
General strategies to increase public sources provides seed money to promote the participa-
for large-scale restoration involve activities like tion of the private sector in biodiversity-based
improving expenditure policies on forestry, business.
reforming macroeconomic policies (including
taxes and subsidies), and putting in place new
3.3. Private Not-for-Prot Sources
incentives, subsidies, and technical and institu-
tional changes to support restoration that pro- Private not-for-prot sources include nanc-
vides wider benets (also see Perverse Policy ing channelled from local communities, inter-
Incentives). It is, however, also important to national foundations, and NGOs for forest
improve the administrative capacity of forestry landscape restoration activities. International
agencies themselves to increase their efciency NGOs have become important for providing
to collect revenue and to use the resources ef- new nancing mechanisms, of which environ-
ciently for restoration. Other ways to increase ment trust funds or foundations are particularly
forest revenues from public funding are to interesting for providing nancing to natural
ensure the proper pricing of forest goods and resource management in general. Trust funds
services (through charges, policies that demand are not philanthropic foundations. Rather, they
full-cost pricing, permits, licensing, etc.) or raise money to carry out their own programmes
setting up special forest trust funds with ear- and have specic missions and interests and
sometimes geographical focusses. The main
purpose of setting up a trust fund has tradi-
211
Based on Joshi, 1998; Gutman, 2003; and the Conserva- tionally been to provide long-term stable
tion Finance Alliance online guide, 2002. funding for national parks and other protected
164 K. Schuyt
areas or small grants to local NGOs and com- ties for mobilising funds for forest landscape
munity groups for projects aimed at conserving restoration. A good example of payments for
biodiversity and using natural resources more environmental goods is the certication body,
sustainably. Such trust funds could be set up to the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), which
support the restoration of forest values over the developed a market for sustainably produced
long term. wood and wood products that come with a seal
of approval or certicate. In terms of payments
for environmental services, a good example is
3.4. Private for-Prot Sources the increase in projects that create payment
Private for-prot sources range from mobilising mechanisms where downstream beneciaries
households to invest in restoration to invest- pay for the sustainable management of forests
ments from large international corporations. upstream. Such systems provide signicant
Household investments will have an effect only opportunities for innovative funding for forest
if the projects offer short-term benets with an landscape restoration.
acceptable level of risk. These benets can be
an increased income for households or indirect
3.6. International Systems of
payments in, for example, alternative liveli-
Payments for the
hoods, roads, schools, and so on. On the other
Environmental Commons
hand, a more grant-type of nancing from large
private companies like dam, oil, plantation, and There has been some progress at international
mining companies can be mobilised to pay for level to pay for the global commons. The best
forest restoration as compensation for environ- known is the Global Environmental Facility
mental disruption they may cause. This motiva- (GEF), which provides partial grant funding to
tion may also come from business ethics and eligible countries for projects that address
thus be part of a companys public relations threats to the environment in four areas: biodi-
campaign. An example is where environmental versity loss, climate change, ozone depletion,
NGOs are invited by a plantation company to and degradation of international waters. Under
restore part of their land according to standards its biodiversity programme, the GEF can
compatible with forest landscape restoration. support conservation and sustainable use of sig-
Lastly, engaging conventional capital markets nicant biodiversity, including forest ecosys-
by channelling capital toward forest manage- tems. Funding from GEF for forest landscape
ment and restoration has potential. For restoration could be mobilised under this area.
example, Xylem Investment Inc. is an interna- In a landscape context, it will be possible
tional timber investment company based on to initiate a restoration activity with public
equity investments in plantation forests in funding in order to address immediate liveli-
developing countries that attracts U.S. pension hood needs (e.g., provision of traditional med-
funds, insurance companies, and others that icines, reduction in peoples vulnerability). In
prefer safer and steadier-growth investments. the longer term, and still within the context of
This company manages forest assets worth $235 landscapes and the restoration of many forest
million. Another example is Precious Woods, an benets, it may become possible to ensure sus-
international timber company that focusses on tained funding by the private sector in order to
sustainably produced timber in Latin America. meet additional benets (such as certied non-
Funding from these sources could also be timber forest products, for instance).
mobilised for forest landscape restoration.
competitive market. Whether this means creat- Copenhagen, Denmark and WWF, Washington,
ing partnerships with organisations that were DC.
previously unheard of, making forest landscape Joshi, M. 1998. Innovative Financing for Sustainable
restoration nancially lucrative for actors with Forest Management. UNDP, PROFOR, New
York.
funding to become involved in such projects,
mainstreaming restoration into other types of
projects such as development projects, or mo- Additional Reading
bilising funding from other nonenvironmental
sources toward forest landscape restoration, Chandrasekharan, C. 1996. Status of nancing
there is a real need to think outside the for sustainable forestry. Proceedings of the
box and search for innovative funding oppor- UNDP/Denmark/South Africa Workshop on
tunities. In light of economic liberalisation, Financial Mechanisms and Sources of Finance for
private sector funding, including PES, might Sustainable Forestry, Pretoria, South Africa, 47
provide a lucrative opportunity for nancing June.
Conservation Finance Alliance. 2002. Mobilizing
broad-scale restoration. Establishing clearer
funding for biodiversity conservationa user-
links with livelihood concerns is also a clear
friendly training guide for understanding, selecting
need, whether it be poverty reduction, disease and implementing conservation nance mecha-
control and prevention, postconict resolution, nisms. http://guide.conservationnance.org.
etc. EFTRN News. 2001/2002. Innovative nance mech-
anisms for conservation and sustainable forest
management. European Tropical Forest Research
Network, No. 35.
References Lapham, N.P., and Livermore, R.J. 2003. Ensuring
Conservations Place on the International Biodi-
Gutman, P., ed. 2003. From Good-Will to Payments versity Assistance Agenda. Conservation Interna-
for Environmental ServicesA Survey of Financ- tional, Washington, DC.
ing Natural Resource Management in Developing WWF-MPO. 2000. Wants, Needs and Rights
Countries. WWF-MPO, Economic Change, Economic Instruments and Biodiversity Conser-
Poverty and Environment Project, DANIDA, vation: A Dialogue. WWF, Washington, DC.
23
Payment for Environmental Services
and Restoration
Kirsten Schuyt
166
23. Payment for Environmental Services and Restoration 167
Ecolabelling: certifying forest and farm prod- encourage forest conservation or restoration.
ucts that were produced in ways consistent The key is to establish a mechanism with low
with biodiversity conservation transaction costs, where the costs of captur-
ing the benets (including the opportunity
Many examples of PES systems exist, where
coststhe lost benets associated with other
the most common forest services that have
land uses) are lower than the benets. For
been addressed by PES are carbon sequestra-
watershed protection, for example, benets
tion, watershed protection, landscape beauty,
are easiest to capture and at a lower cost
and biodiversity conservation. Since payment
when users are already organised (municipal
mechanisms are very different across these four
water supply, irrigation systems, etc.) and
services but also across countries, it is difcult
when some form of payment mechanism is
to generalise about how PES works. However,
already in place, such as a domestic water fee.
there are certain elements of success.214 First, as
Payments for watershed protection can then
with any market, there needs to be supply and
be added to this fee.
demand.
Identication of key actors: A key step is to
There needs to be a product: supply. There
identify who the key actors are that supply
needs to be a product (the forest service) to sell,
the forest services. Different actors can be
such as watershed protection, carbon seques-
involvedNGOs, commercial companies,
tration, biodiversity conservation, and land-
private landowners, farmers, governments,
scape beauty. Also, many services do not come
donors, community groups, and so on. Each
alone. Is it possible to regroup or bundle the
of these stakeholders may be able to play a
services? It is very important to clearly docu-
crucial role in the PES system, which must be
ment the relationship between the provision of
identied. It is also important to understand
the service and the economic benets: for
their motivations, for example for logging,
example, what is the relationship between
and what is required for them to conserve or
upstream watershed protection and down-
restore.
stream land use?
Developing the institutional structure: It is nec-
There need to be buyers: demand. There
essary to develop the market infrastructure:
needs to be a demand for the forest services.
access to information on values and quantity,
Just because a forest provides a service does not
negotiation, monitoring and enforcement
mean that there is a market for it. This demand
mechanisms, and so forth. A key institution is
may be local, national, or global. For example,
property rights, which dene who owns the
the demand for watershed protection arises
carbon sequestered in the forest or the trees
mostly from local or national buyers, while the
that protect the watershed. Without clear
demand for carbon sequestration may come
ownership or usufruct of the services, they
from anywhere in the world. The type of
cannot be bought or sold.
demand determines the type of system to estab-
lishwater markets are very site-specic, A more detailed discussion on these ele-
depending on the institutional context, while ments can be found elsewhere.215
carbon markets can actually learn from each The opportunities from PES for forest land-
other and even compete. scape restoration are potentially enormous.
In addition to supply and demand, other ele- Because of the dramatic loss in forest cover
ments must be in place to ensure success: worldwide, and the consequent loss in forest
goods and services, there is great potential to
Mechanisms to capture willingness to pay: These
incorporate payments for environmental serv-
mechanisms must capture part or even all of
ices into a broad-scale approach to restoration.
the benets provided by the forest services
The sorts of goods and services that restored
and transform them into actual payments to
forests can provide and that can be quantied
214 215
Pagiola et al, 2002. Pagiola et al, 2002.
168 K. Schuyt
include payments for the carbon sequestered services supplied by forests and provided the
by forests, watershed protection of forests, and regulatory basis for the government to contract
biodiversity conservation of forests. landowners for the services provided by their
Concerns have been raised as to how PES lands. It established a nancing mechanism for
will affect the environment and the poor. Does this called FONAFIFO (Fonda Nacional de
it help conservation and do the poor benet or Financiamiento Forestal). The two key differ-
is it a mere silver bullet? ences between the PSA and past incentives are
The next section gives three examples of (1) that nancing through the PSA focusses on
PESs in relation to forest conservation that the services provided by forests rather than on
provide opportunities for forest landscape the timber, and (2) that the nancing comes
restoration. from users of those services rather than public
funds.
Under the PSA, all participants must have a
2. Examples sustainable forest management plan that is cer-
tied by a licensed forester. Once the plans
2.1. Payments for Watershed have been approved, land users begin imple-
Protection: The Case of menting the different activities and receive pay-
Costa Rica216 ments over 5 years. FONAFIFO in cooperation
with other institutions contracts the service
The hydrological impact of widespread defor-
providers and collects and manages the pay-
estation has been a major concern throughout
ments from service beneciaries. The PSA pro-
Central America, followed by a strong interest
gramme is overseen by a governing board that
to tackle deforestation. Within this context,
consists of representatives of the public sector
Costa Rica pioneered a PES approach in which
and the private sector. Most of the nancing
land users were directly compensated for the
comes from a system that allocates one third of
environmental services they generated. Costa
the revenues from a fossil-fuel sales tax to
Rica has had one of the highest rates of defor-
FONAFIFO. Other nancial supporters of the
estation in the world, mostly driven by conver-
PSA programme have been the World Bank
sion to agriculture and pasture. As a result of
and the Global Environment Facility (GEF).
deforestation, water services deteriorated, but
The idea is that eventually all beneciaries of
responses, mostly regulation, to deal with defor-
water services (irrigators, domestic users, power
estation had largely failed.
plants, and so on) would pay for the services
In the beginning of 1997, Costa Rica devel-
they receive.
oped an elaborate system of PES to deal with
deforestation called Pago por Servicios Ambi-
entales (PSA). In this system, land users are 2.2. Payments for Carbon
compensated directly for the environmental Sequestration: The Case of
services they provide, which enables them to British Columbia
include the services in their decisions. When the
A valuable service provided by forests is that
PSA was created, however, Costa Rica already
forests sequester carbon. The Kyoto protocol
had a payments system (essentially through tax
has expanded opportunities for markets for
incentives) for reforestation and forest man-
carbon, in which income from traditional forest
agement in place. Most importantly, the institu-
products can be supplemented with the sale of
tional structure to contract landowners and pay
carbon sequestration services provided by
them for specic activities already existed. As
forests. British Columbia in Canada has started
part of the PES process, a forestry law was
developing a market for carbon and this section
enacted that built on these institutions. The
discusses these developments.217
law specically recognised four environmental
216 217
Pagiola et al, 2002. Bull et al, 2002, cited in Pagiola et al, 2002, pp. 201221.
23. Payment for Environmental Services and Restoration 169
be some time before the effectiveness of this stand the impacts of PES schemes on poor
project can be determined, but the intensive people and how the poor can really benet
monitoring of this project will allow a detailed from PES. Lastly, it is increasingly being sug-
analysis of its effectiveness. gested that there is a need to sell bundles of
environmental services as an incentive for sus-
tainable forest managementjointly selling the
3. Outline of Tools forest services of carbon sequestration, water-
shed protection, biodiversity, and landscape
As has been illustrated by the three case beauty as a package. There is, however, a need
studies, the creation and development of PES is to further develop possibilities of linking forest
complex and requires a wide variety of skills services successfully.
and tools. It is impossible to list all these tools,
but one that is common to many PESs in one
form or another is the economic valuation of References
the goods and services forests provide. The key
is recognising and understanding economic Bull, G., Harkin, Z., and Wong, A. 2002. Developing
values of forest services in decision-making a market for forest carbon in British Columbia. In:
processes related to forests in addition to their Pagiola, S., Bishop, J., Landell-Mills, N., eds. 2002.
biological and sociocultural values. Economic Selling Forest Environmental Services: Market-
valuation tools exist that quantify these eco- Based Mechanisms for Conservation and Devel-
nomic values in monetary units, which allows opment, Sterling: Earthscan Publications, London.
Campbell, B.M., and Luckert, M.K., eds. 2002.
them to then be recognised and weighed
Uncovering the Hidden Harvest: Valuation
against other values. Examples are the con- Methods for Woodland and Forest Resources.
tingent valuation method, which estimates Sterling: Earthscan, London.
peoples willingness to pay for an environmen- Inbar, M., and Scherr, S. 2004. Getting Started: A
tal service or peoples willingness to accept Guide to Designing Payments for Ecosystem
compensation if that service is lost. Another Services (draft). Forest Trends, Washington, DC.
tool is the replacement cost method, which uses Pagiola, S., Agostini, P., Gobbi, J., et al. 2004. Paying
the costs of replacing an environmental service for Biodiversity Services in Agricultural Land-
as an indication of its value. Yet another scapes. World Bank, Washington, DC.
example is the travel cost method, where the Pagiola, S., Bishop, J., and Landell-Mills, N., eds.
costs people are investing to travel to a forest 2002. Selling Forest Environmental Services:
Market-Based Mechanisms for Conservation and
area can be used as an indication of the value
Development. Sterling: Earthscan Publications,
those people attach to the area.219 London.
171
172 J. Orrego
chase of carbon credits from land-based carbon needs of local communities and local market
sequestration projects. trends are analysed and incorporated into
The concept of carbon trading, and the subse- project design. It is also necessary that carbon
quent carbon market that has emerged out of it, sequestered in sinks projects would not have
is rooted in the U.N. Framework Convention on been stored even in the absence of the project,
Climate Change, which resulted from the Rio thereby proving their additionality.
Earth Summit in 1992, and the subsequent 1997 Critics also fear that the CDM reduces pres-
Kyoto protocol. The Kyoto protocol sets forth sure from governments to take real action
legally binding reductions in greenhouse gas toward reducing fossil fuel emissions at their
emissions for governments in developed coun- sources. Parties will be able to use the CDM to
tries (so-called Annex I countries) to be meet 1 percent of their below-1990 emissions
accomplished during 5-year commitment per- target, which equates to approximately 20
iods, with the rst commitment period set for percent of a countrys target.
20082012. On average, Annex I countries Furthermore, opponents of the CDM are
would be subject to a 5 percent reduction below concerned that efforts to sequester carbon will
their 1990 emissions levels. result in large-scale monoculture plantations
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), that have no socioeconomic or ecological
article 12 of the Kyoto protocol, provides a ex- benets.
ible mechanism through which Annex I parties Some of the key policy issues being discussed
can meet their emissions reduction targets by today relate to which types of forest and land-
purchasing carbon that is sequestered through use projects should be undertaken under the
afforestation and reforestation (and energy) umbrella of climate change mitigation and to
activities being implemented in Annex II coun- what extent these types of projects should be
tries (developing countries). Since its creation, integrated with mainstream carbon markets.
CDM procedures and modalities have evolved The following examples illustrate two contrast-
signicantly in response to strong criticism and ing types of projects that are part of this debate.
debate.
A concern of environmentalists is whether
carbon stored in sinks projects will be
sequestered permanently. Clearly forests are
2. Examples
subject to natural death and also to a variety of
2.1. Plantar in Brazil
disturbances that result in the release of CO2
back into the atmosphere. This was addressed One example of this type of project that is
at the 9th Conference of the Parties (COP 9) of being promoted as potentially CDM eligible is
the Kyoto protocol signatories in Milan in the Plantar project in Minas Gerais, Brazil. The
December 2003. It was decided that temporary project consists of 23,100 hectares of eucalyp-
credits must be reissued or recertied every 5 tus plantations that are used to make charcoal
years and then replaced by another credit. for pig iron production. Plantar plans to claim
There are also ways to make forestry activi- CDM emissions reductions from both the
ties last for the long term by, for example, intro- sequestration by the eucalyptus trees and from
ducing land-use systems that are benecial to the avoided use of coal. This project has
local communities, incorporating re manage- attracted numerous criticisms because of its
ment activities into the project, and retaining a scale and manner of implementation. There
risk buffer from all carbon nance to cover the have been allegations that the local Geraiszeiro
costs of reestablishment in case of losses. inhabitants were forcibly evicted when the
Other issues surrounding the sinks debate plantations were rst established and that
include the risk of leakage, whereby afforesta- run-off from the plantations has polluted local
tion or reforestation project activities in one water supplies affecting the livelihoods of local
area displace forest felling or destruction to farmers and sher folk. However, viewed
another area. Leakage can be avoided if the within the context of recent industrial history
24. Carbon Knowledge Projects 173
of Brazil, which has seen many factories move then work with technical experts from the
from Minas Gerais to the Amazon region, project to design land use activities that will
sourcing energy from trees cut from virgin rain- suit their own needs and that are ecologically
forest, such efforts may not be wholly negative. viable.Technical specications are produced for
In a landscape context, the choice of trees and each land-use system, and these provide infor-
their location would play a signicant role as mation about the area of land, tree species and
well to not only minimise social and ecological planting density, the intended management
impacts, but also seek to enhance the wider regime, and local ecological conditions. From
benets. this information a credible carbon sequestra-
tion estimate can be made. Subsequently, an
evidence-based monitoring protocol is used to
2.2. Scolel T in Mexico verify carbon stocks using easy-to-measure
In contrast with the industrial plantation indicators. Farmers engage in forestry activities,
approach of Plantar, the Scolel T project for including integrated community restoration of
rural livelihoods and carbon management aims forests, afforestation of degraded and fallow
to demonstrate how carbon nance can allow land, and shade coffee. Carbon payments allow
low-income rural farmers to invest in forest participating farmers to invest in these land use
conservation, sustainable land-use systems, and systems and also in other livelihood improve-
livelihood improvements that would otherwise ments such as livestock, cooking stoves, and re
be inaccessible to them. and erosion prevention.
Operating since 1996, the project works in Since 1997 the project has attracted a variety
over 25 communities, among seven different of carbon buyers, including the Fdration
indigenous Mayan and mestizo groups of Internationale de lAutomobile (FIA), which
Chiapas and Oaxaca, Mexico (Fig. 24.1). The committed to an ongoing purchase of approxi-
project engages rural farmers in a fully partici- mately 20,000 tonnes of CO2 offsets per year to
patory manner. All potential participants compensate for greenhouse gas emissions
attend a training workshop prior to making a associated with the Formula 1 and World Rally
decision to enter into the project. Participants Championships and others.
These purchases have been made through the forest conservation carbon management. These
voluntary carbon market. Companies that wish methods are promising; however, currently
to offset their carbon emissions for corporate there is no standard methodology that is used
social responsibility or good practice reasons across projects. Furthermore, carbon monitor-
are more compelled by projects that have added ing protocols and frequency can vary between
social and environmental co-benets associ- projects; therefore, standardisation of these
ated. Indeed, there is a growing trend in the procedures across projects is necessary.
private sector to take voluntary actions to offset Several models exist for estimating carbon
CO2 emissions, and projects that contribute to sequestration potential. CO2Fix, for example,
both sustainable development and conservation offers a relatively easy-to-use method for esti-
are the most appealing for this. mating carbon sequestration (the model can be
The Clean Development Market will also downloaded for free on the Internet). Subse-
provide an additional market for land-based quent and ongoing monitoring and forest meas-
carbon credits, although the size of this market urement to verify carbon estimates is necessary.
during the rst commitment period (2008 Remote sensing methods for estimating carbon
2012) is uncertain, as sinks credits are not stocks are in place and are undergoing further
permissible under the European Union Emis- enhancements and validation via land-based
sions Trading Scheme for this period. This does studies.
not mean that individual countries will not be A consistent set of standards and procedures
enticed by sinks projects, especially those that is necessary to ensure the overall credibility of
provide strong social and environmental bene- carbon sequestration projects and the carbon
ts. Furthermore, the World Banks BioCarbon credits sold through them, whether in the
Fund will provide carbon nance for CDM-eli- voluntary or compliant market. The Plan Vivo
gible projects that sequester carbon in forests system (www.planvivo.org) used in the Scolel
and other landscapes in developing countries. T project (mentioned above) and in similar
However, it is likely that the bulk of the Kyoto projects in Africa (Fig. 24.2) and India provides
carbon market will focus on emissions trading a rigorous set of standards and procedures to
and energy projects, and less on sinks projects. ensure a high level of community participation,
sustainable land use practices, and veriable
carbon credits. Plan Vivo projects are now
3. Outline of Tools among the most credible and widely recognised
form of carbon offsets available in the volun-
Carbon management can provide an excellent tary sector.
vehicle for channelling funds into sustainable The Climate, Community, and Biodiversity
development and forest conservation and (CCB) standards,220 resulting from a partner-
restoration activities while playing a key role in ship among research institutions, corporations,
mitigating climate change. Stringent standards and environmental groups, are a rigorous set of
must be set for both compliant (e.g., Kyoto criteria that aim to combine climate, biodiver-
protocol) and voluntary markets to weed out sity, and sustainable-development benets.
projects with negative impacts, such as the The IPCC Good Practice Guidelines for
Plantar project described above. In addition to Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry
providing socioeconomic and environmental (LULUCF)221 provides useful guidance about
benets, projects must be promoted that can methods for estimating, measuring, and moni-
demonstrate transparent and credible baseline toring carbon stocks as well as a wealth of
assessments and carbon verication systems. default gures. If designed properly, such land-
Organisations such as Winrock International, based carbon sequestration projects can benet
El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR), and
the Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management 220
Climate, Community and Biodiversity Alliance
(ECCM) have made strides in developing (CCBA), 2004.
methods for determining regional baselines for 221
IPCC, 2003.
24. Carbon Knowledge Projects 175
rural communities, slow destruction, and sity Project design standards (Draft 1.0). CCBA,
increase the restoration of vital forest ecosys- Washington, DC: www.climate-standards.org.
tems, while contributing to a combination of IPCC. 2003. Good practice guidance for Land Use,
activities that will help slow increases in atmos- Land-Use Change and Forestry National Green-
pheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. house Gas Inventories Programme Technical
Support Unit. Kanagawa, Japan. http://www.ipcc-
ggip.iges.or.jp/public/gpglulucf/gpglulucf.htm.
4. Future Needs
The greatest limiting factor in carbon projects Additional Reading
is the carbon market. As the carbon market is
developed and expanded, so too will small-scale Bass, S., Dubois, O., Moura-Costa, P., Pinard, M.,
carbon management projects. As more carbon Tipper, R., and Wilson, C. 2000. Rural livelihoods
nance is channelled into these projects, the and carbon management. IIED Natural Resource
carbon models and baselines will be rened and Issue Paper No. 1. International Institute for
more sophisticated methods will be developed. Environment and Development, London.
Landell-Mills, N., and Porras, I.T. 2002. Silver bullet
It is also important for accurate information to
or fools gold? A global review of markets for
replace speculation when it comes to the impor-
forest environmental services and their impact
tance of the carbon market, as well as its real on the poor. Instruments of Sustainable Private
value in mitigating climate change. Sector Forestry Series. IIED, London.
Smith, J., and Scherr, S.J. 2002. Forest Carbon and
Local Livelihoods: Assessment of Opportunities
References and Policy Recommendations. Center for Interna-
tional Forestry Research, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Climate, Community and Biodiversity Alliance WB Carbon prototype Fund. http://carbonnance.
(CCBA). 2004. Climate, Community and Biodiver- org/pcf/Home_Main.cfm.
25
Marketing and Communications
Opportunities: How to Promote and
Market Forest Landscape Restoration
Soh Koon Chng
176
25. Marketing and Communications Opportunities 177
Governments Current reforestation practices are costing a lot of money and not providing much
environmental or social benet. FLR achieves a balance between socioeconomic
and environmental benets. Let us show you how.
Technical experts FLR is an approach that requires an integrated effort. Join us and be a part of an
initiative, working with others to share expertise and know-how.
Development organisations FLR aims to restore forest goods and services for both people and nature. It takes an
working locally integrated approach. Work with us in this initiative so that together we can meet
our collective goals.
Conservation organisations Lets share lessons so we can help one another in implementing and advancing FLR
and programmes already initiatives in our respective countries/areas.
implementing FLR
Conservation organisations Protection and management of forests are no longer enough in achieving forest
and programmes not yet conservation in the face of increasing forest loss and degradation. We need also to
involved in FLR work on forest restoration. More and more forest conservation projects are
integrating a landscape-level forest restoration approach. Dont get left behind.
Jump on board.
know what makes the funders tick, what are tant. Most donors appreciate being involved,
their pet interests, goals, history of giving, etc. and it could be as simple as receiving regular
Such information is useful in helping us draw updates on how the project is progressing.
up approaches that are appropriate to the In many ways, donor engagement is like
donor, and also in developing good funding making and keeping friends. So invite them
proposals. Remember, marketing is about cre- home: invite donors to see how the project is
ating a win-win situationmatching your progressing and to understand your challenges.
objectives and those of the donor. Proper back- Its also more fun than just reading progress
ground research is essential. reports, and they would certainly love seeing
To nonpractitioners, landscape-scale forest how their funds are being spent. Like investors,
restoration may be a complex concept. Dont donors like seeing how their investments are
pass on the complexity to potential donors. doing. Finally, dont forget to acknowledge and
Even if they are versed in the technicalities of thank the donor.
the concept, their supervisors may not be. Sim-
plicity and speaking in the donors language are
important. It is also important to do in-depth
research to better know and understand the
2. Examples
donors and their priorities, in order to address
2.1. Responding to a CrisisThe
them. Above all, remember that you are talking
Big Storm of 1999
to people; even if they are working in govern-
ment aid agencies or multinationals, they are A third of Frances forests were damaged
just like usthey have feelings and emotions when the country was hit by one of the biggest
too. storms ever in December 1999. Damage
So you got the funds.Well done! But the mar- was extensive, shocking foresters and the
keting jobs not over. Most businesses know it is public. The news made headlines and for the
important to keep their customer base. Like- rst time in Frances forest history, forest prob-
wise, we need to keep our pool of donors. Never, lems and the links between forest and society
as we say, take the money and run! Donor were hotly debated by the media for at least
engagement throughout the project is all impor- 6 months.
178 S.K. Chng
During the weeks immediately following the In November 2002 one of the worst oil spills
big catastrophe, WWF, the global conservation in history occurred in Spains Galicia province.
organisation, surfed the wave, taking advan- It was the eighth marine environmental disas-
tage of the media and public interest to reach ter in Galicia in the last three decades, and
out to a broad audience, developing its argu- involved a tanker called Prestige.
ments on the need for improving forest man- Immediately after receiving news of the
agement and the problems and threats to crisis, WWF Spain formed a multidisciplinary
biodiversity. In the months that followed, WWF crisis group, led by its CEO, to deal with the
communicated the need for renewing forestry issue. Within an hour it had alerted both the
practices that take nature into account as well national and international media. The group
as promoting ecological restoration. Television designed and planned an integrated rapid-
publicity and print advertisement cajoled response strategy covering conservation, policy,
people into making a wish for forest restora- and communication. It also developed action
tion. In late 2000 a press conference was called plans for fund raising and a membership drive.
to present WWF and other NGOs proposals for At the same time, there was strong coordi-
improving forest management and restoration. nation with WWF Internationals Communica-
The rst anniversary of the storm was well tions Department and the Endangered Seas
covered by the mainstream media. It was an Programme, and national ofces, on policy and
opportunity to repeat the messages while inter- communication. A Web site was created to
est was still high. Subsequent anniversaries, provide daily updates from the eld, strengthen
however, did not generate as much media inter- WWFs demands on marine security, and attend
estthe topic became cold, covered only by to international media queries.
those journalists on the forest/environment A very rapid response, clear key messages,
beats. In 2003, for example, there was little rigorous and factual information, presence
media interest in a WWF-released study on the on the ground, and coordination with the
implementation of forest restoration, includ- WWF Network ensured that WWF was the
ing criticisms of the use of subsidies and bad medias main reference point. This in turn
practices in the management of habitat of key ensured that WWF was mentioned in almost
endangered species. all media coverage with its calls for urgent action
As a result of its communications efforts on by those concerned. Most importantly, the fast
this issue, WWF was identied as a major actor and integrated response enabled WWF Spain to
in forest management in Francesomething obtain strong conservation results, including sig-
that was not obvious before. It was successful nicant policies on improving marine security
in setting up partnerships with companies to adopted by the European Union (EU).
implement restoration programmes. As WWF Spain summed it up, it is unfortu-
WWF Frances Daniel Vallauri noted, An nate but true that An environmental crisis is a
important lesson learnt for us in communicat- great opportunity for an NGO in terms of com-
ing during the storm crisis was the need for munications and achieving policy goals. It
rapid response, coupled with a specic strategy also has the following tips to share with ofces
to communicate at least for the rst six months that may have to embark on rapid response
after a big storm. communications:
offer support and help in ensuring that past allow for quick dissemination of the impor-
errors are not repeated. tance of restoration, when the audience is
receptive. In some cases, such as for the linkage
between oods and tree cover, more research is
3.3. A Word About the Web
needed on the real linkages and cause-and-
The explosion of Web sites makes it tempting effect relationship in order to substantiate com-
to jump onto the bandwagon. But be aware that munications claims.
while nice to have, a Web site requires long-
term investment in resources in maintenance as
well as marketing to draw in visitors. Also, a References
Web site is not always the panacea for all com-
munications. For example, in many countries, Now hear thisthe nine laws of successful advocacy
target audiences will not have access to a com- communications. http://www.fenton.com/. Concise
puter. Another common error is the failure to report by Fenton Communications detailing
regularly update a Web site, which can quickly their approach to advocacy communication
campaigns.
become obsolete.
4. Future Needs
A number of rapid-response messages and
packages still need to be developed for antici-
pated crises. These are important because they
Part C
Implementing Forest Restoration
Section IX
Restoring Ecological Functions
26
Restoring Quality in Existing Native
Forest Landscapes
Nigel Dudley
Forest management has changed the composi- 1. The composition of tree species and other
tion and ecology of the remaining forests in forest-living plant and animal species, where
many parts of the world. Intensive management changes can include both loss of native species
of native temperate forests in Europe, North and problems from the occurrence of nonnative
America, and parts of Asia has resulted in invasive species
forests that are species-poor, articially young, 2. The pattern of intraspecic variation, as
lacking many of the expected microhabitats shown in trees by canopy and stand structure,
and with radical changes to ecology and dis- age-class, under-storey, with changes in man-
turbance patterns. Logging in many tropical aged forests commonly being toward younger,
forests has removed the largest trees, frag- more uniform forest stands
mented habitats through the construction of 3. The ecological functioning of plant and
logging roads and skid trails, and often opened animal species in the forest as manifest in food
185
186 N. Dudley
webs, competition, symbiosis, parasitism, and land in Wales, within the core of a projected
the presence of important microhabitats such UNESCO biosphere reserve. The wood is
as dead wood and leaf litter variable-aged with a natural ecology but has
4. The process by which the forest changes been substantially altered by invasive species,
and regenerates itself over time, as demon- mainly sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) and
strated by disturbance patterns, forest succes- rhododendron (Rhododendron ponticum). To
sion, and the occurrence of periodic major restore a natural composition, sycamore has
disturbances from storms, re, or heavy snowfall been progressively removed by ring-barking
5. The resilience of the forest in terms of mature trees and cutting out saplings. Rhodo-
tree health, ecosystem health, and the ability dendron has been cut and burned during the
to withstand environmental stress, which is of winter and stumps spot-painted with a short-
increasing importance during a period of rapid life herbicide to prevent regeneration (infor-
climate change mation from reserve staff).
6. The continuity of the forest particularly
with respect to total size, but also the existence
2.2. SwedenRe-Creating Dead
of natural forest edges (often lost in managed
Wood Microhabitats in
habitats), connectivity of forest patches and the
Managed Forest
impact of fragmentation222
Articial high stumps were created as potential
Restoration of quality can sometimes be
hosts for saproxylic (deadwood-living) beetles
achieved just by withdrawing management
in managed forests in Fagern, Uppland, and
or other pressures, allowing natural ecolog-
stumps and logs were also left as substrates for
ical functioning to reassert itself gradually.
saprophytic fungi. The results showed that hun-
However, in other cases, where, for instance,
dreds of beetle species, including many red-
species have been lost from a locality, or where
listed species, utilise high stumps, and two thirds
remaining pressures are undermining natural
of them favour stumps in semi- or fully sun-
disturbance patterns, more active restoration
exposed conditions, showing that high stumps
efforts may be needed. Over the past two
in logging areas and other open sites are poten-
decades, limited experience has built up in
tially very valuable tools for conservation of
restoration of forest quality, although there is
saproxylic beetles. Cut wood, especially large-
still a great deal to be learned.
diameter logs, also hosted numerous species
of saprophytic fungi. Thus, cut logs may sup-
port fungal diversity, both in managed forest
2. Examples landscapes and in forest protected areas (see
Restoration of Deadwood as a Critical Micro-
Most of the experience in restoration of forest
habitat in Forest Landscapes).223
quality currently exists in temperate and boreal
forests, as shown by the examples below,
although the importance of restoring forest 2.3. FinlandRestoring Natural
quality is also increasingly being recognised in Fire Disturbance Patterns by
the tropics. Prescribed Burning
Controlled burning is used to restore forests
2.1. WalesRestoring a Native where re suppression has resulted in the
Forest Composition by decline of species that need re for germination
Removing Invasive Species or to remove competitors. Finlands Natural
Heritage Services department uses prescribed
The Ynyshir bird reserve on the Dy estuary
burning in protected areas, particularly in the
contains some of the oldest native oak wood-
south of the country, and to date almost 4000
222 223
Dudley, 1996. Lindhe, 2004.
26. Restoring Quality in Existing Native Forest Landscapes 187
Table 26.1. Data card for stand-level assessment of forest authenticity (Dudley et al, in press).
Indicator Elements
Assessors should ll in as much of the table as possible. Space is left for further observations
Composition How natural is composition of tree species? Fully Partly Exotic
How natural is composition of other species? Fully Partly Exotic
Are signicant alien species present? Yes No
Is the ecosystem functioning naturally? Yes No
Notes on composition:
Pattern What is the tree age distribution? Mixedold Mixedyoung Mono
Is the canopy natural or articial? Natural Articial
Is the forest mosaic natural or articial? Natural Articial
Notes on pattern:
Functioning Are viable populations of most species present? Yes No
Does a natural food web exist? Yes No
What are the soil characteristics? Stable Seriously
eroding
What are hydrological characteristics? Healthy Problems
What is the age of the forest? Old growth Mature Young
What is the period of continual forest cover?
Notes on functioning:
Process Does a natural disturbance regime exist? Yes No
Does an unnatural disturbance regime exist? Yes No
Is a signicant amount of deadwood present? Snags Down logs
Notes on process:
Continuity Size (in hectares):
Age (approximate length of continuous forest cover)
Are the forest edges natural or articial? Natural Articial
Is the forest connected to other similar habitat? Yes No
Is the forest fragmented? Yes No
Notes on continuity:
Resilience What is the tree health? Good Average Poor
Are there important introduced pests, diseases, and Yes No
invasive species?
What are the pollution levels? High Medium Low
Notes on resilience:
of invasive species are in some cases still also Dudley, N., Schlaepfer, R., Jeanrenaud, J.-P., and
poorly developed as is management of articial Jackson, W.J. In press. Manual on Forest Quality.
disturbance. Codes of practice and perhaps Lindhe, A. 2004. Conservation Through Manage-
principles for articial disturbance remain to be ment. Doctoral dissertation, Department of
Entomology, Swedish University of Agricultural
developed.
Sciences (SLU). Acta Universitatis Agriculturae
Suecia, Silvestria, vol. 300.
References
Dudley, N. 1996. Authenticity as a means of measur-
ing forest quality. Biodiversity Letters 3:69.
Case Study: Restoring a Natural
Wetland and Woodland Landscape
from a Spruce Plantation in
Wales, UK
Nigel Dudley and Martin Ashby
190
Case Study: Restoring a Natural Wetland and Woodland Landscape 191
225 226
Ehrenfeld and Toth, 1997. Walker and del Moral, 2003.
192
27. Restoring Soil and Ecosystem Processes 193
2. Examples
2.1. Substrate Stability in Iceland
Erosion is a major disturbance on over 40
percent of the terrestrial surface of the earth.
Site stabilisation is essential for restoration, but
care must be taken in how it is done. Iceland
has the temperate worlds worst soil erosion
due to 1000 years of overgrazing of sensitive
soils (Fig. 27.1). It used to have 2- to 3-m-tall
birch forests (Betula pubescens), and Icelanders
want them back (Fig. 27.2). The use of native
ground cover to stabilise the erosive forces of
wind, water, and ice heaving, combined with
fences to keep out sheep and horses, leads
(after about 50 years) to the return of native
forests.227 No success has been achieved by
planting native trees without rst stabilising the
surface or without fencing (Fig. 27.3).
Puerto Rican landslides: mulch, fertiliser, of native species, particularly ones that
transplants, silt fences, contouring, jute attract vertebrate dispersers.
cloth covers, rock-lled gabions, redirecting
Biodiversity is a key goal to restoration, and
water ow, and lining alternative drainage
its reestablishment implies a fully functioning
channels.
ecosystem. If a diverse biological community
Adding organic matter: Soil processes are key
resembling the reference ecosystem is self-
to successful restoration. Beginning with
sustaining, then landscape and successional
severely disturbed substrates, organic matter
dynamics have likely been incorporated. In
additions are the fastest way to incorporate
addition, adequate substrate stability, drainage,
critical soil microbes. Earthworm additions,
depth, and fertility have been achieved. How-
inoculations of mycorrhizae, and additions of
ever, restoration generally requires ongoing
limiting nutrients (with the caveats noted
monitoring and strategic alterations.
above) all potentially accelerate soil devel-
opment and facilitate woody plant invasions
or plantings, especially in severely disturbed
habitats. However, mycorrhizae can act as 4. Future Needs
parasites when nutrient limitations are
severe. Minimal additions of topsoil or other We need to better understand the role that indi-
sources of nutrients and soil biota can reduce vidual species have in the restoration of ecosys-
the risk of overfertilisation and dominance tem processes. We have tended to focus on
by early successional species that preclude nitrogen xers used in agricultural settings and
tree establishment. Additions of nitrogen- neglected vascular species that concentrate
xing plants can often benet (but see Sub- nitrogen and phosphorus from infertile soils.
strate Fertility, above). We have also neglected the nature and speci-
Reducing soil nutrients: Restoration can also city of plant mycorrhizal associations and
involve reducing soil nutrients (via carbon- their role in restoration. Species that have
rich straw, sawdust, or sugar, or additions of similar functional attributes (x nitrogen, grow
lignin-rich plant litter that immobilise nutri- early and fast in succession, host key pollinators
ents) if the goal is a naturally infertile site. or dispersers, have deep roots that break
For example, native ohia (Metrosideros poly- through compacted soils, etc.) may offer
morpha) forests in Hawaii are out-competed insights into better approaches to restoration.
by the introduced nitrogen xing tree Myrica Similarly, keystone species (ones with ecosys-
faya. In fact, the whole successional pathway tem and community impacts disproportional to
on volcanic surfaces is altered to favour their biomass) could be important to restora-
plants adapted to higher nutrients, particu- tion efforts.
larly nitrogen.231 Restoration of native Invasive species are becoming ubiquitous
Hawaiian communities and successional and restorationists need to address the impact
processes will most likely require nutrient- of such species on ecosystem processes. Do they
reduction treatments. alter nutrient dynamics, soil stability, soil salin-
Reducing toxic conditions: Toxic conditions can ity, re frequency, or primary productivity? If
be ameliorated by bioremediation, or the use so, restoration efforts must not ignore these
of plants, mycorrhizae, and microbes. Once new inuences.
toxins are reduced, restoration of native com- Restoration is essentially the manipulation of
munities can begin. Additions of topsoil from succession, yet we understand little about how
late successional communities, sometimes ecosystem processes vary through succession.
combined with sludge, composted yard Temporal replacement of vascular plant species
wastes, or other concentrated organic matter reects and inuences a complex of ecosystem
source, often accelerate succession. Arrested processes, including, generally, a reduction in
succession can be avoided by dense plantings light availability and an increase in nutrient
availability. How can restorationists maximise
231
Vitousek and Walker, 1989. their manipulations of these trends to favour
196 L.R. Walker
desirable outcomes? Finally, much emphasis is Vitousek, P.M., and Walker, L.R. 1989. Biological
placed on above-ground and visually obvious invasion by Myrica faya in Hawaii: plant demog-
criteria for measuring restoration success. raphy, nitrogen xation and ecosystem effects.
When below-ground processes are ignored or Ecological Monographs 59:247265.
Walker, L.R., and del Moral, R. 2003. Primary Suc-
only treated in a crude way (through fertilisa-
cession and Ecosystem Rehabilitation. Cambridge
tion or stabilisation, for example), restoration
University Press, Cambridge, UK.
suffers. The interplay of soil organisms with soil Walker, L.R., Zarin, D.J., Fetcher, N., Myster, R.W.,
stability, fertility, and/or toxicity and with and Johnson, A.H. 1996. Ecosystem development
animals and vascular plants is perhaps the ulti- and plant succession on landslides in the
mate key to successful restoration.232 Caribbean. Biotropica 28:566576.
Wardle, D.A. 2002. Communities and Ecosystems:
Linking the Aboveground and Belowground Com-
References ponents. Princeton University Press, Princeton,
New Jersey.
Aradottir, A.L., and Eysteinsson, T. 2004. Restora-
tion of birch woodlands in Iceland. In: Stanturf, J.,
and Madsen, P., eds. Restoration of Boreal and Additional References
Temperate Forests, pp. 195209. CRC/Lewis Press,
Boca Raton, Florida. Palmer, M.A., Ambrose, R.F., and Poff, N.L. 1997.
Cooke, J.A. 1999. Mining. In: Walker, L.R., ed. Ecological theory and community restoration
Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground, vol. 16, Eco- ecology. Restoration Ecology 5:291300.
systems of the World, pp. 365384 Elsevier, Temperton, V.M., Hobbs, R.J., Nuttle, T., and Halle,
Amsterdam. S., eds. 2004. Assembly Rules and Restoration
Ehrenfeld, J.G., and Toth, L.A. 1997. Restoration Ecology: Bridging the Gap Between Theory and
ecology and the ecosystem perspective. Restora- Practice. Island Press, Washington, DC.
tion Ecology 5:307317. Walker, L.R., and Smith, S.D. 1997. Impacts of inva-
sive plants on community and ecosystem proper-
ties. In: Luken, J.O., and Thieret, J.W., eds.
Assessment and Management of Plant Invasions,
232
Wardle, 2002. pp. 6986. Springer, New York.
28
Active Restoration of Boreal Forest
Habitats for Target Species
Harri Karjalainen
197
198 H. Karjalainen
other species within the ecosystem, and diversity of its prey: it may be feeding on large
therefore their recovery signals that other numbers of a small group of saproxylic beetles.
species are likely to be recovering. Such So while target species are politically and pra-
species may also be called umbrella spe- ctically useful in helping to stimulate restoration
cies, which means these species habitat activity, they need to be treated with caution if
requirements are relatively wide (compre- they are also to be used as a surrogate for a
hensive) and hence conservation of umbrella whole cross section of biodiversity. This may
species may protect many other important imply, for instance, broader monitoring to check
species with similar or less demanding the wider implications of target recovery (refer
habitat requirements. to the Section Monitoring and Evaluation).
Species that inuence signicantly the viabil- Ideally, all restoration activities shall be
ity of other species populations, or play a key based on in-depth knowledge of the structure
role for ecosystem functionality or structure. and function of the forest ecosystem and target
These are known as keystone species. species in question.
Species that are of particular importance
within a conservation plan because they are,
1.2. Where to Start Restoration for
for example, endangered, endemic, culturally
Target Species
important, economically valuable, etc.
Species that act as surrogates for certain Target species populations may have
habitat and/or landscape qualities that are decreased, but may still be surviving in a
considered important for maintaining degraded forest area. Priority should be set for
biodiversity. the restoration of the habitats of the target
species, as well as for the enhancement of the
In the long term, ecological forest restoration
viability of the target population. Even those
objectives are to create self-sustaining forest
species surviving for now in forest fragments
landscapes, where natural succession dynamics
may not be viable in the longer term, and hence
prevail and forests form natural mosaics that
there is urgency for restoration. This argument
are able to maintain viable populations of all
provides another reason for intervention rather
naturally occurring species.
than relying on natural processes.
In the case where target species have become
extinct to the region, it is necessary to know
habitat requirements of the target species and
1.1. Importance of Restoration for possibilities for colonisation: species capacity
Target Species to disperse, location of the source population,
Target species are the objective of restoration distance to the restored habitats, and in the case
efforts for two reasons: either because the of plants, the existence of the seed bank.
particular species has declined for a specic
reason and therefore needs special attention,
1.3. Target Species as Indicators of
or because the target is used as an indicator of
Successful Restoration
a wider biodiversity grouping that has also
declined. Target species (in particular endangered
In the second case, recovery of the target species) often play an important role in assess-
implies also recovery of other species. This is ing the results of certain restoration activities in
more often claimed than substantiated: target the ecosystem. The achievements may be meas-
species are often relatively large, charismatic ured structurally (e.g., by the abundance or
species and therefore also relatively adaptable. number of target species or species composi-
For instance, the recovery of a woodpecker tion) or functionally (e.g., interaction of species,
species implies that the volume of its prey trophic structure, side effects).235 However, the
species have also recovered (probably due to
deadwood retention) but not necessarily the 235
Palmer et al, 1997.
28. Active Restoration of Boreal Forest Habitats for Target Species 199
presence of certain target species does not nec- self-thinning and natural disturbance. The key
essarily mean that restoration activities have factor in restoration is to evaluate the restora-
been successful. From the population biology tion validity of the site compared to the
viewpoint, only populations that are capable naturalness of the forest structure, species
to reproduce, grow, disperse, and develop can immigration, probability, and possibility of
be viable in the long term. This implies that species recovery.
successful restoration of target populations New research in boreal forests in Finland
requires they become functionally connected suggests that at least 20 m3 of deadwood per
with regional metapopulations in the long hectare on stand-level would probably meet,
term.236 and at least 50 m3/hectare would give a high
If restored target species populations are too probability to meet the ecological minimum
small, there is a risk for too narrow genetic vari- requirements of many endangered forest
ation that may become a limiting factor for suc- species specialised in deadwood.239 However,
cessful restoration.237 Narrow genetic variation the quality of the deadwood is essential and it
may cause, for example, lower evolutionary is important to offer deadwood that varies in
adaptability and lower genetic population size. quality to suit different specialised species.
Small populations are also more vulnerable to There should be a whole variety of natural tree
sporadic factors. species, as well as a variety of different decom-
position classes (see also Restoration of Dead-
wood as a Critical Microhabitat in Forest
2. Examples Landscapes).
2.1. Restoring Habitats for Species 2.2. Forest Fires Specialist Species
Requiring Deadwood
Many endangered specialist species are highly
Old, dying, and decaying trees are important
dependent on forest res and burned wood.
element in natural forests, providing habitats
These species typically populate the burned
for numerous specialised species. For example,
area immediately after the re, and revert some
scientists estimate 20 to 25 percent (or some
5 years after the re. Some endangered re-
4000 to 5000 species) of all forest-dwelling
dependent beetle species utilise certain fungi
species are dependent on deadwood in Finnish
species, which only occur in recently burned
boreal forests.238 Forestry practises have made
wood. Most of the re-dependent specialist
forests tidier and the amount of deadwood has
species are capable of spreading long distances,
fallen to critically low levels, resulting in a high
which is necessary because forest res have
numbers of those species relying on deadwood
occurred randomly in the forest landscape.
becoming endangered.
These species often have certain physiological
Therefore, one of the most common goals
and morphological adaptations, such as
of ecological forest restoration is to re-create
infrared sensors, which helps species to nd
a proper environment for the species using
suitable habitats from a distance.
decaying wood. Typical species are different
Other groups of species are not as closely
beetle species and saprophytic biota, both of
linked to res, but clearly favour them. These
which are good indicators of the general dead-
species are typically the same that occur in
wood conditions in the forests for other species
other large-scale natural disturbances such as
groups. Dead and dying wood can be created by
large-scale wind falls, ooded forests or even
damaging and felling trees and by triggering
clear-felled forests. These species populate
and starting the succession dynamics with
forest re areas typically 5 to 25 years after the
actual re.
236
Montalvo et al, 1997.
237
Montalvo et al, 1997.
238 239
Siitonen et al, 2001. Penttil et al, 2004; Siitonen et al, 2001.
200 H. Karjalainen
203
204 N. Dudley and D. Vallauri
250 253
Trav et al, 1999. Sandstrm, 2003.
251 254
Dudley and Vallauri, 2004. Bobiec et al, 2000.
252 255
Christensen and Katrine, 2003. Mountford, 2002.
29. Restoration of Deadwood as a Critical Microhabitat 205
Zoning: In forest landscapes the proportion large amount of deadwood on the ground
of deadwood desired in any one place is (without perverse subsidies, economic
likely to vary according to management factors will often create a near-to-nature
needs, from a fully natural deadwood com- form of management); and
ponent in protected areas to inclusion of creation of articial snags by leaving a
deadwood components in managed second- proportion of some trunks standing after
ary forest, and perhaps very little deadwood felling.
retained in intensively managed articial Articial restoration of deadwood and bridg-
plantations. Landscape-scale zoning can be a ing substitutes: In a crisis, where deadwood is
useful tool to agree necessary and desired in such short supply that dependent species
levels of deadwood in order to support face extirpation or even extinction, short-
biodiversity. term restoration methods may be justiable,
Forest management policies: Forest manage- whereby deadwood is created through arti-
ment policies should include the retention of cial disturbance. However, these are costly
trees and wood components likely to support and only partially successful in helping to
saproxylic species within managed forests. protect a proportion of the expected species
Guidelines are available for what size and and are at best an interim measure. Several
shape of deadwood to leave; in general, it is strategies have been tested, including:
the larger components of deadwood (logs deliberate creation of standing or fallen
and standing trunks) that are likely to be snags, uprooted trees, leaning dead trees,
missing, although in intensively managed and standing dead trees;
areas even branches and twigs may have hastening senescence and creating habitat
been routinely cleared. Likely components trees;
include: drilling, for example, nest holes of different
existing large, old, dying or dead trees, sizes so that species using secondary nest
pollarding senescent trees if necessary to holes have instantly created habitat; and
prolong the existence of this particular creation of habitat surrogates such as nest
habitat if it is in short supply; boxes and bat boxes: the recovery of the
a proportion of middle-aged trees to pied ycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) in the
ensure a balanced supply of deadwood in U.K. has been ascribed to use of nest
the future; boxes.
key habitat areas within managed forests
where stands are allowed to mature in a
natural manner; and 4. Future Needs
fallen deadwood, including brash from
thinnings (possibly a mixture of cleared Perhaps the most urgent need is for a better
and uncleared areas) and, even more understanding of the dynamics and importance
importantly, large logs. of deadwood to the biodiversity and ecology of
Using other management interventions: Other forests, particularly in the tropics and in
management interventions can be consid- Mediterranean habitats, where research has
ered if these are likely to help support generally been more limited to date. More
saproxylic species, either in designated areas information is also needed about the possible
or more generally, including: costs of deadwood retention policies, including
prescribed burning in boreal and some the economic costs for commercial manage-
other forest habitats (there is also a need ment and more about links between deadwood
to balance deadwood retention with man- and the spread of pests and diseases. (Current
agement of re risk); research suggests that this should not be a
after a storm, before grant-supporting major problem, but more detailed studies
expensive salvage logging, balance the eco- are required.) Simple-to-use assessment tech-
logical and economical benet of leaving a niques are still needed for many forest types,
29. Restoration of Deadwood as a Critical Microhabitat 207
208
30. Restoration of Protected Area Values 209
manage for, rather than aiming to reproduce Access controls to allow regeneration: Protected
an (often largely hypothetical) original areas in which one management authority
forest. controls the whole site can use zoning,
Management: Plans and zoning of use: most including temporary zoning such as exclu-
protected areas do not exist as single man- sion zones for visitors or for herbivores, to
agement entities, but instead are zoned into facilitate natural regeneration or to increase
areas with different management appro- the speed and success of regeneration plant-
aches, and different regulations regarding use ing. A variety of different approaches exist:
and level of protection. IUCN divides pro- More or less permanent exclusion zones to
tected areas into six categories266: allow long-term recovery of forest types
Category Ia: Strict nature reserve/wilder- that have lost old-growth characteristics.
ness protection area managed mainly for For example, it will take hundreds of years
science or wilderness protection to recover fully old-growth characteristics
Category Ib: Wilderness area: protected in the recovering kauri (Agathis) forests of
area managed mainly for wilderness New Zealand, which were almost totally
protection destroyed by miners but are now gradually
Category II: National park: protected area regrowing in a series of national parks and
managed mainly for ecosystem protection reserves where grazing and felling are both
and recreation controlled (information from reserve staff
Category III: Natural monument: pro- in 1991).
tected area managed mainly for conserva- Temporary exclusion zones to allow recov-
tion of specic natural features ering forest to get a head start without
Category IV: Habitat/species management trampling from visitors, once seedlings
area: protected area managed mainly have established the exclusion zone can be
for conservation through management removed. For example, such exclusion
intervention zones are established on Stradbroke Island
Category V: Protected landscape/ off the coast of Queensland, Australia, in
seascape: protected area managed mainly reserves established on former sand quarry
for landscape/seascape conservation or sites where poor soils make tree establish-
recreation ment relatively difcult (information from
Category VI: Managed resource protected a site visit, 2000)
area: protected area managed mainly for Agreements with landowners: protected
the sustainable use of natural resources. areas under the control of multiple
Although these categories describe the main landowners, for instance many category V
purpose of the reserve (and should apply to reserves, or with multiple stakeholders,
at least two thirds of its area) other forms of need to rely instead on voluntary agree-
management are possible in the remainder to ments with landowners, with or without
meet the needs of local communities, visitors, compensation payments, to facilitate
or, for instance, because active restoration is restoration.268 Such agreements might be
needed in an otherwise strictly protected to exclude grazing stock from particular
area.267 Identication of the need, extent of, areas or for more active regeneration
and timing for restoration should be a key activities. If possible, agreements should be
part of management plans in those forest developed in such a way as to create ben-
protected areas where restoration is needed, ets for all parties, for instance, a commu-
including the identication of specic targets, nity agreement to restore a forest that
approaches, and timetables.
266
IUCN, 1994; Phillips, 2003.
267 268
IUCN, 1994. Phillips, 2003.
212 N. Dudley
215
216 P. Regato and N. Berrahmouni
It is estimated that 1.5 million people in the For instance, the current cork production
Brazilian Amazon derive their income from (3.7 million tonnes/year), game production
extractive products. (1.2 million tonnes/year), and medicinal/
In the forest zone of Southern Ghana, it is aromatic plants (4.5 million tonnes/year)
estimated that 258,000 people or 20 percent represent in all around one third of their
of the economically active population derive potential.3
income from NTFPs.1
In Nigeria, it is estimated that 78,880 tons
of Irvingia gabonensis are marketed per
Source: Shanley et al, 2002.
year.2 1
Townson, 1995.
In the Mediterranean region, the produc- 2
Shanley et al, 2002.
tion of NTFPs is well below its potential. 3
Moussouris and Regato, 2002.
The restoration of cork oak forests implies a Current attempts at long-term in situ
set of management options, among which we management of rattan in the wild have demon-
may highlight the following: strated the value of developing a range of resto-
ration options, which include the following:
Production of native trees and shrubs in tree
nurseries for (1) developing mixed planta- Specic management plans for creating
tionsalternating oaks with faster growing extractive reserves in community forests
small fruit trees and aromatic shrubs in and low-level protected areas, where local
degraded land; (2) diversifying the species people harvest rattan population within car-
composition of high shrubs and forest stands; rying capacity margins, which secures its
(3) increasing tree density and understorey natural regeneration
species composition in open woodlands; Enrichment planting and canopy manipula-
(4) creating vegetation lines along river net- tion (opening articial gaps) in selectively
works and ravines logged natural forests, as a way to enhance
Improving natural regeneration of oak rattan natural regeneration. This is perhaps
species through pruning and rotating live- the most benecial form of cultivation, both
stock systems in terms of productivity and maintenance of
Diversifying native species composition in ecological integrity.
grasslands through seedlings Rattan cultivation as part of agroforestry
Simulating natural re breaks by creating a systems, by rotating 7- to 15-year cycles of
mosaic of forest gaps in sensitive areas with rattan with plant food crops
grasslands, small shrubs plantation lines, and Planting rattan within tree-based fast
scattered oak trees growing plantations, such as rubber (Hevea
Specic management plans for controlling brasiliensis)
the dispersion of pioneer monospecic
To improve harvesting techniques and avoid
Cistus spp. formations through harvesting for
any impacts on potential sustainability, the
Cistus distillation, and diversifying them
younger stems of clustering species should
through plantation of fruit and honey shrub
be left to regenerate future sources of cane,
species
and harvesting intensity should be based on
long-term assessments of growth rate and
2.2. NTFP Restoration in Southeast recruitment.
Asia: The Case of Rattan
Species Production275 2.3. NTFP Restoration in Latin
Rattans are light-demanding climbing palms America: The Dragons Blood
exploited for supplying cane for furniture, Case in Western Amazonia276
matting, and basketry markets. Moreover,
Dragons blood is the generic name of neotrop-
rattans play an important role in the subsis-
ical trees of the genus Croton, used to treat a
tence strategies of many rural populations in
wide range of health problems. Croton species
Southeast Asia (e.g., edible fruits and palm
are all pioneer, light-demanding species, com-
heart, medicines, and dyes). During the last 20
monly associated with nonooded riparian
years, the rapid expansion of the international
habitats, as well as low- and mid-elevation sec-
and domestic trade in rattan ($6.5 billion/year)
ondary forests in human-disturbed areas and
has led to substantial overexploitation of the
forest gaps in mature forests. For many years,
wild resources. In addition, the lack of adequate
Dragons blood has been used by rural inhabi-
resource tenure contributes to their irrational
exploitation in many forest areas.
275 276
The case study text has been extracted from Shanley et The case study text has been extracted from Alexiades,
al, 2002; Sunderland and Dranseld, 2002. 2002.
31. Using Nontimber Forest Products 219
tants and urban dwellers within and beyond nomic value of these forest resources in order
the tropical forests, and commercialised by an to make an informed decision. Economically
extensive and largely informal network. During oriented projects involving the use of native
the last decades, Croton latex has become an plant species should be subjected to a thorough
international commodity, reaching over 26 cost-benet analysis before being imple-
tonnes in 1998. Commercial harvesting is mented. Generally speaking, there is a growing
having a clear ecological impact on Croton, need to argue and reafrm the fact that NTFPs
especially in the most accessible areas, affecting signicantly contribute to many local and
its distribution and demographics, which has national economies, and have an unknown
been a source of concern for nongovernmental potential that needs to be further researched.
organisations (NGOs) and government There are a number of processes for evaluat-
agencies. ing what has been called the hidden forest
Management regimes for Croton propaga- harvest277: (1) understand and assess the role
tion and reforestation have been adopted in of forests in rural livelihoods, (2) assess the eco-
Amazonian agroforestry systems, accompanied nomic value of resources for rural households,
by a concomitant professionalisation of all (3) value the local and regional markets for
concerned actors. Crotons role as a pioneer forest products, (4) measure nonmarket values,
species and its association with secondary and (5) develop economic decision-making
forests make it an ideal candidate for increas- frameworks. These methods are based on a set
ing economic returns from fallow management. of general principles: (1) data collection must
Abandoned crops and pastures are ideal envi- be done at the most appropriate social organi-
ronments for the establishment of mixed forest sational unitfamily, gender, or other major
stands, including Croton seedlings together relationship; (2) collection of data on income,
with other timber species. Restoration pro- consumption, and expenditures should include
grammes with Croton in Peru have combined as much as possible on uses of NTFPs; and (3)
Dragons blood trees with medicinal plants, data must be quantitative for statistical analy-
several timber trees, including Cedrela and Swi- sis and must be harmonised to make sure there
etenia, and crop species such as coffee, cacao, is coherence between different surveys. Partic-
naranjilla, and manioc. The central government ipatory rural appraisal methods help under-
of Peru has established an ofcial goal of plant- stand the social context and help design the
ing two million Croton trees. most appropriate survey form. Data are
gathered through periodical interviews (i.e.,
semester interviews) in order to obtain fresh
information about the yearly cycle of NTFP
3. Outline of Tools use.
3.1. Valuing NTFPs in Rural
Development 3.2. Harvesting, Growing, and
Quantifying in economic terms the value of
Planting NTFPs
NTFPs and the income they can provide rural There are a number of ecological guidelines
families is an important step forward for under- and techniques applicable for restoring NTFP
standing the prevalent role of forest resources source species in degraded forest land,
in rural subsistence. If NTFPs were appropri- described in several chapters of this book. In all
ately valued, this could provide a powerful cases, specic research and eld testing is
argument to governments and the private needed to get the necessary know-how on har-
sector to alter or reverse wrong spatial planning vesting, growing, and planting the wide range of
decisions in forest landscapes of outstanding trees, shrubs, and herbs native to each forest
biodiversity. When planning the conversion of ecosystem, as well as to facilitate natural regen-
forests into agricultural land for subsistence
reasons, it is necessary to estimate the real eco- 277
Campbell and Luckert, 2002.
220 P. Regato and N. Berrahmouni
eration and habitat improvement techniques. which emphasised local decision making and
Standardised protocols for seed collection, negotiation.280
mycorrhization of nursery plants, nursery The success of the Tunisian and Quintana
and eld techniques for reduction of transplant Roo pilot experiences have gained domestic
shock, need to be developed through pilot and international recognition, and these proj-
experiences. ects are now seen by governments, intergov-
ernmental organisations, and NGOs as models
for similar initiatives in both countries.281
3.3. Establishing Community-Based
Income-Generating Associative
Systems Based on NTFPs 4. Future Needs
Well-dened tenure and access rights can
provide an incentive for local communities to 4.1. NTFPs and Forest Certication
manage their natural resources sustainably.278
Certication is a policy tool that attempts
Replacement of communal tenure systems with
to foster responsible resource stewardship
government management regimes and private
through the labelling of consumer products.
property has reduced peoples access to NTFPs,
Even if forest certication has tended to focus
which have traditionally been an important
on timber products, opportunities exist to
part of their livelihoods. This fact has had
promote sound ecological and social practices
detrimental consequences, by increasing
in NTFPs management to support restoration
both uncontrolled overexploitation of forest
in degraded forest landscapes of outstanding
resources and biodiversity loss.
biodiversity and increase local communities
A number of treaties covering indigenous
revenues and trade opportunities through this
peoples rights to tenure, resource access,
market tool.
benet sharing, and intellectual property rights
The certication systems that are relevant
have been recently drafted and legally adopted
for NTFPs include sustainable forestry, organic
in several countries.
agriculture, and fair trade. The Forest Steward-
For instance, in the last decade, the Tunisian
ship Council (FSC) promotes well-managed
government has established a legal framework
forests through the application of criteria that
to provide local communities with access to
address ecological, social, and economic
NTFPs in the state-owned forests and organi-
issues.282 The International Federation of
sational means for people living in forest land
Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
to manage them. WWF, the global conservation
has criteria for wild-harvested products as well
organisation has assisted local communities to
as specic criteria for some NTFPs like maple
build pilot local associations of common inter-
syrup and honey. The Fair-Trade Labelling
est in the cork forest land through education,
Organisation (FLO), developed out of the
institutional development, and training pro-
alternative trade movement, currently certies
grammes for implementing forest management
a limited number of agroforestry products,
plans and NTFPs harvesting.279
although its product range is increasing. The
A pilot forest plan (Plan Piloto Forestal) was
integration of the three certication schemes
conducted in Quintana Roo State, on the
will appeal to a broader consumer market as
Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, with the aim to
it may address in a more cost-effective and
increase empowerment and control of forest
harmonised manner environmental, harvesting,
extraction activities to communities. This pro-
processing, sanitation, benet sharing, social
gramme was built with political and technical
and worker welfare, and chain-of-custody
support, following a bottom-up approach,
criteria.
280
Shanley et al, 2002.
278 281
Shanley et al, 2002. WWF, 2003.
279 282
WWF, 2003. Mallet, 2001.
31. Using Nontimber Forest Products 221
FAO. 1997. Non-Wood Forest Products Forestry and management of non-timber forest products,
Information Notes Handout, Rome. Earthscan, London.
Mallet P. 2001. Certication Challenges and Oppor- Sunderland, T.C.H., and Dranseld, J. 2002. Rattan.
tunities. Falls Brook Centre, Canada. In Shanley, P. Pierce, A., Laird, S.A., and Guilln,
Moussouris, Y., and Regato, P. 1999. Forest harvest: A., eds. 2002. Tapping the Green Market: certica-
Mediterranean woodlands and the importance tion and management of non-timber forest prod-
of non-timber products to forest conservation, ucts, Earthscan, London.
Arborvitae supplement. WWF/IUCN. Longer ref- Townson, I.M. 1995. Income from Non-Timber Forest
erenced version can be found at http://www.fao. Products: Pattern of Enterprise Sciences. Oxford
org/waicent/faoinfo/forestry/nwfp/public.htm. University.
Moussouris, Y., and Regato, P. 2002. Mastic gum, Vallejo, V.R., Serrasolses, I., Cortina, J., Seva, J.P.,
cork oak, pine nut, pine resin and chestnut. In: Valdecantos, A., and Vilagrosa, A. 2000. Restora-
Shanley, P., Pierce, A., Laird, S.A., and Guilln, A. tion strategies and actions in Mediterranean
eds. Tapping the Green Market: Certication degraded lands. In: Enne, G., Zanolla, Ch., and
and management of non-timber forest products, Peter, D., eds. Desertication in Europe: Mitigation
Earthscan, London. Strategies, Land-Use Planning. European Com-
Ndoye, O., and Ruiz-Perez, M. 1997. The markets of mission, Luxembourg.
non-timber forest products in the humid forest WWF. 2003. Conservation and Management of
zone of Cameroon. In Doolan, S. ed. African Rain- Biodiversity Hotspots in the Mediterranean. 10
forest and the Conservation of Biodiversity. Pro- Lessons Learned. WWF Mediterranean Pro-
ceedings of the Limbe Conference, pp. 128133, gramme, Rome.
Earthwatch Europe, London.
Oliveira, R., and Palma, L. 2003. Un Cordo Verde
para o Sul de Portugal. Restauraao de Paisagens
Florestais. ADPM ed., Portugal.
Pagiola, S., Bishop, J., and Landell-Mills, N. 2002. Additional Reading
Selling Forest Environmental Services. Earthscan,
London. UNEP/WCMC. Nontimber forest products, Web
Shanley, P., Pierce, A., Laird, S.A., and Guilln, A., site: http://valhalla.unep-wcmc.org/ntfp/
eds. 2002. Tapping the Green Market: certication biodiversity.cfm?displang=eng.
32
An Historical Account of Fuelwood
Restoration Efforts
Don Gilmour
284
Gilmour and Fisher, 1991.
223
224 D. Gilmour
and fodder collection, many development fully, but there has also been a depressingly
projects have focussed on forest restoration as long list of failures. Critical questions of equity
a solution to both environmental and economic and access remain even in some countries
problems associated with forest loss and where there have been long-term and relatively
degradation. successful programmes. Similar examples can
In theory, forest restoration for fuelwood be found in other parts of the world, although
should be amongst the easiest forms of restora- different countries have not followed the same
tion, with its uncomplicated emphasis on rapid time line. For example, most of Southeast Asia,
growth of a few species that burn effectively. Papua New Guinea, and the Pacic and large
Experience in places where forest restoration parts of central Africa, Latin America, and
for fuelwood has worked show that there are the exSoviet Union countries are only now
few insurmountable technical difculties. How- coming toward the end of an era of major
ever, despite years of hard work and nancial industrial focus for their forests. However, most
investment, efforts to restore forests for local (but not all) countries in these regions are
human needs remain at best only partially converging rapidly toward embracing partici-
successful in the main centres of activity in patory approaches for many aspects of forest
Africa and Asia. An understanding of why this management.
occurred is essential if restoration efforts are to In practice, many of the worlds poorest
help provide energy and agricultural resources people still rely primarily on wood products for
to many of the worlds poorest communities. their energyabout half of the global popula-
It is possible to recognise three distinct tion. Forest landscape restoration projects are
eras that represent different approaches to unlikely to be successful in areas where people
the restoration of forest resources in these need fuelwood unless they take this into
regions: account, and many communities will support
restoration only if they can see clear benets in
Industrial plantation era: 1960s1970s
terms of fuelwood resources. Natural forests
Woodlot era: 1970smid-1980s
managed primarily for fuelwood and fuelwood
People rst era: mid-1980s1990s
plantations can both be integrated successfully
The summary in Table 32.1 is drawn from the with wider efforts to restore forest area or
well-documented changes that have taken quality, but require a detailed understanding of
place in parts of South Asia and Africa. Fuel- community needs, social structure, land tenure,
wood projects have been implemented success- and access and use rights.
Industrial plantation era Strong belief in importance of industrialisation of forestry for production of raw
(1960s to 1970s) materials to meet needs of expanding populations and economies; belief that increased
employment opportunities in rural areas would lead to decreased poverty
Woodlot era (1970s to Emphasis on afforestation and village woodlots based on scaling down of conventional
1980s) forestry practices as a means to address fuelwood and desertication problems
People First era Increased understanding about the role of trees in livelihood strategies of rural people;
(1980s1990s) less emphasis on rewood, more on management of existing forests, multiproduct
species, integration of tree-growing with agriculture in agroforestry and farm forestry
systems and on participation by target populations; an increased focus on nontimber
forest products as sources of household income and welfare and a growing emphasis
on devolution and increased participation, and on encouraging local management of
forests as common property; stronger support for legislation to empower local users,
and to protect the rights and lifestyles of forest dwellers
priorities. However, problems remained, to ensure that the processes being established
including those created by inequalities within can be sustained into the future and that the
and between communities, inadequate consid- outcomes deliver the desired social and envi-
eration of livelihood constraints, and the fact ronmental benets. Many of the challenges that
that participatory approaches are still used are raised relate to broader issues of restora-
more in name than in practice. Governments tion within a landscape, for example, how to
have been reluctant to devolve power, and if optimise land use within the landscape to
community organisation is weak, devolution include fuelwood plantations but also other
can lead to even greater inequities. A land uses. Among the challenges that need to
groundswell of interest created international be addressed to ensure long-term sustainable
support but sometimes pushed the rate of outcomes are the following:
change beyond the capacity to implement.
Improved knowledge to manage forests for
Some of the experiments in community driven
multiple products
forestry in parts of Nepal and northern India
Mechanisms to manage trade-offs between
characterise this approach.
multiple interests
Full representation of all interest groups
(particularly women and poorer people)
3. Outline of Tools Development of representative, accountable,
and competent local organisations
It is clear that the key constraints in addressing
Development of representative, account-
fuelwood and fodder shortages are social and
able, and competent government forest
political rather than technical; once a commu-
organisations
nity is fully supportive of and empowered to
Embedding forest restoration within an
implement local forest restoration, then the
understanding of livelihood strategies
technical means are either already in place or
Emphasis on quality of processes rather than
can be easily learned. A wide suite of tools for
rapid delivery of products irrespective of
community-based forest management already
quality
exists:
Top-to-bottom change in attitudes, beha-
Participatory approaches to resource and viour, and commitment to participatory ap-
needs assessments proaches within forestry and other land
Community mapping of land tenure and access management organisations
Conict resolution Devolution of power within forestry organi-
Small-scale forestry techniques sations to staff in the eld
Policy and legislation in support of new ap-
In the context of a broader forest landscape
proaches to forest restoration
restoration programme, establishment of either
plantations or seminatural forests for fuelwood
will frequently be one part of a wider restora-
tion effort. An important component of any
approach, therefore, is the negotiating skills References
necessary to agree on where fuelwood will be
prioritised within the landscape (see Negotia- Arnold, J.E.M. 1999. Trends in community forestry in
tions and Conict Management). review. Community Forestry Unit, FAO, Rome.
Gilmour, D.A., and Fisher, R.J. 1991. Villagers,
Forests and ForestersThe Philosophy, Process
and Practice of Community Forestry in Nepal.
4. Future Needs Sahayogi Press, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Wiersum, K.F. 1999. Social forestry: changing per-
Each of the three eras discussed in this chapter spectives in forestry science or practice? Thesis,
had problems associated with it. Some of the Wageningen Agricultural University, The Nether-
problems highlighted must be resolved in order lands (ISBN 90-5808-055-2).
32. An Historical Account of Fuelwood Restoration Efforts 227
228
33. Restoring Water Quality and Quantity 229
tainly play a critical role in regulating hydrol- the uplands. Forested catchments have impor-
ogy, this role is complex and variable. There tant local impacts in regulating water ow.
appears to be a clear link between forests and Undisturbed forest is also the best watershed
the quality of water from a catchment, a more land cover for minimising erosion by water and
sporadic link between forests and the quantity hence also sedimentation. Any activity that
of water, and a variable link between forests removes this protection, such as litter collec-
and the constancy of ow. What forests provide tion, re, grazing, or construction of logging
depends on individual conditions, species, age, roads, increases erosion. Suspended soil in
soil types, climate, management regimes, and water supplies can render irrigation water unt
needs from the catchment.287 for use, or greatly increase the costs to make it
Forests in watersheds generally result in useful.291
higher quality water than alternative land uses, The potential role of restoration needs to be
because other usesagriculture, industry, and considered on a case-by-case basis and proba-
settlementare likely to increase pollutants bly also on a long time-scale. Establishing fast-
entering headwaters, and forests also help to growing plantations is unlikely to do much to
regulate soil erosion and sediment load. While help either the quantity or the quality of water,
there are some contaminants that forests are while carefully located and managed secondary
unable to controlthe parasite Giardia, for forests can do much to regulate sediment load,
examplein most cases forests will substan- other pollution, and erosion, and may in some
tially reduce the need for treatment of drinking situations also eventually affect ow. Restora-
water. However, in contrast to popular under- tion for water supplies should also look at
standing, many studies suggest that in both very options for reducing impacts from managed
wet and very dry forests, evaporation is likely forests through, for instance, removing unnec-
to be greater from forests than other vege- essary roads or changing their location, camber,
tation, leading to a decrease in water from and drainage facilities.
forested catchments as compared with grass-
land or crops.288 One important exception is
cloud forest, where cloud water interception 2. Examples
may exceed losses.289 In addition, some very old
forests apparently increase water, for instance The following examples show how restoration
mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) of 200 years has been used to help water supply sources and
or more in Australia.290 The precise interactions also look at some situations where restoration
between different tree species and ages, and dif- is now needed to repair damage to forested
ferent soil types and management regimes, are catchments.292
still often poorly understood, making predic-
tions difcult. Opinion also remains divided
2.1. Ecuador: Protection Remains
about the role of forests in maintaining regular
a Primary Focus of Water
water ow. There is little evidence that forests
Management, Although Many
regulate major oods, although ooding was
Protected Areas Also Need
the reason for introducing logging bans in, for
Restoration
example, Thailand and parts of China. One
important exception is ooded forests, which About 80 percent of the capital city Quitos
do appear to help regulate water supply, this 1.5 million population receive drinking water
includes both lowland forests such as the from two protected areas: Antisana (120,000
Varzea forests of the Amazon and swamps in hectares) and Cayambe-Coca Ecological Re-
serve (403,103 hectares). To control threats to
287
these reserves, the government is working with
Dudley and Stolton, 2003.
288
Calder, 2000.
289 291
Bruijnzeel, 1990. Dudley and Stolton, 2003.
290 292
Langford, 1976. All examples from Dudley and Stolton, 2003.
230 N. Dudley and S. Stolton
some continuing confusion, and it is clear that and that those who receive the services
many governmentslocal and nationalare should pay for their provision. If particular
faced with making decisions about the role of management systems are needed in water-
forests with respect to water supplies that draw sheds to maintain the quantity or quality of
more upon hearsay than strict science. water supply downstream, the userssuch as
bottling plants or hydropower companies
should pay for these, which could in theory
3. Outline of Tools help to fund restoration in sensitive water-
sheds.294 A team of researchers from the
In general, watershed values are an additional United States, Argentina, and the Nether-
argument for restoration rather than being lands has put an average price tag of $33
associated with specic restoration techniques. trillion a year on fundamental ecosystem
Information for policy makers about the value services, almost twice the value of the global
of different forested watersheds remains scarce, gross national product, and of this, water reg-
and models for predicting responses in indi- ulation and supply were estimated to be
vidual catchments are at best approximate. worth $2.3 trillion.295 In Costa Rica users
Restoration for water purposes within individ- such as hydropower companies are some-
ual catchments will vary according to circum- times paying farmers to maintain forested
stances and will be able to draw on many of the watersheds. Payment schemes work best
tools outlined elsewhere. Two approaches may when a relatively small amount of money can
be particularly useful here: be used to support a particular management
regime and result in major economic bene-
Protect, manage, restore: Using forest cover
ts to a small group of userslike a water
to maintain water supplies at a watershed
company. In these cases it is relatively easy to
scale often requires a mosaic approach,
identify reasonable payments and to negoti-
where protected areas, other protective for-
ate amongst the buyers and sellers of the
ests, and various forms of management are
environmental service.
combined depending on existing needs and
land ownership patterns. Restoration then
becomes a management option that can be
used in any of the above. Agreeing on the
4. Future Needs
mosaic and balancing different social, eco-
Many governments are making decisions about
nomic, and environmental needs on a land-
forests and water based on imsy data and poor
scape scale requires careful planning and
methodologies, leading to the type of disputes
negotiation. WWF and IUCN have devel-
outlined in the case of Panama, above. Far
oped a number of landscape approaches to
better tools and methodologies are needed for
help address this kind of broad-scale decision
calculating net gains of different restoration
making,293 and these or similar exercises
and management actions from the perspective
could provide help in determining where
of water supply, and WWF is currently planning
restoration could be used most effectively
to collaborate with the World Bank to help
(see more detail in Why Do We Need
develop them. More basically, there is need for
to Consider Restoration in a Landscape
greater understanding of the links between
Context).
forests and water, perhaps initially through
Payment for environmental services (PES):
better diffusion of existing research and case
The central principles of the PES approach
studies.
are that those who provide environmental
services should be compensated for doing so,
294
Pagiola et al, 2002.
293 295
Aldrich et al, 2004. Constanza et al, 1997.
232 N. Dudley and S. Stolton
233
234 G. Joseph and S. Mansourian
evolved from a timber-based industry to a more supernatural beings governing nature, and thus
community and culturally centred one, in it plays a central role in their very cultural
response to demands from local people for identity.
recreational and aesthetically pleasing native Coca is also indispensable in major rituals
woodlands representative of their own cultural such as the ritual of world healing and illness
identity (rather than nonnative plantations, prevention (Yurupar), the seasonal feasts
with all that those implied).297 offered by the community to the Masters of
Nature to thank them for particular harvests,
and the healing ceremonies led by the sage.
1.3. Cultural Keystone Species
In this example, coca holds a unique value for
In the same way that an ecosystem is depend- local people provided by the Amazon forest,
ent on ecological keystone species, an entire and it can be used as an objective to restore
culture or society may be dependent on cultural forest functions in the landscape. In other
keystone species (CKS).298 These species are by words, in an effort to meet different functions
denition central to the survival and essence of that forests provide in a landscape, the provi-
a culture for a number of reasons, including sion of coca can be one of these identied func-
their link to the cultures myths, rituals, religion, tions in order to satisfy a culturally driven
etc. Identifying these CKS and using them to demand.
promote forest protection and restoration in a
landscape can be a valuable contribution to the
2.2. Sacred Groves, Forests,
restoration of forest functions in a landscape.
and Gardens
Restoring ecosystems to strengthen tradi-
tional cultural lifestyles will follow the priori- Sacred groves, forests, and gardens are associ-
ties and needs of the local communities. For ated with places of worship in several traditions
example, medicinal plants can be incorporated around the world. These patches of forests and
into a kitchen herbal garden, a community- diverse gardens are rich in biodiversity and are
managed medicinal plant garden, or used to protected for their sacred value. All products
restore degraded lands. This would also imply available from these sacred groves are used for
the need to work with appropriate institutions. temple-related activities or structures. Cultural
Food and nutritional needs could also be incor- values have preserved and can also drive the
porated into these land-use systems depending restoration of these historic sacred groves. The
on local preferences and needs. Devara kadus in India300 are an example
of these sacred forests. Devara kadus are
diversity-rich forest fragments ranging from
2. Examples 0.1 to 1000 hectares in size that are associated
with places of worship across India. The sacred
2.1. Coca in the Amazon299 traditions and texts could provide the crea-
tive basis for promoting the conservation and
In various indigenous communities (Barasana,
restoration of these sacred land-use systems.
Desana, Uitoto, etc.) in the Amazon, coca is
considered to facilitate cultural transmission of
knowledge from elderly individuals to young 2.3. Socially and Economically
adults. By chewing the powdered coca leaves, Valuable Trees
sages and apprentices attempt to please the
Several species of trees have locally signicant
Masters of Nature (semideities in their cosmol-
values that could be used to drive restoration in
ogy) with a valued gift. The importance of the
the landscape. Multiple economic and cultural
coca plant for these communities lies in its
values are historically linked to a specic ethni-
essential role to allow communications with the
cally dened region. For example, in certain
297
Garforth and Dudley, 2003.
regions in India, the common tropical dry-
298
Cristancho and Vining, 2004.
299 300
Drawn from Cristancho and Vining, 2004. Kushalappa and Bhagwat, 2001.
34. Restoring Landscape for Traditional Cultural Values 235
deciduous Neem tree (Azadirachta indica) sym- tion for identifying forest values. For each of
bolises a body of traditional values, knowledge, the six types of high conservation value (HCV),
and uses. Almost all parts of the tree are used in the toolkit identies a series of elements that
medicine and agriculture.The leaves are used in need to be considered. It then provides guid-
traditional health systems, in religious rituals, ance for each element on how to decide
and as green manure in agriculture. Oil is ex- whether there are HCVs within a country or
tracted from the seeds and has both medicinal region. When national HCVs have been
and pesticidal properties. Neem cake which is a dened, it is then possible to use this informa-
by-product of oil extraction is used as an organic tion so that specic forest areas can be evalu-
fertiliser. The wood has a high caloric value as ated for the presence or absence of the HCVs,
fuelwood. Neem wood is termite resistant and in order to identify and delineate HCVFs.
used to make door and window frames. Species
with multiple values may be candidates to drive
region-specic restoration of these species (and 3.2. A Participatory Process
others) within the broader landscape.
If cultural values are to be used as an objective
of forest restoration in a landscape, a participa-
2.4. Home Gardens tory process will be necessary, and it may
Home gardens have been described as living include the following steps:
gene banks of indigenous varieties, rare culti- Document the traditional knowledge with
vars, landraces, and species, as well as intro- local people to identify cultural drivers for
duced species.301 These multiple species have the restoration of forest functions in a
been conserved through generations. The selec- landscape.
tion of plants in these gardens is inuenced Together with local people, identify the cur-
by climate, soils, household preferences, and rent status of those cultural values.
dietary habits. Home gardens in the tropics are Through focus groups, discussions, and other
a valuable land-use system to restore tradi- locally applicable participatory tools, identify
tional fruits, nuts, medicinal plants, and other the links between those cultural values and
indigenous species of cultural value to local other forest functions that may need to be
communities. protected and restored.
In conjunction with stakeholders, set objec-
tives for the protection and restoration of the
3. Outline of Tools identied cultural values.
Develop locally adapted approaches, such as
3.1. Toolkit for High Conservation biodiversity-rich agroforestry, to restore cul-
Value Forests tural and other forest values in the landscape.
WWF and ProForest302 have developed a Promote traditional knowledge pertinent to
toolkit to identify high conservation value the local area through local schools and other
forests (HCVFs). This is an all-encompassing local civic and user forums.
approach that recognises six different values
the forests provide, one of which is cultural:
HCV6Forest areas critical to local commu- 3.3. Clarifying Land Tenure and
nities traditional cultural identity (areas of Access (Use) Rights
cultural, ecological, economic, or religious sig-
Processes that help clarify land tenure and
nicance identied in cooperation with such
access/use rights to valuable forest products are
local communities).
essential to protect and restore valuable forest
This methodology provides guidance on
areas. Appropriate protocols may be developed
existing information at a global level, and direc-
for restoring under different land-tenure
301
Agelet et al, 2000. regimes (also see Land Ownership and Forest
302
Jennings et al, 2003; also see www.proforest.com. Restoration).
236 G. Joseph and S. Mansourian
The Atlantic Forest of Brazil, Argentina, and and land uses. Second, a series of test sites
Paraguay is one of the most threatened were set up to identify the sorts of restoration
ecosystems on the planet, with only 7.4 per- techniques and mixes of species that would
cent of it remaining intact and large areas work best under local conditions. Then, a
severely degraded and highly fragmented. sustainable development and participatory
Despite its current state, the Atlantic forest planning learning process was mobilised gath-
remains a rich repository of biodiversity. For ering provincial and municipal ofcers,
example, inside the Atlantic forest, in the state farmers, indigenous people, and members of
of Bahia, 450 species of trees per hectare have NGOs and other private and public insti-
been catalogued, a world record!303 tutions. As a result of this, the participants
It is in northern Argentina, that one of the committed themselves to working toward
largest remnants of the Atlantic forest can still the accomplishment of a land-use plan, and
be found. In this area, Fundacin Vida a local commission was created with this
Silvestre Argentina (FVSA) is working with goal.
WWF to restore the landscape. One particular Also, to ensure an income-generating activ-
area, namely the municipality of Andresito, ity alongside forest restoration for local pop-
has been identied as a priority. It is a strip of ulations, FVSA and WWF have been working
land surrounded by four important strictly on developing sustainable production of dif-
protected areas: the famous transboundary ferent crops. One such crop is the palm heart
Iguaz National Parks of Brazil and (Euterpe edulis), a native understorey palm
Argentina, the Urugua- Provincial Park, and tree that grows wild in the region and can
the Foerster Provincial Park. The land in generate signicant income for local inhabi-
Andresito is divided into many small privately tants while preserving the forest. Another
owned areas. The challenge is to work with the alternative for small-scale farmers is planting
landowners and land managers to stop defor- yerba mate, a native plant that used to grow
estation and forest degradation, to increase in patches throughout the forests.
connectivity with the surrounding protected So far, guidelines for the production of
areas, and to establish buffer zones around palm hearts have been developed and a coop-
them, while increasing local living standards. erative of small-scale producers has been set
The approach taken here by FVSA and up. Results are encouraging. If more small
WWF was rst to map out clearly the differ- landowners can make a living through such
ent plots of land and identify the landowners sustainable restoration involving economi-
cally attractive measures, then the risk of them
303
Di Bitetti et al, 2003. moving south and selling their land to big
237
238 S. Mansourian and G. Placci
logging companies can be removed once and versity Conservation Landscape and Setting
for all.304 Priorities for Conservation Action. WWF,
Washington, DC.
FVSA. 2004. Newsletter: News from the FLR
Project in the Upper Paran Atlantic Forest of
References Argentina. FVSA. Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Di Bitetti, M.S., Placci, G., and Dietz, L.A. 2003.
A Biodiversity Vision for the Upper Paran
Atlantic Forest Ecoregion: Designing a Biodi-
304
FVSA Nawsletter, 2004.
Section XI
A Selection of Tools that Return
Trees to the Landscape
35
Overview of Technical Approaches to
Restoring Tree Cover at the Site Level
Stephanie Mansourian, David Lamb, and Don Gilmour305
241
242 S. Mansourian et al
Restoration of an endangered ecosystem (as habitat for capercaillie and black grouse. The
is currently occurring with the dry forests in long-term vision was to have at least two thirds
New Caledonia) of woodland cover restored with an emphasis
Restoration of millions of hectares of on natural regeneration. However, because 99
degraded uplands primarily for economic percent of natural regeneration is broadleaf,
development (as is currently occurring in it was decided to plant copses of Scots pine
Vietnam) (Pinus sylvestris) in areas that were remote
from seed sources. When the pines mature they
Similarly, the available budget will also be a
will be able to regenerate naturally from their
key determinant when deciding what approach
own seed. In addition, to achieve a habitat
to take. For example, it might be economically
mosaic that also supports black grouse and
necessary to use a variety of different appro-
other species of conservation interest, some
aches across a landscape, rather than using just
grazing areas have also been retained. Prelimi-
the most effective biological approach, particu-
nary observations suggest that this approach is
larly if this is also very expensive. The most
effective.
expensive approaches would normally be used
to restore the most critical sites.
Before determining which action to take at 2.2. Restoration of Temperate
the site level, a careful assessment needs to be Forest Through Mixed
made, based on ecological circumstances such Plantations in Canada307
as the fertility of soils, the extent of degrada-
Larson308 presents one of the earliest modern
tion, the proximity of remaining forest frag-
examples of forest restoration in the deciduous
ments, the types of species involved, the
hardwood forest region of eastern Canada,
topography, rainfall, seasonality, etc. Social
which started in 1886. The site was an old gravel
aspects need just as much attention as biophys-
pit in which 2300 saplings of 14 different species
ical ones when determining what approach to
were planted in a mixture. These included local
take to restoration. For example, many local
deciduous hardwoods and conifers as well as
communities exercise usufruct rights over land
several exotics (Acer platanoides, Fraxinus
adjacent to their settlements. Irrespective of
excelsior, Larix decidua, Picea abies, Pinus
the legal status of the land, unless the de facto
nigra, and Tilia cordata). Some of these 14
situation is addressed effectively, it is unlikely
species were planted in rows spaced 2.5 m
that restoration efforts will be successful. We
apart. No subsequent site management was
would generally recommend always opting for
carried out apart from some early pruning. The
the least intervention possible. This is to (a)
nearest natural forest was 500 m away. By 1930
attempt to stay closest to natural processes but
around 85 percent of the site had a sparse
also (b) because the more active the interven-
canopy, 31 percent of which was coniferous. By
tion, the costlier it is likely to be.
1993 the canopy cover had increased to 95
percent, of which only 5 percent was conifer.
The site, then 107 years old, contained 220 trees
2. Examples with a diameter at breast height exceeding
30 cm. Of the original 14 canopy-forming tree
2.1. Natural Regeneration
species, 10 were still present. Two new species
Combined with Grazing in
had colonised. A diverse understorey of woody
Corrimony (Scotland)306
and herbaceous plants contained 36 species,
In 1997 the Royal Society for the Protection of most of which were reproducing. Some of the
Birds (an NGO) acquired land in Corrimony, canopy trees were regenerating and were rep-
Scotland. The main objective was to increase
307
Lamb and Gilmour, 2003.
306 308
Cowie and Amphlett, 2000. Larson, 1996, in Lamb and Gilmour, 2003.
35. Overview of Technical Approaches to Restoring Tree Cover 243
resented in the understorey but Picea, Larix, tion, with technical approaches to increase
and Pinus were absent. Measurements suggest natural regeneration or enhance regeneration
Juglans nigra (native) and Acer platanoides through planting where natural regeneration
(exotic) will dominate the site in future. All new will no longer occur.
tree regeneration was found in areas with no
conifers. The patterns of community structure
that have evolved over time at the site are dif- 3.1. Reducing Degrading Inuences
ferent from those in the native forests of south-
ern Ontario but changes are leading to the 3.1.1. Removing the Cause of
development of a forest with a similar structure Degradation or Obstacles
and appearance. One recent measure of the to Regeneration
success of the planting is the fact that local
authorities mistakenly listed the site as an In some situations restoration can be achieved
important natural forest remnant within the through the use of natural regeneration simply
local city boundary. by the removal of degrading inuences such
as cattle grazing or invasive exotic species.
Technical interventions may also be needed,
2.3. Restoring Tree Cover Through but often the emphasis needs to be on social
Agroforestry in Tanzania309 processes, such as negotiating grazing rights
Studies in Tanzania have found that the with local cattle herders.
Shambaa people use their traditional agro- By protecting the area from any further
forestry and intercropping systems to improve disturbances (e.g., grazing, farming) natural
both soil productivity and crop yields. The colonisation may take over. However, this is
traditional agroforestry system consists of a only feasible in areas where
multistorey tree garden, which involves the general degradation is not extensive,
mixing of trees and farm crops in a spatial soils are still of good quality, or
arrangement. The system includes a mixture of seed sources or coppice materials are still
an understorey of coffee (and fruits), food available either from forests close by or in
crops such as maize/beans and a variety of the soil (as evidenced by regrowth already
pulses, a middle storey of Grevillea robusta, a present in the area).310
multipurpose exotic species commonly used for
timber, fuelwood, and building poles produc-
tion. The sites are not restored in the sense of 3.1.1.1. Advantages and Disadvantages
reestablishing the original biodiversity. On the
other hand, these sites have had key ecological This approach is often cheaper since it requires
functions such as nutrient cycling and net pro- little input, particularly if communities are able
duction restored. They are now oristically and to eliminate grazing animals from the area.
structurally quite complex. Costs can rise steeply if areas have to be fenced,
but this is still generally cheaper than planting.
It is also one of the few approaches that can be
3. Outline of Tools: achieved over large areas. On the other hand,
Approaches to Site-Level its disadvantages include that it may end up
being unexpectedly expensive if re, weeds, or
Restoration pests need to be controlled. Likewise, the
previous land users will have had to forgo
Restoration at a site level often needs to inte- their previous use of the site and may need
grate social approaches, such as agreements compensation.
about land use to facilitate natural regenera-
309 310
Chamshama and Nduwayezu, 2002. Parrotta et al, 1997.
244 S. Mansourian et al
approach is not suitable for species for which by promoting the growth of certain key species.
seeds are not available in large quantities or The disadvantage of the approach is the risk
where seed is expensive. that any newly planted trees may be suppressed
for some time by the overstorey. That is, the
introduced species can be out-competed by
3.2.4. Scattered Tree Plantings
taller trees, weeds, or vines. Some form of silvi-
Trees may only gradually colonise some sites cultural treatment is often required for several
because they are poorly dispersed or because years to remove this cover and ensure success.
the competition (e.g., from grass) is too severe.
Another way of accelerating successions is by
3.2.6. Closely Spaced Plantings
planting single trees or clumps of trees across
the landscape. The aim is for them to serve as Using Limited Numbers of
perches for seed dispersers such as birds. Over Species (the Framework
time, they can become focal points for regener- Species Method)
ation. Where species have wind-dispersed seed This approach uses a small number of fast-
rather than animal-dispersed seed, such plant- growing species planted at close spacings
ings can be arranged perpendicular to the pre- (e.g., 1000 trees per hectare) to quickly form a
vailing wind and so assist seed dispersal across closed canopy and so eradicate weeds. This new
the landscape. forest then forms a framework within which
successional processes can operate. Over time
3.2.4.1. Advantages and Disadvantages seed-dispersing wildlife bring new species to
the site and diversity is enhanced.
This approach is relatively inexpensive since it
only requires a few plantings. However, it is
dependent on wildlife being able to disperse 3.2.6.1. Advantages and Disadvantages
seeds from intact forest remnants that remain
nearby. The numbers of such wildlife that The advantage of this approach is that once the
remain in degraded landscapes and their capac- trees are established, they soon out-compete
ity to disperse seeds will vary with circumstance. grass and weeds, making it easier for the species
brought in by seed-dispersing animals to
become established. The approach is especially
3.2.5. Enrichment Planting suited to areas close to intact forest that can act
In some situations the forest community devel- as a source of seeds (and wildlife). The dis-
oping from natural regeneration is missing advantage is that successional development is
certain key species. This may be because they dependent on the particular species that are
have particular regeneration requirements or dispersed into the site. Some species may be
because they are poorly dispersed. The absence weeds so that monitoring is needed to maintain
of these species may have economic conse- an appropriate successional trajectory. The
quences for the people dependent on these initial cost can also be high.
forests for their livelihoods. Alternatively the
missing species may be important to the eco- 3.2.7. Intensive Ecological
logical functioning of the forest. In such cases it Reconstruction Using Dense
can be useful to try enriching the regenerating Plantings of Many Species (or
forest by planting seedlings of these species in Restoring a Biodiversity Island in
appropriate microsites.
a Degraded Landscape)
This involves intensive planting of a large
3.2.5.1. Advantages and Disadvantages
number of tree and understorey species. The
This approach enhances the capacity of the species used depend on the sites and soil types.
forest to provide commercial or social benets Those that might be used include fast-growing
246 S. Mansourian et al
that relationships present at small, local scales come as a silvicultural package with estab-
may not hold at larger landscape scales. lished procedures and methodologies.
In most countries there is still insufcient
knowledge on genetics, propagation tech-
4.2. Trade-Offs niques, competitive relationships between dif-
Inevitably some trade-offs may be required by ferent species, and methods of raising most
managers needing to balance, say, promoting native species in nurseries.
commercial timber production or fostering A comprehensive framework that would
wildlife diversity. Production, at least in the help managers make choices based on the
short term, is usually favoured by developing current situation but also based on funding,
plantations that use only small numbers of tree available human resources, size of the area, aim
species. Most wildlife species, on the other of the restoration, etc., is needed. This frame-
hand, usually prefer species-rich and struc- work would also have to include socioeconomic
turally complex forests. The nal decision elements, as these are often forgotten or left
depends on such things as the preferences of behind in technical issues dealing with restora-
the stakeholders involved, whether commercial tion. Yet, without appropriate consultation,
timber production is the primary objective of buy-in, and suitable social and economic
reforestation, markets for the various goods reasons for engaging in restoration, success
that might be produced, and the degree of rates are unlikely to be high. Land tenure issues
degradation across the landscape. are particularly important to clarify before
engaging in restoration.
Very importantly, there is a need for
4.3. Intensity and Timing of increased understanding and research on
Management Interventions options to make restoration nancially attrac-
Managers concerned with maximising timber tive. In many countries, long-term interests
production will make decisions on a variety of (restoration impact will only be felt in the long
interventions including whether or not to prune term) are not important as people face daily
trees, when to carry out thinnings, and when to struggles. There is therefore a need to address
undertake a nal clear-felling. All of these deci- this through short-term nancial benets from
sions have consequences for biodiversity and restoration (directly or indirectly). Institutional
various ecological processes such as nutrient arrangements for restoration also need to be
cycling. Biodiversity is usually favoured by claried. Restoration across a landscape re-
enhanced spatial complexity. This means inter- quires a multidisciplinary and multisectoral
ventions that promote a mosaic of disturbances approach, and relevant institutions and expert-
and recovery stages are preferable to large, spa- ise need to be brought in with all stakeholders
tially contiguous interventions. actively participating in the process.
5. Future Needs
References
While many approaches are available for
restoring forest cover on degraded sites, it is Chamshama, S.A.O., and Nduwayezu, J.B. 2002.
often a challenge to gather adequate knowl- Rehabilitation of Degraded Sub-Humid Lands in
Sub-Saharan Africa: A Synthesis. Sokoine Univer-
edge on the use of indigenous species. For this
sity of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania.
reason, a handful of exotic species (particularly Cowie, N.R., and Amphlett, A. 2003. Corrimony: an
pines, eucalypts, and acacias) are still favoured example of the RSPB approach to woodland
in many locations. These species often display restoration in Scotland. In: Humphrey, J., Newton,
superior growth characteristics compared with A., Latham, J., et al. eds. 2003. The Restoration of
indigenous tree species. In addition, the seed of Wooded Landscapes. UK Forestry Commission,
these species are often easily acquired and they Edinburgh, Scotland.
35. Overview of Technical Approaches to Restoring Tree Cover 249
Lamb, D., and Gilmour, D. 2003. Rehabilitation and in central So Paulo State, Brazil. Forest Ecology
Restoration of Degraded Forests. IUCN, Gland, and Management 152(13):169181.
Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK, and WWF, Lamb, D., Parrotta, J.A., Keenan, R., and Tucker,
Gland, Switzerland. N.I.J. 1997. Rejoining habitat remnants: restora-
Parrotta, J.A., Turnbull, J., and Jones, N. 1997. Cat- tion of degraded tropical landscapes. In: Laurence,
alyzing native forest regeneration on degraded W.F., and Bierregaard, R.O., Jr., eds. Tropical
tropical lands. Forest Ecology and Management Forest Remnants: Ecology, Management and Con-
99(12):18. servation of Fragmented Communities. University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 366385.
Parrotta, J.A. 1993. Secondary forest regeneration on
degraded tropical lands: the role of plantations as
foster ecosystems. In: Lieth, H., and Lohmann,
Additional Reading M., eds. Restoration of Tropical Forest Ecosys-
tems, pp. 6373. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Carnus, J.-M., Parrotta, J., Brockerhoff, E.G., et al. Dordrecht, Netherlands.
2003. Planted forests and biodiversity. A IUFRO Parrotta, J.A. 2002. Restoration and management of
contribution to the UNFF Intersessional Expert degraded tropical forest landscapes. In: Ambasht,
Meeting on the Role of Planted Forests in R.S., and Ambasht, N.K., eds. Modern Trends in
Sustainable Forest Management, Maximising Applied Terrestrial Ecology, pp. 135148. Kluwer
planted forests contribution to SFM, Wellington, Academic/Plenum Press, New York.
New Zealand, March 2430. In: Buck, A., Parrotta, Parrotta, J.A., and Knowles, O.H. 2001. Restoring
J., and Wolfrum, G., eds. 2003. Science and tropical forests on bauxite mined lands: lessons
TechnologyBuilding the Future for the from the Brazilian Amazon. Ecological Engineer-
Worlds Forests and Planted Forests and Bio- ing 17(23):219239.
diversity. IUFRO Occasional Paper No. 15. Inter- Sim, H.C., Appanah, S., and Durst, P.B., eds. 2003.
national Union of Forest Research Organisations, Bringing back the forests: policies and practices
Vienna. for degraded lands and forests. Proceedings of an
Engel, V.L., and Parrotta, J.A. 2001. An evaluation of International Conference, October 710, 2002,
direct seeding for reforestation of degraded lands FAO, Thailand.
36
Stimulating Natural Regeneration
Silvia Holz and Guillermo Placci
250
36. Stimulating Natural Regeneration 251
factors have been identied, they can be manip- diversity of species in a forest. This may limit
ulated to accelerate forest regeneration. Most the success of restoration efforts in improv-
studies have identied dispersion, competition ing economic value for future wood exploita-
with herbaceous plants, and poor soil condi- tion or other specic activity.
tions as being the most important barriers for Difculty in obtaining a high forest species
tree settlement in abandoned farmlands312 (also diversity: In addition to insufcient seeds, in
see section Restoring After Disturbance in areas with scarce or degraded forest rem-
this book). These studies highlight the impor- nants, there may be the added complication
tance of physical as well as biological barriers. that some species will simply not be able to
On the other hand, trees, bushes, ferns, and settle, thereby creating a forest with more
fallen trees can also facilitate the natural recov- limited diversity of species.
ery of an area.313 The remaining vegetation Length of time required: A naturally regen-
attracts dispersers; microclimatic conditions erating forest goes through more succes-
that favour the regeneration of young trees sional states, and thus requires more time to
develop underneath this vegetation, which can reach a state similar to a mature forest than
thus serve as regeneration nuclei.314 The rela- does a plantation composed of diverse
tive inuence of each factor on regeneration species.
depends on each system and on the temporal
and spatial scale in which the analysis is carried
out. Restoration methods that use natural 2. Examples
regeneration are based on barrier elimination,
stimulation of facilitating factors, or the com- Natural regeneration can be used in very dif-
bined manipulation of both types of factors. In ferent ways when dening a landscape restora-
selecting the best methods for restoring the tion strategy. Some examples of different
forests of a particular area, it is extremely methods are illustrated below:
important to study the forests intensively, in
order to understand their behaviour at differ-
2.1. Use of Diversity Nuclei
ent scales.
Several factors limit the successful applica- The littoral area of southern Brazil, formerly
tion of restoration methodologies based on covered by Serra do Mar (Atlantic forest), is
stimulating natural regeneration: now severely deforested (Fig. 36.1). Currently,
numerous actions are being carried out to
Lack of seed sources and dispersers: In many
preserve the remaining forests, and to restore
cases, there are no forest remnants that can
the deforested areas.315 Tree cover restoration
behave as seed sources at restoration sites;
in the Environmental Protection Area of
therefore, natural regeneration possibilities
Guaraqueaba, is being aided by a strategy in
remain restricted to the existing soil seed
which small stands of pioneer species (i.e.,
bank. In other cases, there are nearby forests
generally 1000 to 5000 young trees) are planted
but no seed dispersers due to the low number
in the surrounding, more diverse stands (i.e.,
of animals (e.g., birds, mammals) in the area;
composed of pioneer species, initial secondary
thus, natural regeneration may be largely
species, late secondary species, and climax
conned to species whose seeds are dis-
species). The latter are either planted or are
persed by wind.
fragments of already existing forests in the
Uncertain directionality: Allowing natural
area.316 Plantations are carried out either in the
regeneration to occurwithout controlling
whole area being restored or in half of this area,
the species pool that is allowed to occupy a
depending on the size of the area, its proximity
restored areadoes not guarantee a high
312 315
Holl, 1999. See Sociedade de Pesquisa em Vida Selvagem e
313
Peterson and Haines, 2000. Educao Ambiental (SPVS). www.spvs.org.br.
314 316
Guevara et al, 1986. Ferretti, 2002.
252 S. Holz and G. Placci
to forest patches, and the degradation of the duction of healthy seedlings in containers.
system. Planted trees function as seed sources Combinations of 20 to 30 species are used for
facilitating natural regeneration in the whole plantations. These plantations signicantly aid
area.The treatment given to the soil (e.g., clean- in the recovery of the basic structure of forests
ing of grasses), the distance at which young that grow naturally, resist disturbances, and
trees are planted, and their size are selected attract seed-dispersing animals, thereby facili-
according to site characteristics (e.g., type of tating the natural regeneration of forests within
soil, topography, and use history). the restoration area.
317
See Forest Restoration Information Service. www.unep-
318
wcmc.org/restoration/. See World Wide Fund for Nature, Espaa. www.wwf.es.
36. Stimulating Natural Regeneration 253
biomass of grasses that compete with young (e.g., birds, mammals) in an area. This can be
treesin cases where the tree species are achieved by decreasing hunting activities and
themselves not palatable to cattle.322 pesticide use, reintroducing species, and cre-
Elimination of barriers through mechanical ating wildlife corridors.
and/or chemical methods: The soil com-
paction that retards the settlement of
young trees can be eliminated through, for 4. Future Needs
example, ploughing. Grasses can be elimi-
nated through herbicide application, manual 4.1. Increase Current Knowledge
weeding (e.g., using a cane knife), or
It is crucial to continue studying the following
mechanical weeding (e.g., with weeding
issues in order to be able to develop restoration
machines).
actions based on natural forest regeneration:
Installation of racks to facilitate regenera-
tion: Where existing vegetation does not Species ecology: Little is known about the
present a signicant barrier to natural regen- phenology, reproductive biology, interactions
eration, articial racks (e.g., crosses, sticks, or with other species (e.g., pollination, seed dis-
wires) on which birds can perch can be used persion, herbivory/predation) of many plant
to increase the seed rain in an area and, species.
therefore, help accelerate site regeneration. Dynamics of ecological succession: Restora-
In systems with grasses that retard regenera- tion involves the manipulation of the natural
tion, natural racks (e.g., trees, bushes) are succession process; therefore, it is necessary
often more effective, since they increase the to know the factors involved in the natural
seed rain as well as acting as shaders, decreas- regeneration of the system and the mecha-
ing grass coverage.323 nisms through which they function.
Planting a few species to stimulate regenera- Behaviour of the system at different scales:
tion: The selective planting of a few tree For many systems, there is little information
species can help stimulate natural regenera- on patterns and processes operating at dif-
tion by (1) offering additional perches for ferent scales.
seed dispersers such as birds, and (2) shading
out competing plants.
Spatial distribution of species within the 4.2. Development of Monitoring
restoration landscape: The presence of Systems and Statistical Tools
species of different ecological groups to Compare Different Types
strategically located within the landscape of Restoration
can help accelerate natural regeneration at
Monitoring systems, as well as statistical
this scale, as well as lowering signicantly the
methods for comparing different types of data
costs that would be incurred by planting
at different scales, are tools that need to be
young trees throughout an entire restoration
developed for adjusting current restoration
area. Planted stands with high species diver-
methodologies. Detailed records of the history
sity, as well as remnant forests in the land-
of site use and implemented restoration
scape, can function as diversity islands,
practices, as well as the use of standardised
providing seeds to the area throughout the
monitoring protocols, would facilitate such
restoration process.324
comparisons.325 The use of nontraditional sta-
Disperser management: Another possible
tistical methods (e.g., Bayesian methods) can
tool for stimulating natural regeneration is
allow for more efcient evaluation of restora-
to try to increase the number of dispersers
tion methods, because they are more robust
when working with small samples, with no
322
Posada et al, 2000.
323
Holl et al, 2000.
324 325
Kageyama and Gandara, 2000. Holl et al, 2003.
36. Stimulating Natural Regeneration 255
replicates, or with much noise in the system, and Holl, K. 1999. Factors limiting tropical rain forest
they also allow for the combination of different regeneration in abandoned pasture: seed rain, seed
types of data.326 germination, microclimate and soil. Biotropica 31:
229242.
Holl, K.D., Crone, E.E., and Schultz, C.H.B. 2003.
4.3. Implementation of Landscape restoration: moving from generalities
Environmental Education to methodologies. BioScience 53(5):491502.
Programmes Holl, K.D., Loik, M.E., Lin, E.H., and Samuels, I.A.
2000. Tropical montane forest restoration in Costa
In general, recovery areas are perceived as non- Rica: overcoming barriers to dispersal and estab-
productive areas. If people can identify and lishment. Restoration Ecology 8(4):339349.
appreciate the multiple functions of these areas, Holz, S. 2003. Atlantic Forest restoration in the
the potential for preserving the forest will buffer zone of Iguaz National Park (Argentina).
increase, as will possibilities of implementing Technical Report (not published).
restoration projects in which natural regenera- Kageyama, P., and Gandara F. 2000. Recuperao de
tion will play a key role. This issue is particu- areas ciliares. Captulo: 15. In: Rodriguez, R., and
Filho, L., eds. Matas Ciliares: Conservao e Recu-
larly important in the development of
perao. Edusp, So Paulo, Brazil.
educational programmes.
Marcot, B.G., Holthausen, R.S., Raphael, M.G.,
Rowland, M.M., and Wisdom, M.J. 2001. Using
4.4. Financing of Restoration Bayesian belief networks to evaluate sh and
Processes wildlife population viability under land manage-
ment alternatives from an environmental impact
The development of strategies for decreasing statement. Forest Ecology and Management 153:
operating costs and increasing incentives for 2942.
stimulating natural regeneration is essential in Peterson, C.J., and Haines, B.L. 2000. Early succes-
applying the restoration methods developed at sional patterns and potential facilitation of woody
the experimental scale to the restoration of plant colonization by rotting logs in premontane
Costa Rica pastures. Restoration Ecology 8(4):
large areas. For example, it is important to con-
361370.
sider the increase in the production capacity of
Posada, J.M., Aide, T.M., and Cavelier, J. 2000. Cattle
the restored area, compensation for the oppor- and weedy shrubs as restoration tools of tropical
tunity cost for landowners, payment for envi- montane rainforest. Restoration Ecology 8(4):
ronmental services, and the implementation of 370379.
tax incentives. Vallejo, R., Cortina, J., Vilagrosa, A., Seva, J.P., and
Alloza, J.A. 2003. Problemas y perspectivas de la
utilizacin de leosas autctonas en la restau-
racin forestal. In: Rey, J.M., Espigares, T., and
References Nicolau, J.M., eds. Restauracin de Ecosistemas
Mediterrneos. Universidad de Alcal, Alcal de
Di Bitetti, M.S., Placci, G., and Dietz, L.A. 2003. A Henares, pp. 1142.
biodiversity vision for the Upper Paran Atlantic
Forest ecoregion: designing a biodiversity conser-
vation landscape and setting priorities for conser-
vation action. WWF, Washington, DC.
Additional Reading
Ferretti, A.R. 2002. Modelos de plantio para a re-
staurao. In: A Restaurao da Mata Atlantica Guariguata, M.R., and Ostertag R. 2001. Neotropical
em reas de sua Primitiva Ocorrncia Natural. secondary forest succesion: changes in structural
Embrapa Florestas, Colombo, pp. 3543. and functional characteristics. Forest Ecology and
Guevara, S., Purata, S., and Van der Maaler, E. 1986. Management 148:185206.
The role of remnant forest trees in tropical sec- Guimares Vieira, I.C., Uhl, C., and Nepstand, D.
ondary succession. Vegetatio 66:7784. 1994. The role of shrub Cordia multispicata Cham.
as a succession facilitator in an abandoned
pasture, Paragominas, Amazonia. Vegetatio 115:
326
Marcot et al, 2001. 9199.
256 S. Holz and G. Placci
Holl, K. 2002. Effect of shrubs on tree seedling estab- Ramirez-Marcial, N., Gonzalez-Espinoza, M., and
lishment in an abandoned tropical pasture. Journal Garca-Moya, E. 1996. Establecimiento de
of Ecology 90:179187. Pinus spp en matorrales y pastizales de Los
Janzen, D.H. 1988. Guanacaste National Park: Altos de Chiapas, Mxico. Agrociencia 30(2):
tropical ecological and biocultural restoration. 249257.
In: Cairns, J.J., ed. Rehabilitating Damage Ecosys- Rey-Benayas, J.M., Espigares, T., and Castro-Diez, P.
tems, vol. 2., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 2003. Simulated effect of herb competition on
143192. planted Quercus faginea seedlings in Mediter-
Nepstad, D.C.C., Uhl, C., Pereira C.A., and Cardoso ranean abandoned cropland. Applied Vegetation
da Silva, J.M. 1996. A comparative study of tree of Science 6:213222.
tree establishment in abandoned pasture and Slocum, M.G. 2000. Logs and fern patches as recruit-
mature forest of eastern Amazonia. Oikos 76: ment sites in a tropical pasture. Restoration
2539. Ecology 8(4):408414.
Purata, S.E. 1986. Floristic and structural changes Wunderle, J.M. 1998. The role of animal seed disper-
during old-eld succession in Mexican tropics in sal in accelerating native forest regeneration on
relation to site history and species availability. degraded tropical lands. Forest Ecology and Man-
Journal of Tropical Ecology 2:257276. agement 99(12):223235.
37
Managing and Directing
Natural Succession
Steve Whisenant
257
258 S. Whisenant
chapter), it is necessary to manage and direct reduces the density of tree seed and sprouts.
succession processes toward the desired objec- Large treeless areas are unattractive to most
tives. It is important to promote continued birds and bats that disperse small seeds.
development of the vegetation to conserve soil, Monkeys and ground-dwelling mammals that
nutrient, and organic resources; restore fully disperse large-seed, late successional species
functional hydrologic, nutrient cycling and en- are even more prone to avoid open areas. Thus,
ergy ow processes; and create self-repairing perching sites provided by isolated trees can
landscapes that provide the goods and services accelerate succession.
necessary for biophysical and socioeconomic
sustainability. Different stages of degradation
1.3. Design Minimal Interventions
require management actions that focus on dif-
to Achieve Goals
ferent processes. Severely degraded sites
require early repair of hydrologic, nutrient Will the site recover within an acceptable time
cycling, and energy capture and transfer frame in the absence of active restoration
processes. As the vegetation increases in efforts? If so, will it provide the desired combi-
biomass and stature, it reduces abiotic limita- nation of goods and services? Answers to these
tions of the site by improving soil and micro- key questions may be found by examining two
environmental conditions. Directing natural types of reference sites. Selecting reference
processes toward land use goals requires an sites that have not been damaged provides an
understanding of the processes driving succes- approximation of the potential goods and serv-
sion. The rate and direction of succession is ices. Reference sites that have been similarly
inuenced by the availability of species, the damaged and allowed to recover naturally for
availability of suitable sites, and by differential different periods of time provide important
species performance. information on the presence or absence of bar-
Previous land use has important and poten- riers to recovery. This provides critically impor-
tially long-lasting impacts on the rate and direc- tant information about the passive intervention
tion of natural succession.328 Natural succession option. Active management interventions may
on abandoned farms and pastures is limited and be required where invasive species, damaged
directed by the available seed bank, sprouting ecosystem processes, or other limitations halt
ability of remaining stump and root systems, natural recovery.
seed immigration, soil type and condition, and If the site is not seriously degraded and seed
climatic conditions.329 Natural recovery occurs sources are adequate, the rst few years of suc-
most rapidly and completely following aban- cession will be dominated by herbaceous vege-
donment of pastures that were cleared by hand tation and shrubs.This will typically be followed
and received little weeding and light grazing. by early succession tree species and midsucces-
These areas benet from diverse seed banks, sional tree species will gradually become more
nearness to seed sources, and sprouting from dominant. In lowland humid forests, biomass
stumps and roots. Moderately grazed pastures peaks of early successional species occur at
are much less productive and diverse due to the around 10 years. Mid-successional species may
loss of grazing intolerant species, diminished reach their peak biomass at 15 to 30 years, but
seed banks, and less organic matter in the upper remain dominant for many decades. These suc-
soil horizons. Heavily grazed, mechanically cessional changes occur more slowly in less
cleared pastures are far more likely to remain humid or very degraded environments.
dominated by grasses and forbs following aban- Improving the management of ecosystem
donment, since they are completely dependent consumption (timber or wood harvest) is
on seed immigration for successional develop- usually effective on relatively intact sites. Sites
ment. Frequent burning prior to abandonment dominated by grasses may require vegetation
control of the existing vegetation. This may be
328
Uhl et al, 1988. done with re, herbicides, or mechanical or bio-
329
Kammesheidt, 2002. logical control methods. It may be necessary to
37. Managing and Directing Natural Succession 259
2. Examples
2.1. Restoring Dry Tropical Forests
to Anthropogenic Grasslands
in Guanacaste National Park,
Costa Rica
Anthropogenic re converted the dry tropical
forest of Costa Rica to grasslands that contin-
ued to burn frequently. A programme begun in Figure 37.1. Previously mined site in Hungary that
has undergone natural regeneration for about 30
the 1980s effectively stopped re and allowed
years. (Photo Steve Whisenant.)
the natural reforestation by trees. The initial
forests, of species with wind-blown seed, rapidly
covered the landscape. As these trees grew
become a combination of native and exotic
larger, seed-dispersing birds and mammals
species.
increasingly moved through the site and added
new species to the developing forest.330 This is
an excellent example of removing barriers to 2.3. Spontaneous Regeneration of
natural succession and then allowing natural a Mine Site in Hungary
processes to operate over many decades to
Mining is a drastic alteration of site conditions
return an increasingly diverse forest to the
and processes. Planting trees on these sites is
landscape.
expensive and risky, thus they are often aban-
doned to natural processes. A mine site in
2.2. Plantation Trees as Nurse Hungary received no active replanting, but 30
Plants to Increase years following the cessation of mining, it shows
Regeneration of Native Species numerous signs of spontaneous regeneration of
herbaceous and woody vegetation (Fig. 37.1).
Tree plantations can sometimes facilitate the
The abundance of natural vegetation in the sur-
return of native vegetation. In Puerto Rico, tree
rounding landscape provides seed sources. This
plantations improved soil and microenviron-
site will take many more decades for recovery,
mental conditions enough to facilitate the
but natural processes are operating in the
natural immigration of native species.331 The
absence of new disturbances.
plantation also accelerated the return of native
species by attracting animals that brought addi-
tional seed. Tree plantations in the moist and
wet tropics do not remain monocultures
3. Outline of Tools
because native trees invade the understorey
Tools for managing and directing natural suc-
and penetrate the canopy of the exotic species.
cession should be used as an imitation of
Unless site damage is extreme, native forests
natural processes rather than as a substitute for
eventually dominate. Where damage is more
them. The tools described in the previous
severe, the resulting forests are likely to
chapter focus on inuencing natural regen-
eration. They remain appropriate throughout
330
Janzen, 1988. succession, but here is a list of tools for manip-
331
Aide et al, 2000. ulating existing vegetation:
260 S. Whisenant
Patience: Time can be used as a tool. Wait for where the desired species, or suite of species,
signs and expression of successional trajec- are neither present nor found in adjacent
tory. Understanding what drives and limits forests.
succession will make it easier to recognise the
probable direction of successional change
and the potential vegetation for that area. 4. Future Needs
Knowledge of potential successional pathways:
Understanding how forest vegetation recov- Priority areas for further development are:
ers following disturbances is a critical aspect
Policies that encourage the development of
of directing natural successional processes.
natural, diverse forests: Government policies
Know what prevents improvement and re-
can accelerate destruction of natural forests
move that limiting factor.
or they can be crafted to encourage the
Fencing: Where livestock delay, limit, or pre-
development of natural and managed forests
vent successional development, fences that
that combine production and conservation
restrict livestock entry are one method for
functions and reduce pressures on natural
increasing seedling development. This may
forests of high conservation value.
only be necessary until the seedlings grow out
Improved understanding of successional pro-
of reach of the livestock (or fences may also
cesses and barriers to natural recovery: There
be more permanent for continued benets).
are numerous gaps in our knowledge of suc-
Direct removal of invasive species: Invasive
cession and ways in which we might encour-
species may be killed or removed with her-
age and direct those processes. Many factors
bicides, mechanical treatments, or hand re-
drive succession and similar impacts may
moval to release native species. These tools
have dramatically different results in differ-
may be expensive or very labour intensive, so
ent ecosystems. A more mechanistic under-
their practicality is often limited to small or
standing of the factors limiting or accelerating
high priority sites.
succession would greatly improve our predic-
Reducing invasive species with shade: Shade-
tive ability in new situations.
intolerant invasive species are most effec-
Novel strategies for payment of landscape
tively managed with tree species and
forest restoration: New ways to fund forest
management strategies that accelerate the
restoration are essential. Programmes to
occurrence of closed canopies. For example,
plant trees are more easily funded than those
establishing forests on re-prone grasslands
designed to encourage and manage natural
requires the prevention of res until the
regeneration. This is unfortunate because
forest canopy effectively excludes the
natural succession often occurs more rapidly
grasses.
and at less risk than articially planted
Thinning to reduce density or alter species
forests.
composition: Selective thinning may be used
to provide products and income while
increasing growth rates of the remaining
trees. It may also be used to encourage References
regeneration and growth of certain desired
species while reducing the abundance of Aide,T.M., Zimmerman, J.K., Pascarella, J.B., Rivera,
more common species. L., and Marcano-Vega, H. 2000. Forest regenera-
tion in a chronosequence of tropical abandoned
Enrichment plantings: Sites with no regenera-
pastures: implications for restoration ecology.
tion of shade-requiring late successional Restoration Ecology 8(4):328338.
species may necessitate enrichment plantings Janzen, D.H. 1988. Tropical ecological and biocul-
under the canopy of earlier successional tural restoration. Science 239:243244.
species. Enrichment plantings add species to Kammesheidt, L. 2002. Perspectives on secondary
sites where they are unlikely to enter through forest management in tropical humid lowland
natural processes. They are most useful America. Ambio 31:243250.
37. Managing and Directing Natural Succession 261
Lamb, D., and Gilmour, D. 2003. Rehabilitation and Feyera, S., Beck, E., and Lttge, U. 2002. Exotic trees
Restoration of Degraded Forests. IUCN, Gland, as nurse-trees for the regeneration of natural trop-
Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK, and WWF, ical forests. Trees 16:245249.
Gland, Switzerland. Parrotta, J.A. 1995. Inuence of overstory composi-
Uhl, C., Buschbacher, R., and Serrao, E.A.S. 1988. tion on understory colonization by native species
Abandoned pastures in Eastern Amazonia. I. Pat- in plantations on a degraded tropical site. Journal
terns of plant succession. Journal of Ecology of Vegetation Science 6:627636.
76:663681. Whisenant, S. 1999. Repairing Damaged Wildlands:
A Process-Oriented, Landscape-Scale Approach.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Additional reading
Ashton, M.S. 2003. Regeneration methods for dipte-
rocarp forests of wet tropical Asia. Forestry
Chronicle 79:263267.
38
Selecting Tree Species for Plantation
Florencia Montagnini
262
38. Selecting Tree Species for Plantation 263
guatemalensis, and other native species in matter, total nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus
Central America, CATIE in Costa Rica has were found under Vochysia ferruginea, a
determined what are the best provenances species common in forests in the region. In
(specic origin of the seed in a region or local- Bahia, Brazil, values of at least ve soil param-
ity in a given country) that suit most planting eters under 15 out of the 20 species of the plan-
conditions. In addition, progeny studies have tations were similar to or higher than those
helped to nd what are the best sources of seed found under forest. Several species contributed
for Acacia mangium, Eucalyptus grandis, and to increased carbon and nitrogen, including
other species. Inga afnis, Parapiptadenia pterosperma,
Plathymenia foliolosa (leguminous, N-xing
species), Caesalpinia echinata, Copaifera
3.2. Plant Ecology lucens (leguminous, nonN-xing), Eschweilera
Information on the following ecological ovata, Pradosia lactescens (of other families).
characteristics of tree species will be useful in Others increased soil pH and/or some cations,
helping to select them for plantation purposes: such as Copaifera lucens, Eschweilera ovata,
light requirements, growth under different soil Lecythis pisonis, and Licania hypoleuca. In
fertility conditions, resistance to drought, toler- Misiones, in North Eastern Argentina, the
ance to low or high pH, tolerance to high con- greatest differences in soil carbon and nitrogen
centrations of toxic metals, resistance against levels under tree species and grass were found
pest and disease, ability to sprout and to under Bastardiopsis densiora, where they
respond to pruning and coppicing, seed pro- were twice those in areas beyond the canopy
duction, germination characteristics, need for inuence. The pH was higher under Bastar-
inoculation with mycorrhizae, need for fertilis- diopsis densiora and Cordia trichotoma,
ers, wood characteristics, and uses. In most cases while the sum of bases (calcium + magnesium
basic ecological information on tree species can + potassium) was highest under Cordia
be found at universities, ministries of agricul- trichotoma, Bastardiopsis densiora, and
ture, or departments of forestry. Local informa- Enterolobium contortisiliquum. Most of the
tion can also be obtained from nurseries, species identied in this research for their pos-
agricultural or forestry cooperatives, and from itive inuence on soil properties are used in
conversations with local producers. However, restoration projects, commercial plantations
sometimes native species are poorly known, yet and agroforestry in each region.
another reason for peoples tendency to use
exotics, which have been better studied.
3.4. Plantation DesignPure or
Mixed-Species Plantations
3.3. Choosing Species, Designs, and Mixed species plantations have been estab-
Management to Stabilise lished at several locations with varying results.
Degraded Soils However, results from a number of eld exper-
Recent research in Costa Rica, Brazil, and iments suggest that mixed designs can be more
Argentina investigated plantation tree species productive than monospecic systems.346 In
that could serve to ameliorate soil properties in addition, mixed plantations yield more diverse
degraded lands.345 In Costa Rica, in just 3 years forest products than pure stands, thereby
soil conditions improved in the tree plantations helping to diminish farmers risks in unstable
compared to abandoned pasture. In the top markets. Farmers may prefer mixed plantations
15 cm, soil nitrogen and organic matter were to diversify their investment and as a potential
higher under the trees than in pasture, with protection against pest and diseases, in spite of
values close to those found in 20-year-old the technical difculties of establishing and
forests. The highest values for soil organic managing mixed plantations. Mixed stands may
345 346
Montagnini, 2002. Wormald, 1992.
38. Selecting Tree Species for Plantation 267
also favour wildlife and contribute to higher DE-FC2600NT40930. Tennessee Valley Author-
landscape diversity. As seen from the example ity/Public Power Institute, Muscle Shoals, AL, in
presented above, mixed plantations can have partnership with the Electric Power Research
many productive and environmental advan- Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
FAO. 2000. Global Forest Resources Assessment
tages over conventional monocultures. How-
2000. Main report.
ever, their main disadvantage lies in their more
http:/www/fao.org/forestry/fo/fra/main.
complicated design and management. Mixed Montagnini, F. 2000. Accumulation in aboveground
plantations thus are often restricted to rela- biomass and soil storage of mineral nutrients in
tively small areas, or to situations when diver- pure and mixed plantations in a humid tropical
sifying production is a great advantage, such as lowland. Forest Ecology and Management
for small farmers of limited resources. 134:257270.
Montagnini, F. 2002. Tropical plantations with native
trees: their function in ecosystem restoration. In:
4. Future Needs Reddy, M.V., ed. Management of Tropical Planta-
tion-Forests and Their Soil Litter System. Litter,
Biota and Soil-Nutrient Dynamics. Science Pub-
For forest landscape restoration, only native
lishers, Eneld (NH) USA, Plymouth, UK, pp.
species should be used in plantations, except if, 7394.
as in some of the cases mentioned earlier, there Montagnini, F, Campos, J.J., Cornelius, J., et al. 2002.
are good specic arguments for the use of Environmentally-friendly forestry systems in
exotics. Therefore, increased knowledge of Central America. Bois et Forts des Tropiques
characteristics and silviculture of native tree 272(2):3344.
species is needed to assist in this objective. In Montagnini, F., Gonzlez, E., Rheingans, R., and
particular, more information is needed on the Porras, C. 1995. Mixed and pure forest plantations
performance of indigenous species in planta- in the humid neotropics: a comparison of early
tion conditions. In addition, silvicultural guide- growth, pest damage and establishment costs.
lines for plantations with indigenous species are Commonwealth Forestry Review 74(4):306314.
Montagnini, F., and Porras, C. 1998. Evaluating the
needed to increase their adoption by local
role of plantations as carbon sinks: an example of
farmers. Market values are also an important an integrative approach from the humid tropics.
factor inuencing the adoption of native Environmental Management 22(3):459470.
species by local farmers. A key question in Piotto, D., Montagnini, F., Ugalde, L., and Kanninen,
species choices with the dual purpose of M. 2003a. Performance of forest plantations in
restoration and production is how to balance small and medium sized farms in the Atlantic low-
economic objectives with biodiversity ones. lands of Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Manage-
Finally, there are some trade-off issues: Is it ment 175:195204.
best to have smaller areas of exotic plantations Piotto, D., Montagnini, F., Ugalde, L., and Kanninen,
or larger areas of native plantations? Again M. 2003b. Growth and effects of thinning of mixed
a balance between the two objectives and pure plantations with native trees in humid
tropical Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Manage-
restoration and productionshould give
ment 177:427439.
insights into the answer. Shepherd, D., and Montagnini, F. 2001. Carbon
sequestration potential in mixed and pure tree
plantations in the humid tropics. Journal of Tropi-
References cal Forest Science 13(3):450459.
Vallauri, D., Aronson, J., and Barbero, M. 2002. An
Brodie, G.A., Bock, B.R., Fisher, L.S., et al. 2004. analysis of forest restoration 120 years after refor-
Carbon Capture and Water Emissions Treatment estation of badlands in the south-western Alps.
System (CCWESTRS) at fossil-fueled electric Restoration Ecology 10(1):1626.
generating plants. Third annual technical report Vesterdal, L., Ritter, E., and Gundersen, P. 2002.
40930R03 (October 1, 2002September 30, Changes in soil organic carbon following affor-
2003) for U.S. Department of Energy/National estation of former arable land. Forest Ecology and
Energy Technology Laboratory Award Number Management 169:137147.
268 F. Montagnini
Walker R.F., Mc Laughlin, S.B., and West, D.C. 2004. Center for International Forestry Research
Establishment of sweet birch on surface mine spoil (CIFOR), Jakarta, Indonesia. www.cifor.cgiar.org/.
as inuenced by mycorrhizal inoculation and fer- Contains information on controversial issues
tility. Restoration Ecology 12(1):819. regarding plantations such as social relevance, eco-
Wormald, T.J. 1992. Mixed and pure forest planta- nomic aspects, environmental effects.
tions in the tropics and subtropics. FAO Forestry Evans J. 1992. Plantation Forestry in the Tropics.
Paper 103, Rome. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England. One of
the most complete textbooks on plantation
forestry for tropical countries.
Additional Reading FAO. 2000. Global Forest Resources Assessment
2000. Main report. http:/www/fao.org/forestry/
fo/fra/main. The Food and Agriculture Organisa-
Carnus, J.-M., Parrotta, J., Brockerhoff, E.G., et al.
tion of the United Nations (FAO) publishes peri-
2003. Planted forests and biodiversity. An IUFRO
odically statistics and information on plantations
contribution to the UNFF Intersessional Expert
worldwide, area covered, uses, land-use changes,
Meeting on the Role of Planted Forests in
species, and other relevant information.
Sustainable Forest Management: Maximising
Forest Stewardship Council guidelines. www.fscus.
planted forests contribution to SFM, Wellington,
org/. Contains materials related to certication of
New Zealand, 2430 March 2003. In: Buck, A.,
forest plantations; a full section on plantation
Parrotta, J., and Wolfrum, G., eds. Science and
forestry, principles, and criteria for sustainable
TechnologyBuilding the Future for the Worlds
management of plantation forestry.
Forests and Planted Forests and Biodiversity.
International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO).
IUFRO Occasional Paper No. 15. International
2002. Guidelines for the restoration, management
Union of Forest Research Organisations, Vienna.
and rehabilitation of degraded and secondary
Evans, J. 1999. Planted forests of the wet and dry
tropical forest. ITTO Policy development series
tropics: their variety, nature, and signicance. New
no. 13. www.itto.or.jp. Gives detailed guidelines
Forestry 17:2536.
for how to assess a situation of forest degradation
Montagnini, F., and Jordan, C.F. 2005. Plantations
and to decide what is the best alternative for
and Agroforestry Systems. In: Montagnini, F., and
restoration.
Jordan, C.F. 2005. Tropical Forest Ecology. The
Siyag, P.R. 1998. The Afforestation Manual. Technol-
Basis for Conservation and Management. Springer-
ogy and Management.TreeCraft Communications,
Verlag, BerlinNew York.
Jaipur, India. Focusses on semi-arid regions. The
Parrotta, J.A. 2002. Restoration and management of
book has a technical manual, explaining nursery
degraded tropical forest landscapes. In: Ambasht,
techniques, site selection and preparation, fencing,
R.S., and Ambasht, N.K., eds. Modern Trends in
soil and water conservation strategies, planting,
Applied Terrestrial Ecology. Kluwer Academic/
care and maintenance of the plantations; a man-
Plenum Press, New York, pp. 135148.
agement manual, dealing with organisational
Parrotta, J.A., and Turnbull, J.T., eds. 1997. Catalyz-
aspects of afforestation, activity planning, moni-
ing native forest regeneration on degraded tropi-
toring, quality control and productivity, and record
cal lands. Forest Ecology and Management
keeping; a section containing technical charts and
(Special Issue) 99(12):1290.
tables to be used as models and reference; a
Wadsworth, F.H. 1997. Forest production for tropical
section on management of charts and tables, and
America. USDA Forest Service.
a tree planting guide.
WWF Web site on forest landscape restoration.
www.panda.org/forests/restoration. Provides con-
General Guidelines cepts, information on forest restoration projects in
on Plantations Africa, Asia/Pacic, Europe, and Latin America.
269
270 E. Plana et al
Table 39.1. Recommended minimum distances needed in rebreaks with high-risk conditions.
Minimum distances needed in rebreaks with high risk conditions
Terrain Width
Remove enough trees to reduce crown cover (re of design) are basic for a cost-effective
to less than 35 percent, leaving a minimum of investment.
3 m of open space between crowns.
Thin to a minimum of the height of two trees
in each direction from home on level terrain 2. Examples
(twice on slopes of 30 percent, four times on
slopes higher than 55 percent). 2.1. A Network of Firebreaks in
Prune with elimination of live and dead por- Bages County, Catalonia
tions of crown up to 3 m from the ground to (Spain) with Local Community
a minimum of twice the trees height in each Participation
direction from home on level terrain, to
The network of rebreaks project in Spains
reduce the incidence of surface res getting
Catalonia province had three main interrelated
into the tree crowns.
objectives. The rst one, the assessment of risks,
Remove understorey trees or space them
was intended to produce a spatial account of
widely enough to reduce the chances of
the potential forest re risks occurring in the
surface res igniting them and in turn the
county by analysing each of the identiable
main forest canopy.
dimensions that contribute both to the increase
Clean up woody material including that
in the likelihood of re and in the negative
accumulated in the above operations to
impacts once the re has started. This implied
reduce incidence and intensity of surface
a detailed analysis, using a mixture of sources,
res.
of the distribution and causes and meteorolog-
As a nal conclusion, rebreaks and other ical conditions of re within the forested terri-
spatially restricted fuel management zones vary tory. The FARSITE programme generated risk
in their effectiveness according to adjacent analysis and Geographical Information System
hazards, project construction (e.g., width), and (GIS) maps were produced by the ARC/
maintenance. When used alone, rebreaks do INFO programme. The aim was to produce a
not contain high-intensity head res, but may territorial representation of risks and vulnera-
serve as control points for indirect attack and bility in order to proceed with the assessment,
ank re containment. This is an important as the second objective, of the human and tech-
point given the high cost of constructing and nical resources available to minimise both the
maintaining rebreaks. Simulation studies in risk and the eventual harm due to forest res in
terms of such factors as re spread, intensity, the county. The purpose, then, was to estimate
and the occurrence of spotting and crowning the correspondence between re risk and
272 E. Plana et al
control capacity in the different locations. In suppression efforts, due to high fuel accumula-
turn, such resources were divided into re pre- tion. Economic analysis shows easily that the
vention, detection, intervention, and infrastruc- cost per hectare of prescribed burning or thin-
ture. The variables taken into account in this ning is cheaper than extinction,350 but there is a
respect were (1) structure of re protection bar- lot of discussion about the optimum amount of
riers, (2) other measures to break fuel continu- treated forest surface, due both to the difcul-
ity (prescribed re, grazing, green plantations), ties in analysing the fuel management produc-
(3) forest management and selective thinning, tivity, and to the lack of completed data (cost
(4) number and visibility of look out posts, and of planning and monitoring). American and
(5) forest mass accessibility. As the third objec- Australian re control systems, which have had
tive, the overall aim of the project was to to deal with major re problems in the last few
develop and implement a strategic plan to deal seasons, have decided to increase the amount of
with such risks. This plan was the outcome of fuel management, and the use of prescribed
the integration of expert and relevant stake- burning in particular (Victorian Bushre
holder knowledge carried out during the empir- Colonel Inquiry in 2004; Forest Healthy Initia-
ical research. In a series of 14 meetings, local tive by USDA Forest Service in 2001), and even
managers, forest owners, and many other actors to let the natural res do part of this job. Large
representing a large amount and diversity of and intense res always take the majority of
the countys population were shown, and asked the costs of suppression. In California, some
to respond to, the results of the expert GIS research simulating re suppression scenarios
analysis of the situation. These maps and results using the re growth model FARSITE have
were revised, modied, and enhanced as a demonstrated how silvicultural treatment in
result of the discussions. Eventually, specic strategic sites into forest areas (nonlineal re-
measures were debated, actors roles identied, breaks) can reduce the re cost (damages and
and the actions to be pursued agreed upon with suppression costs) by 500 percent, with benet-
regard to re prevention, re prediction, and cost ratios of 2.94 and 1.47 in return intervals
re extinction. Thus, the crucial role of local of 50 and 100 years, respectively.351 Therefore,
populations was underlined during the whole the priorities for investment in fuel manage-
process of the research and policy action. Par- ment should be aimed at minimising these
ticipation was carried out at different stages, large-scale events, and res of design are the
including for the assessments of re risk, the best tool to do this.
estimation of control capacity resources, and,
last but not least, at the implementation stage.
The meetings were composed of individuals 3. Outline of Tools
representing the following actors and agents:
voluntary forest protection patrols, forest Landscape fuel management techniques and
landowners, local public ofcials, re brigades, rebreaks maintenance measures: Manage-
the local environmentalist group, a local envi- ment guidelines adapted to specic local con-
ronmental consultancy company, a local expert ditions for silvicultural treatments (selective
on environmental issues, and the local media.349 thinning and pruning), prescribed burning,
or grazing are needed. Wherever possible,
local agrarian activity should be used within
2.2. Fuel Management Versus Fire
re prevention strategies as a means of pro-
Suppression? A Worldwide
moting rural development and local stake-
Overview
holders involvement.
After years of investing in re suppression, Participatory methods with local stakehold-
many developed countries have had to recog- ers and policymakers: Agreement among all
nise that high-intensity res are out of reach of
350
Agee et al., 2000.
349 351
Tbara et al., 2003. Finney et al., 1997.
39. Developing Firebreaks 273
the stakeholders involved is essential to natural risk shall improve the social viability
ensuring the social sustainability of any re of the measures adopted.
prevention project.
Territorial planning and legislative tools.
In Italy, Spain and France for instance, References
grazing is legally recognised as a tool for
re prevention. It is highly desirable to Agee, J., Baahro, B., Finney, M., et al. 2000. The use
include re risk in urban and infrastructure of shaded fuelbreaks in landscape re manage-
planning. ment. Forest Ecology and Management 127:5566.
Finney, M.A., Sapsis, D.B., and Bahro, B. 1997. Use
of FARSITE for simulating re suppression and
4. Future Needs analyzing fuel treatment economics. Symposium
on Fire in California Ecosystems: Integrating
Ecology, Prevention, and Management, 1720
The following three points are priorities for November 1997, San Diego, California. Associa-
future work on rebreaks: tion for Fire Ecology Misc. Pub. No. 1, pp. 180199.
Knowledge of the natural re regime in each Leone, V. 2002. Forest management: pre and post re
region and the forest structure is needed to practices. In: Pardini, G., and Pint, J. eds. Fire,
Landscape and Biodiversity: An Appraisal of the
avoid high-intensity destructive res. Infor-
Effects and Effectiveness. Diversitas No. 29, Uni-
mation tools such as re behaviour models versitat de Girona, Spain.
like FARSITE or geographic information Schmidt, W.C., and Wakimoto, R.H. 1988. Cultural
systems should provide the information to practices that can reduce re hazards to home in
design our infrastructures in the most cost- the Interior West. In: Fischerm, W.C., and Arno,
effective manner. S.F., eds. Protecting People and Homes from
Incentives are needed to ensure economic Wildre in the Interior West: Proceedings of the
viability and cross-cutting legislation for Symposium and Workshop, 68 October 1987,
the policy development of fuel manage- Missoula, MT. Gen. Techn. Rep. INT-251, UT:
ment activities in a landscape, especially USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Research
taking into account local stakeholders Station, pp. 131141.
Tbara, D., Saur, D., and Cerdan, R. 2003. Forest re
participation.
risk management and public participation. In:
Awareness must be raised among society and Changing Socioenvironmental Conditions: A Case
policymakers showing the re as a natural Study in a Mediterranean Region. Risk Analysis
element of Mediterranean ecosystems, and 23(2):249260.
the need to include re risk management in Vlez, R. 2000. La Defensa Contra Incendios Fore-
landscape management and territorial plan- stales. Fundamentos y Experiencias. McGraw-Hill,
ning. Improving the knowledge of re as a Madrid. ISBN: 84-481-2742-0.
40
Agroforestry as a Tool for Restoring
Forest Landscapes
Thomas K. Erdmann
274
40. Agroforestry as a Tool for Restoring Forest Landscapes 275
knowledge is required in order to design appro- an extensive to a more intensive land use
priate restoration interventions. system. It is also coupled with the entry of the
local population into a cash economyrubber
is a major cash cropas well as an increased
2. Examples government presence and enforcement of leg-
islation aimed at controlling forest encroach-
2.1. Extension of Home Gardens ment and a switch from upland to irrigated
and Farming Under Natural rice production. Farmers in the cases studied
Forest Fallow and Secondary actively created forests or rubber gardens in
Forests fallow or secondary forest areas or added
rubber to traditional multistory home gardens.
Multistory home gardens that combine trees,
In both situations, the rubber trees are mixed
shrubs, and shade-tolerant crops are found
with fruit trees and other trees that provide
throughout the tropics.353 Usually, they are
economic products as well as with spontaneous
diverse and can include fruit trees; nut trees;
natural forest regeneration. These man-made
trees and shrubs that produce edible oils;
forests are structurally complex and oristically
high-value timber trees; woody and herbaceous
diverse. The overall policy conclusion355 was
plants that produce aromatic compounds;
that it was preferable to promote tree or tree
shade-tolerant tree crops such as rubber, cacao,
crop technologies when the maintenance of a
and coffee; and shade-tolerant crops such as
forested landscape was desired.
bananas, yams, cassavas, and spices. Due to their
diversity, these systems are risk-averse and can
provide economic and food products through- 2.2.2. Cacao in Cte dIvoire 356
out the year. They are an important component The introduction of cacao, coupled with
of the livelihoods strategies of uncountable inuxes of migrants, has generally led to exten-
poor, rural smallholders. Establishing, extend- sive deforestation in Cte dIvoire. More
ing, and diversifying these home gardens offer recently, however, land scarcity and better gov-
enormous potential in many threatened and ernmental enforcement against forest clearing
degraded forest landscapes throughout the has led to a change in this trend. Farmers are
world; the practice should thus be considered now adapting practices that lead to an overall
part of any forest landscape restoration (FLR) increase in forest cover, planting grasslands and
strategy. The following three examples of shrubby fallows with cacao in combination with
cash/tree crop systems could easily be com- fruit trees and high value timber trees (logging
bined with or connected to diverse home companies are now turning to valuable trees on
gardens. This can easily be practised in second- older cacao plantations that were spared during
ary forest and older fallow areas and, indeed is plantation establishment). Old, unproductive,
already an important practice of rain-forest often shaded cacao plantations are being
colonists in Brazil, Peru, and Nicaragua. replanted with newer varieties of cacao and
intercropped with yams and bananas. Defor-
2.2. Tree Crops and Forest ested areas often pose new challenges to
Restoration farmers who are forced to adapt and innovate;
new practices can lead to restoration of forest
2.2.1. Rubber in Borneo354 or tree cover.
leguminous speciesis common throughout yields after 2 years of fallow with these species
the coffee-producing areas of the world. As in approach those of fully fertilised elds. These
the previous examples, these coffee forests same species plus Crotalaria grahamiana also
can be both biologically diverse and diverse proved highly successful in western Kenya,
from an economic standpoint as they can be doubling maize yields there.357 Poor households
combined with fruit trees and high-value tend to prefer this technology over the use of
timber species. In Central America and Mexico, chemical fertilisers. However, the problem of
shade-grown coffee plantations are important farmers possessing insufcient land to place in
habitats for migratory birds. They are often a fallow renders the potential widespread adop-
signicant livelihood component of poor tion of this practice problematic for many areas
farmers. Proposals are currently being devel- in the tropics where population growth rates
oped to expand these systems and market them are high.
for their environmental services including Incorporating improved fallow systems in
watershed protection, biodiversity benets, and forest landscape restoration initiatives may be
carbon sequestration. This type of coffee pro- challenging, however. As indicated above, trees
duction could be an important component of a and shrubs are usually removed once the crop-
forest landscape restoration strategy in many ping cycle begins anew. The practice is thus only
areas. a temporary restoration of tree or shrub cover.
One possible compromise would be to designate
2.3. Improved Fallow a contiguous shifting agricultural zone within a
given landscape in which some of the land would
Improved fallow practices generally involve always be covered by improved fallows. These
planting or directly seeding shrubby legumes in improved fallow areas would shift from year to
agricultural elds that have lost their soil fertil- year within the designated zone.
ity. Once the cropping cycle is ready to begin
again, these shrubs are usually cut down and
their biomass incorporated into the soil as 2.4. Hedgerow Intercropping
green manure. In some cases, the practice can Like improved fallow, hedgerow intercropping
commence in the last season or two of agricul- or alley cropping is a soil fertility maintenance
tural production if farmers retain regeneration or restoration practice. It involves establishing
of soil-enhancing woody plants in their elds permanent hedgerows of shrubs and small
during weeding, or even direct seeding of these treesoften species that x nitrogenin agri-
species during hoeing or weeding operations. cultural elds. The hedgerows are periodically
Another variation is that farmers spare a few pruned back and the biomass incorporated into
widely spaced trees in their elds at the time of the soil between them where crops are grown.
clearing; these trees contribute to maintaining Despite promising results of experimental
soil fertility (and other products and services) trials at many agricultural research stations,
during the cropping cycle and provide an imme- the practice has not been widely adopted by
diate favourable micro-climate for the estab- farmers. This stems from two major drawbacks.
lishment of additional woody vegetation once First, competition between crops and the
the eld enters the fallow cycle. hedgerow trees and shrubs is often severe, espe-
cially for water in semi-arid and subhumid
2.3.1. Using Nitrogen Fixing Species areas. Second, the required periodic pruning
represents a signicant labour input that many
Sesbania Sesban and Tephrosia Vogelii
small farmers cannot afford. Insecure land
in Zambia
tenure, access to land and credit, and a focus by
Improved fallow systems have been tested and extension agents on soil conservation rather
sometimes adopted throughout the tropics. than economic returns are other often prob-
One of the most successful examples is a system lematic issues that limit adoption.
using the nitrogen-xing species Sesbania
sesban and Tephrosia vogelii in Zambia. Maize 357
Place et al, 2003.
278 T.K. Erdmann
285
286 J. Aronson et al
drop below freezing, has catalysed the evolu- grazing of limited economic value or biodiver-
tion of impressive arrays of deciduous, semide- sity interest. In some areas, the surviving TDFs
ciduous, and evergreen trees, shrubs, and lianas, near cities are disappearing to make way for
with very diverse chemistry, life forms, and coastal hotel complexes and unplanned urban
reproductive systems. We speak of arrays in the sprawl. In the few places where some TDF
plural because virtually every island, peninsula, remains but is neither protected nor currently
or archipelago with TDF has its own unique set sought after for development,TDF fragments
of species, many of which are locally endemic. are still subject to selective logging for their
Given the advanced fragmentation they have slow-growing but often exceedingly valuable
suffered, each surviving TDF community timber [e.g., Cordia, mahogany, teak, sandal-
should be considered as a unique entity of the wood, and yellow wood (Podocarpus spp.)].
highest possible conservation value. This short-sighted exploitation of the most
valuable remaining trees constitutes a agrant
example of articial negative selection which,
1.2. Attractiveness to People and
in TDF and other endangered forests, surely
Its Consequences
should be controlled and re-legislated, or better
Due to their seasonality, gentle topographic yet halted altogether until natural regeneration
relief, relatively rich soils, and proximity to or active restoration have had some time to
tropical coasts where abundant food and water permit forest recovery.
sources were available, TDFs attracted human
settlers and hunters from very early times.Their
1.3. Reasons to Restore
rich and varied mineral deposits drew entrepre-
neurs and industrialists as well. As a result, the It must be recognised, however, that what
transformation and degradation of these forests remains of TDF today are not especially attrac-
often has gone on for long periods of time. tive to most people, and only rarely do they
Prior to the onset of major human impact, capture the attention of tourists. Their low
TDFs were rich in tall canopy and emergent annual productivity makes TDF of minor inter-
trees of great value for their dense, hard, and est to foresters or farmers. Therefore, lobbying
often beautiful and fragrant wood, such as San- for their conservation, and, more so still, their
dalwood (Santalum album). These were selec- restoration, is problematic. However, biodiver-
tively harvested for local construction and, sity criteria alone more than justify the need for
later, for international timber markets. Only greater efforts, especially at the landscape and
relatively few people, rarely from the local com- ecoregional scales. Whats more, the economic
munity, beneted as a rule.360 perspectives for restored tropical dry forests
Once the tree canopy giants were removed, are by no means negligible, even if the most
the TDFs were usually subjected to progressive valuable timber trees and game animals have in
or wholesale cycles of transformation for cattle most cases long ago been removed.
grazing or, more rarely, farmland or extractive Many plants in tropical dry forests are known
production of fuel wood and charcoal (e.g., to be of value for nontimber products, includ-
in southwest Madagascar, see below). This ing medicines, biopharmaceuticals, food prod-
processdating mostly from the late 1800s ucts, potential sources for crop improvement
often consisted of repeated burning and clear- (e.g., an endemic wild rice species in New
ing until there remained little or none of the Caledonia), perfumes, cosmetics, etc. Also,
original assemblages of woody plants and soil- TDFs have signicant economic value if man-
borne seed banks. Faunal and microbial biota aged under multipurpose, multiuser forestry
also changed as a consequence. approaches, including the incorporation of
Nowadays, TDF fragments and adjacent innovative eco- and cultural tourism. Restora-
areas are mostly used for extensive livestock tion should clearly play a major role in both
scenarios, with community involvement built
360
Roth, 2001. into these programmes.
41. Restoring Dry Tropical Forests 287
Additionally, in urban or peri-urban zones, people who live in the area. This effort may well
like those of Grande Terre, New Caledonia, be unique, and is certainly of considerable rel-
restoration of native TDF is the obvious evance and importance to worldwide efforts at
and most cost-effective approach to meeting TDF conservation. The key points are that eco-
growing demands for amenity plantings and logical management, conservation, and restora-
green areas. The maintenance costs of climati- tion are approached conjointly and at a real
cally adapted ecosystems would surely be less landscape scale. Restoration is seen as biocul-
than for conventional horticultural plantations tural and involves the development of highly
of exotic speciesand lawn grass!and the innovative education activities and ecological
aesthetic result could be well superior. Such economics.
garden forests, albeit conned to urban parks,
roadside planting areas, and the like, could
2.2. New Caledonia (French
be a useful complement to educational efforts,
Pacic Territory)
and serve as gene banks for extra-urban or
peri-urban restoration projects, where hectares Following early initiatives of one of the authors
of contiguous forest, or corridors among (Jaffr), and his colleagues B. Suprin and J.-M.
TDF fragments, are in need of seed and germ Veillon (as well as the Services Provinciaux de
plasm. lEnvironnement), attention began to grow
Finally, with global warming and an overall about 15 years ago to the plight of the dwin-
trend toward drying in terrestrial systems, the dling TDFs on the western coast of the largest
plants, microorganisms and animals of tropical island of New Caledoniala Grande Terre.
dry forests represent a wealth of genetic cap- In 1998, WWF, the global conservation organi-
ital that should not be underestimated. These sation, launched an effort to organise a
organisms can be anticipated to respond more consortium of nongovernmental organisations
readily to warming and desertication on a (NGOs), research institutions, and local gov-
global scale than those adapted to humid trop- ernment agencies to establish a multifaceted
ical forests. Accordingly, they merit special TDF programme in the context of the WWF
attention from managers and engineers as well forest landscape restoration programme.
as public policy decision makers. Underway since 2001, this programme has
already carried out much of the preliminary
reconnaissance and mapping of the many scat-
2. Examples tered TDF fragments, and has conducted valu-
able ecological, silvicultural, and horticultural
2.1. Area de Conservacin studies for experimental restoration efforts
Guanacaste, Costa Rica slated to begin in 2005. At the time of this
writing, a major effort is underway to secure the
An extensive and innovative landscape-scale
possibility of enabling the restoration of a sig-
restoration and management project has been
nicant pilot landscape in Gouaro Deva, one of
underway in Guanacaste, northern Costa
the few remaining sites containing a relatively
Rica, since 1985, under the direction of Dan
large area (450 hectares) of forest with the
Janzen.361 This 110,000 hectare conservation
potential to conserve a representative piece of
area began as Santa Rosa National Park, and
the formerly widespread dry tropical forests
through the efforts of Janzen and successive,
on Grande Terre. The prospects for an
far-sighted Costa Rican governments, was
integrated protect, manage, and restore pilot
gradually increased to a landscape scale that
project remain to be worked out with provin-
includes not only TDF but also wet forest and
cial and national policies, decision makers and,
montane cloud forest, as well as 45,000 hectares
of course, local stakeholders.
of off-shore marine reserve, and integrates the
Apart from the challenges of restoring a frag-
mented and degraded forest landscape, TDFs
361
Janzen, 2002. everywhere are facing very high and increasing
288 J. Aronson et al
(birds, bats, etc.). Passive restoration has, for Planting in straight lines or prepared terraces is
example, been used effectively in Costa Rica. thus not necessarily the best way to proceed.
Gillespie T.G., and Jaffr, T. 2003. Tropical dry forest Chichilnisky, G., Daily, G.C., Ehrlich, P., Heal, G.,
in New Caledonia. Biodiversity and Conservation and Miller, J. eds. Managing Human-Dominated
12:16871697. Ecosystems. Monographs in Systematic Botany
Janzen, D.H. 2002. Tropical dry forest: Area de Con- from the Missouri Botanical Garden, vol. 84. Mis-
servacin Guanacaste, northwestern Costa Rica. souri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis, MO, pp.
In: Perrow, M., and Davy, A. eds. Handbook of 4764.
Ecological Restoration, Vol. 2 Restoration in Prac- Elliot, S., Navakitbumrung, P., Kuarak, C., Zangkum,
tise. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, S., Anusarnsunthorn, V., and Blakesley, D. 2003.
pp. 559583. Selecting framework tree species to restore sea-
Lowry, P.P., II, Munzinger, J., Bouchet, P., Graux, H., sonally dry tropical forest in northern Thailand
Bauer, A., Langrand, O., and Mittermeier, R.A. based on eld performance. Forest Ecology and
2004. New Caledonia. In: Mittermeier, R.A., Management 184:177191.
Robles Vil, P., Hoffman, M., Pilgrim, J., Brooks, T., Gordon, J.E., Hawthorne, W.D., Reyes-Garcia, A.,
Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreux, J.L., and da Fonseca, Sandoval, G., and Barrance, A.J. 2004. Assessing
G.A.B. eds. Hotspots Revisited: Earths Biologi- landscapes: a case study of tree and shrub diver-
cally Richest and Most Threatened Ecoregions (in sity in the seasonally dry forest of Oaxaca, Mexico
press). and southern Honduras. Biological Conservation
Roth, L.C. 2001. Subsistence Farmers and Perverse 117:429442.
Protection of Tropical Dry Forest. Journal of Janzen, D.H. 1988. Tropical dry forests: the most
Forestry 99:2027. endangered major tropical ecosystem. In: Wilson,
E.O. ed. Biodiversity. National Academy Press,
Washington, DC, pp. 130137.
Additional Reading Lerdau, M., Whitbeck, J., and Hollbrook, N.M. 1991.
Tropical deciduous forest: death of a biome.Trends
in Ecology and Evolution 6:201202.
Aronson, J., and Saravia Toledo, C. 1992. Caesalpinia
Murphy, P.G., and Lugo, A.E. 1986. Ecology of trop-
paraguariensis: forage tree for all seasons. Eco-
ical dry forest. Annual Review of Ecology and
nomic Botany 46:121132.
Systematics 17:6788.
Dirzo, R. 2001. Forest ecosystems functioning,
threats and value: Mexico as a case study. In:
42
Restoring Tropical Moist
Broad-Leaf Forests
David Lamb
291
292 D. Lamb
of these species. Third, the human populations wildlife species are beginning to recolonise the
living in most degraded tropical landscapes are area.366
often poor and have few resources. Indeed,
their poverty may have been part of the reason
2.3. Restoration to Increase
the lands were degraded in the rst place. If
Landscape Linkages
restoration is to be successful, it must help over-
come this rural poverty. This often means com- Fragmentation is a common outcome of distur-
plete biodiversity restoration is rarely achieved bance in many tropical areas. If these remnants
over large areas. can be linked by corridors, it should be possible
to rejoin the isolated populations of plants
and wildlife species. Such a corridor has been
2. Examples created in north Queensland. In this case the
corridor is 1.5 km long and 100 m wide. The
2.1. Restoration via Natural boundaries have also been sealed with an
Succession additional boundary of dense crowned tree
species to minimise the so-called edge effect.
Large areas of tropical forest have developed
The new forest was created using dense tree
on old farmland in Puerto Rico following the
seedling plantings (less than 2-m spacing)
abandonment of farming on many areas across
and involved about 100 tree species. Intensive
the island in the 1940s. This succession has
weeding meant that canopy closure was rapid.
occurred with little active intervention and rep-
Additional plant species have colonised the site
resents a major increase in forest cover at little
from intact forest at each end of the corridor.367
direct cost. The regenerated forest now has a
density, basal area, above-ground biomass and
species richness similar to that of old-growth 2.4. Single Species Plantations
forests. However, the species composition is Catalyse Restoration
different from that in old-growth forests, sug-
Most traditional forest plantations use a single
gesting some intervention will be needed if the
species grown in a monoculture. These are com-
missing species are to be recovered.365
monly planted at an original density of around
1100 trees per hectare, which means canopy
2.2. Intensive Restoration closure is rapid and weeds are quickly
After Mining excluded. Thereafter, thinning is carried out
and the trees are harvested at the end of the
One of the most intensive ecological restora-
rotationcommonly about 40 years. If these
tion projects in the humid tropics is that which
plantations are near intact forests they can
took place after bauxite mining in Brazil. In
acquire a signicant understorey of native plant
this case extensive research by the mining
species. If no thinning is carried out and
company had identied the plant and animal
the plantations remain unlogged, a signicant
species present and revealed something of
diversity of plant species may accumulate. This
their ecology. Restoration was expensive
is often greater than would have occurred if the
and involved intensive site preparation (re-
site had remained unplanted (because of the
spreading topsoil, deep ripping) and replanting.
competitive abilities of weeds and grasses or
Seedlings of 160 species were established at
because of recurrent res that would have con-
densities of around 2500 trees per hactare.
tinued to burn the site). Several 60-year-old
Monitoring has also taken place to identify
monoculture plantations (conifer and broad-
potential problems. Thirteen years after the
leaved hardwood) in northern Australia have
project commenced, most of the original plant
species are now present at the site and many
366
Knowles and Parrotta, 1995; Parrotta and Knowles,
1999.
365 367
Aide et al, 2000; Zimmerman et al, 2000. Goosem and Tucker, 1995; Tucker, 2000a,b.
42. Restoring Tropical Moist Broad-Leaf Forests 293
acquired more than 350 species of trees, shrubs, forms of silviculture may develop in the future
epiphytes, vines, and herbs from nearby intact as the standard of living increases, and are
forest. Some of the trees have now grown up to being tested in many rural areas within
join the canopy layers transforming the mono- Vietnam.
culture to a complex species-rich community. It
should be noted, though, that in most mono-
specic plantations, active management for
production prevents this from happening.368
3. Outline of Tools
2.5. Using High-Value 3.1. Choosing a Method
Native Species for Restoration
Malaysia has had a long silvicultural history. It A variety of approaches have been used to
is perhaps best known for the work carried out restore tropical moist broad-leaved forests, and
on devising silvicultural methods for natural some of these are summarised in Overview of
forests, but signicant areas of plantation Technical approaches to Restoring Tree Cover
have also been established. Much early work at the Site Level. Where funds are limited and
involved plantations of exotic species such as regrowth forests are widespread it is probably
pine or Acacia. But more recently there have more appropriate simply to protect these sec-
been a large number of species trials to ondary forests from further disturbances and
examine the silviculture of native species when allow successional development to take place.
these are grown in simple monoculture planta- Under most situations species-rich and struc-
tions as well as in more complex plantation turally complex forests will then develop over
designs.369 time (see example 2.1 above). These forests
will not necessarily regain all of the original
plant or animal species. For example, poorly
2.6. Reforestation in an Extensively
dispersed large-seeded plant species may be
Cleared Landscape
absent and wildlife with specialised habitat
Large areas of Vietnam have been deforested. requirements may not be able to reach the
Extensive reforestation using mostly exotic regenerated forest. Determining which, if any,
species of genera such as Eucalyptus and species have not reoccupied a particular site
Acacia has been carried out in recent years. requires knowledge of the original forest biota
Land is now being allocated to farmers and and also necessitates that some form of moni-
many are interested in reforestation. Very few toring is carried out to determine the extent of
of these farmers are interested in restoration the recovery process. Once the identity of any
because they cannot afford to be. This is despite missing species is known, action may be taken
Vietnam being a biodiversity-rich country. to attempt to remedy these losses.
What is more likely to occur is that the land- Some more active form of intervention will
scape will evolve as a mosaic of agricultural be needed where regrowth forest is absent or
land and small plantations. Many of these plan- where the opportunities for recolonisation
tations will be composed of native species and are more limited (e.g., because fragments of
some will contain simple mixtures of two or the original forest are more distant). This may
three species. The identity of these will vary involve an initial planting with a short-lived fast
from site to site. This means site diversity will growing tree species that shades out weeds and
remain modest, although landscape diversity grasses. These trees can then be underplanted
will be enhanced. Opportunities for more with specic target species. Alternatively, direct
species-rich plantations and more complex planting of all the target species can be done
to initiate restoration. Active intervention like
368
Keenan et al, 1997. this requires signicant funds, which are usually
369
Akioka, 1999, Appanah and Weinland, 1993. available only for purely restoration purposes
294 D. Lamb
under certain conditions (see example 2.3). as pines, eucalypts, and Acacia that can grow
More commonly, reforestation will be carried well at these poorer sites. These offer produc-
out only where landowners expect to derive tion benets but they contribute few ecological
a benet themselves, and in most cases this services. The reason for this choice is because
means some form of commercial harvesting will managers are often unaware of the full range of
be required. Active intervention in these cir- options available to them or because they have
cumstances can range over a variety of methods been unable or unwilling to risk the various
and may involve enrichment planting of alternatives.
regrowth forests or some form of mixed-species
plantation establishment. Any biodiversity
benet from this reforestation will necessarily 3.2.2. Where to Get Seed?
require the landowner to strike a compromise
It is often difcult to get seed for many tropi-
between optimising production and optimising
cal forest species. Most species are usually
the recovery of biodiversity present at that site.
present as scattered, isolated trees in relatively
Under these circumstances production can
sparse populations, and most species have
involve timber trees as well as nontimber prod-
irregular fruiting patterns. Many also produce
ucts (e.g., nuts, fruit, etc.) and the plantations
seed for only a short period and this seed
may involve trees as well as understorey plant-
can be difcult to store. This means it can be
ings of medicinal plants or cash crops. That is,
hard to collect seed from natural forests for
there may be a range of possibilities available
large-scale plantings. But it may be even more
that offer different degrees of biodiversity gain
difcult to collect seed from an adequate
as well as benets for stakeholders.
number of parent trees in heavily degraded
landscapes.
3.2. Some Key Questions
to Consider
3.2.3. How to Raise Seedlings and
Irrespective of which form of active interven-
Establish These in Plantations?
tion is used, several key problems commonly
occur. These follow from the three issues Some species germinate readily and quickly
referred to initially in the introduction. reach a size suitable for planting. But other
species germinate irregularly or need up to a
year in a nursery before they can be planted in
3.2.1. Which Species to Use?
the eld. Some species also depend on spe-
Moist tropical forests contain a variety of cialised mycorrhiza which may have been lost
species and little is usually known about the from the eld when soil fertility has been
ecology of most of these except for a compara- depleted and sites have been degraded. This
tive handful that might once have been har- means that care needs to be taken to inoculate
vested for timber. Since tree planting is mostly these species in nurseries prior to planting.
undertaken in the expectation of some com- In short, different species require different
mercial gain there is a tendency to use those forms of nursery treatment in the nursery.
species with the highest timber values. But This makes it difcult to raise seedlings of,
these indigenous species often have particular say, 100 species to plant together in the eld
site requirements and many are comparatively on a particular planting date. Species also differ
slow-growing.This means that plantations using in their capacity to become established in the
these species have often failedespecially eld and tolerate acid soils, low nutrient levels,
when the lands available for reforestation are or full sunlight. Optimal conditions for one
poorer quality lands or where weeds are dom- species may be suboptimal for another. Unfor-
inant. This has increasingly led plantation man- tunately, little is known about the attributes
agers to use a relatively small number of faster and tolerances of most moist tropical forest
growing and more tolerant exotic species such species.
42. Restoring Tropical Moist Broad-Leaf Forests 295
methods for doing this are often expensive or pastures: implications for restoration ecology.
inefcient, and better, more effective means are Restoration Ecology 8:328338.
needed. Akioka, J. 1999. The Multi-Storied Forest Manage-
ment Project in Malaysia. Forest Department,
Peninsular Malaysia, Perak State Forestry
4.4. Overcoming Impediments to Department, Japan International Cooperation
Farm Forestry Agency.
Appanah, S., and Weinland, G. 1993. Planting quality
Farm forestry is one means by which signicant timber trees in Peninisular Malaysia: a Review.
areas of land might be reforested and rural Malayan Forest record No. 38. Forest Research
poverty might be tackled. Many farmers are Institute of Malaysia, Kepong, Malaysia.
interested in planting trees on land not needed Goosem, S., and Tucker, N. 1995. Repairing the
for food production or other purposes. But rainforest: theory and practice of rainforest re-
these farmers may be prevented from doing so establishment in north Queenslands Wet Tropics.
because of land tenure arrangements, nancial Wet Tropics Management Authority, Cairns,
constraints, limits on harvesting, or a lack of Australia.
Keenan, R., Lamb, D., Woldring, O., Irvine, A., and
knowledge about the species best suited to the
Jensen, R. 1997. Restoration of plant diversity ben-
sites they have available. Such species must be
eath tropical tree plantations in northern Australia.
ecologically appropriate and nancially suit- Forest Ecology and Management 99:117132.
able. The impediments to farm forestry are Knowles, O.H., and Parrotta, J. 1995. Amazonian
often specic to particular sites and so will need forest restoration: an innovative system for native
specic solutions. A general principle, however, species selection based on phenological data and
is that beneciaries of reforestation (down- performance indices. Commonwealth Forestry
stream land users, catchment authorities, Review 74:230243.
conservation authorities, etc.) should assist Parrotta, J., and Knowles, H. 1999. Restoration
landowners with the costs of reforestation. of tropical moist forests on bauxite mined lands
in the Brazillian Amazon. Restoration Ecology
7:103116.
4.5. Better Market Information Tucker, N. 2000a. Wildlife colonization of restored
for Farmers tropical lands: what can it do, how can we hasten
it and what can we expect? In Elliott, S., Kerby, J.,
Isolated traditional farming communities Blakesley, D., Hardwick, K., Woods, K., and
develop agricultural and silvicultural systems Anusarnsunthorn, V., eds. Forest Restoration
appropriate for their particular circumstances. for Wildlife Conservation. International Tropical
But the arrival of roads and a cash economy Timbers Organisation and Forest Restoration
usually means a major change is needed in the Research Unit, University of Chiang Mai,
way they manage their crops and land. In many Thailand, pp. 279295.
cases they become beholden to middlemen or Tucker, N. 2000b. Linkage restoration: interpreting
timber buyers so that farming activities are fragmentation theory for the design of rainforest
linkage in the humid wet tropics of north-east
carried out to suit these players rather than
Queensland. Ecological Management and
the farming community itself. As the areas of
Restoration 1:3541.
natural forests decline, better information is Zimmerman, J., Pascarella, J., and Aide, T. 2000.
needed on the real value of certain tree crops Barriers to forest regeneration in an abandoned
and, potentially, the emerging market for eco- pasture in Puerto Rica. Restoration Ecology
logical services. 8:350360.
International Tropical Timbers Organisation 2002. Forest Records No. 45. Forest Research Institute,
ITTO Guidelines for the restoration, management Malaysia.
and rehabilitation of degraded and secondary Lamb, D. 1998. Large-scale ecological restoration of
tropical forests. ITTO Policy Development Series degraded tropical forest land: the potential role of
No. 13. Yokohama, Japan. timber plantations. Restoration Ecology 6:271
Krishnapillay, B., ed. 2002. A Manual for Forest 279.
Plantation Establishment in Malaysia. Malayan
43
Restoring Tropical Montane Forests
Manuel R. Guariguata
298
43. Restoring Tropical Montane Forests 299
ing forest cover in deforested, landslide-prone rounding forest reserves add another 1820 km2
sites, further mass erosion can be minimised of protected area, making Mount Kenya the
through substrate stabilisation. In human- largest area of natural forest in the country.
deforested areas, restoration of tropical The forest forms a major water catchment
montane forests may also be justied for the area from which two of the countrys ve river
provision of environmental services as they basinsthe Tana and Ewaso Nyirorise, which
play a critical role in the local hydrological together supply water to more than a quarter
cycle due to their role in cloud interception, of Kenyas human population and more than
especially in areas that do not receive much half of its land area. Water users include the ve
precipitation. Forest conservation elsewhere, main hydroelectric power sources, agricultural
however, may need to be actively linked to land, pastoralist range lands, and major urban
forest restoration in the uplands. For example, centres.
reduced forest cover in lowland areas could Threats to the surrounding forests include
leave adjacent montane forests with not too illegal logging, charcoal production, cultivation
many clouds to intercept.370 of bhang, and encroachment. The glaciers on
the mountain are also retreating because of
global warming and climate change. A number
1.3. Restoring Montane Forests
of initiatives are now being undertaken
in the Face of Natural
together with communities to address the con-
Disturbance
servation and restoration needs of the montane
Although suppressing human disturbances such forest. These are interesting examples of com-
as re and uncontrolled grazing is a key initial munity initiatives of land management, restora-
strategy of a given restoration initiative, taking tion and protection of a unique environment in
into account the effects of natural disturbances Kenya.
on forest restoration may also be critical for
success. For example, montane forests located in
many tropical islands are usually prone to suf-
2.2. Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala
fering severe hurricane damage as much as The Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala contains
three times per century. In this case, options may a biological treasure. At least 885 species of
include planting tree species with a known birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles, which
ability to resprout after stem breakage, with amounts to 70 percent of all the species from
high stem wood density, or with specic archi- these groups that are known to exist in
tectural features; many palm species, for Guatemala and neighbouring Belize can be
example, are known to survive hurricanes very found here. It is also an important tropical gene
well. Identication of naturally occurring, bank of conifers with 17 distinct endemic ever-
landslide-chronic areas may also help to priori- green species. The area is thus considered an
tise or avoid investing in potentially costly res- irreplaceable seed resource for reforestation
toration efforts that otherwise might be wasted. and agroforestry throughout the tropics.
Besides its robust population of diverse ora
and fauna, the Sierra de las Minas plays an
2. Examples important role in providing fresh, clean water
to the many farms and villages in the Polochic
2.1. Mount Kenya371 and Motagua valleys below. More than 63 per-
manent rivers drain the reserve, making it the
Mount Kenya is situated in the central high-
countrys biggest single water resource. Local
lands of Kenya. The national park is 715,000
people depend on these small rivers for their
hectares and it was gazetted in 1949. The sur-
agricultural crops (e.g., melon, tobacco, grapes,
citric fruits, tomatoes). Bigger industries, such
370
Lawton et al, 2001. as soft drinks, fertiliser and paper-recycling
371
Carlsson and Lambrechts, 1999; Emerton, 1999. plants, and hydroelectricity all rely on water
300 M.R. Guariguata
generated at the Ro Hondo station. A drop of seed dispersal rates from adjacent forest.374
40 percent in water ow in the last 10 years has Even when lack of seed supply is overcome,
been attributed to forest loss. however, grasses and ferns that thrive in aban-
Since October 1990 the reserve has been doned pastures tend to suppress growth and
managed by a local nongovernmental organisa- survival of tree seedlings; hence the removal of
tion (NGO), Defensores de la Naturaleza. The competing vegetation seems necessary during
reserves managers are engaged in an environ- tree planting.375 Controlled grazing can also
mental education programme designed to per- facilitate both the establishment of planted
suade local community leaders of the need to trees and natural forest recovery through sec-
protect, manage, and restore the forests in ondary succession.376
Sierra de las Minas in such a way that they can Another common barrier to the natural
continue to offer the services locally but also recovery of tropical montane forests is high
downstream. Payment schemes have been set rates of vertebrate seed predation in deforested
up (see Payment for Environmental Services areas. In other cases, reduced nutrient levels
and Restoration for more information on such due to soil compaction or recurring res can
schemes) to ensure that those engaged in pro- impede forest recovery even when seed sur-
tecting and restoring the watershed, are paid by vival is high. In short, strategies to restore
the beneciaries downstream.372 tropical montane forests may need to be
assessed on a case-by-case basis, and designed
whenever possible for overcoming simultane-
3. Outline of Tools ous barriers.377
Annual Conference, 2829 May 1999, Nairobi, Murcia, C. 1997. Evaluation of Andean alder as a
Kenya. catalyst for the recovery of tropical cloud forests
Cordeiro, N.J., and Howe, H.F. 2001. Low recruitment in Colombia. Forest Ecology and Management
of trees dispersed by animals in African forest 99:163170.
fragments. Conservation Biology 15:17331741. Pedraza, R.A., and Williams-Linera, G. 2003. Evalu-
Emerton, L. 1999. Mount Kenya: the economics of ation of native tree species for the rehabilitation
community conservation. Evaluating Eden Series, of deforested areas in a Mexican cloud forest. New
discussion paper No.4. International Institute for Forests 26:8399.
Environment and Development, London. Posada, J.M., Aide, T.M., and Cavelier, J. 2000. Cattle
Guariguata, M.R. 1990. Landslide disturbance and and weedy shrubs as restoration tools of tropical
forest regeneration in the upper Luquillo moun- montane rainforest. Restoration Ecology 8:370
tains of Puerto Rico. Journal of Ecology 78: 379.
814832. Shiels, A.B., and Walker, L.R. 2003. Bird perches
Harvey, C.A. 2000. Colonization of agricultural wind- increase forest seeds on Puerto Rican landslides.
breaks by forest trees: effects of connectivity and Restoration Ecology 11:457465.
remnant trees. Ecological Applications 10:1762 Venegas, G., and Camacho, M. 2001. Efecto de un
1773. tratamiento silvicultural sobre la dinmica de un
Holl, K.D., Loik, M.E., Lin, E.H.V., and Samuels, I.A. bosque secundario montano en Villa Mills, Costa
2000. Tropical montane forest restoration in Costa Rica. Serie Tcnica No. 322. CATIE, Turrialba,
Rica: overcoming barriers to dispersal and estab- Costa Rica.
lishment. Restoration Ecology 8:339349.
Kappelle, M., Geuze, T., Leal, M., and Cleef, A.M.
1996. Successional age and forest structure in a
Costa Rican upper montane Quercus forest. Additional Reading
Journal of Tropical Ecology 12:681698.
Knowles, O.H., and Parrotta, J.A. 1995. Amazonian Bubb, P., May, I., Miles, L., and Sayer, J.. 2004.
forest restoration: an innovative system for na- Cloud Forest Agenda. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge,
tive species selection based on phenological data UK.
and eld performance indices. Commonwealth Guariguata, M.R., and Kattan, G.H., eds. 2002.
Forestry Review 74:230243. Ecologia y conservacion de bosques neotropicales.
Lawton, R.O., Nair, U.S., Pielke, R.A., and Welch, Editorial Libro Universitario Regional, Costa
R.M. 2001. Climatic impact of tropical lowland Rica.
deforestation on nearby montane cloud forests. Kappelle, M., and Brown, A., eds. 2001. Bosques
Science 294:584587. nublados del neotropico. InBio, Costa Rica.
Case Study: Conserving the Cloud
Forests of Mount Rinjani, Lombok
Jeff Sayer and Triagung Rooswiadji
Rising majestically from lowland rice paddies protected. But the Forest Department nds it
to a height of 3726 m, Gunung Rinjani domi- difcult to enforce the laws when they cannot
nates the Indonesian Island of Lombok. The offer any alternative to the poverty stricken
upper slopes of the mountain are clothed in farmers. A large swathe of forest on the lower
cloud forest. The winds coming in off the sea slopes has now been reduced to a patchwork
cool as they are funnelled up the slopes of the of small elds, scattered trees, scrub, and
mountain, moisture condenses onto the vege- grasses. Fires originating in these degraded
tation, and as a result the trees are perma- areas are beginning to eat into the rich forests
nently wet and are festooned in epiphytic higher up the mountain.
orchids, lichens, and mosses. These forests are This has implications for the entire island.
home to rare birds, black ebony leaf monkeys, Rinjanis forests act as water collectors for all
barking deer, leopard cats, and palm civets. of Lombok. Water owing from the misty
The forests are now under intense pressure. upper slopes irrigates the highly productive
Lombok is one of Indonesias poorest and rice cultures of the plains and supplies domes-
most densely populated islands. Pressure for tic water to the towns and tourist resorts. Now
land has always been intense but the problem the rice farmers in the lowlands are com-
has become much worse in recent years. First, plaining that there is not enough water for
following the Asian economic crisis in 1997 their crops in the dry season, and they experi-
large numbers of Lombok people who had ence an increased number of oods when it
been migrant workers in Malaysia were sent rains.
home. Many of them returned to farming. In response to the crisis, Lomboks provin-
Then the Bali bombing in 2001 had a huge cial government has linked up with the global
impact on the tourist industry. As a result, the conservation organisation WWF, and the U.K.
local Sassak people have fallen on hard times. Department for International Development
A large part of their income came from work to devise a strategy that can protect the forests
in hotels and restaurants, and from producing and their vital watershed functions and still
the beautiful handicrafts for which Lombok provide land and employment for the people.
is renowned. Lack of cash employment is As a contribution to this effort we have
forcing them back onto the land. And with 2.9 been developing a simple computer model to
million people crowded onto this 5625 km2 try and unravel the complexity of the Rinjani
island, it is hard to make a living from tradi- social-ecological system. The model uses the
tional agriculture alone. STELLA software and enables us to investi-
In theory, Gunung Rinjanis cloud forests gate the main drivers of land cover change
the only ones left on Lombokare legally and links between these changes and the
303
304 J. Sayer and T. Rooswiadji
livelihoods of the people. The model has been early years the farmers made money by
developed with local stakeholders and it has growing crops such as chilli peppers between
been useful in making their assumptions and the tree seedlings. Now they are planting a
interests more explicit. wide variety of fruit and even timber trees.
We began by investigating the possibilities Mangoes, papayas, durians, jackfruit, custard
for making environmental payments to apples, rambutans, and salak fruit are all being
upland farmers in return for better farming produced for sale to traders in the provincial
and forestry practices. A bottled water capital Mataram. Jackfruit and macadamia are
company in the lowlands indicated that a especially popular as they produce valuable
modest amount of money could be available fruit and nuts but also timber that is in high
for this programme. The 42,000 water users in demand for the curio carvers in Bali.
the provincial capital Mataram have agreed to The land remains under forest department
a small levy to pay for watershed protection. ownership and the farmers have to pay a
However, the model suggested considerable small rent for the right to cultivate it. On a
difculties in this approach.The number of far- pilot scale this programme has been an
mers is very highseveral hundred thousand undoubted success, and previously degraded
and payments that were high enough to have areas are now covered in protable agro-
a real impact on their behaviour would cost forests. However, the market for fruit and
more than the amounts that are likely to be timber is limited, and unless the general
available. Lack of legal clarity about land economy picks up it will be difcult to extend
rights and the high diversity of farming the scheme to all the degraded areas of pro-
systems that they use would combine to make tection forest around the mountain.
the management of such payments very The agroforestry trees protect the soils and
complicated. the water supplies and the people earn a good
The modelling exercise suggested that few living. These articial forests do not have the
solutions would be effective if they were not same biodiversity values as the natural forests
accompanied by more effective application of that used to exist in the protection forests, but
laws. But the difcult transition to democracy they are better than the degraded scrub and
that Indonesia is now experiencing and the farmland that covered the sites when the pro-
economic crisis are combining to make law gramme began. They offer the hope of pro-
enforcement very unpopular amongst the viding stable and secure land use around the
population. lower boundary of the forests.
So far one of the best options that has The success of the agroforestry approach
emerged has been to abandon government will be very sensitive to the incomes that
attempts to protect the watershed forests and, farmers can obtain for their fruit and timber
instead, to parcel out the land to poor people, crops. We are going to continue to use our
who can use it on condition that they plant model of the Rinjani system to track how both
trees. This is a rather revolutionary idea. It is the environment and peoples livelihoods
in fact saying that conventional approaches to evolve over time. The model will provide a
watershed management are not workable in database and monitoring tool that will be used
the present economic and social conditions by the local stakeholder committee to help
found on Lombok.The compromise of encour- understand how the system is performing. It
aging the formation of a buffer zone of agro- should help to determine how livelihoods
forestry plantations around the base of the change over time and how this is linked to
mountain seems like a better option. changes in landcover.
The initial trials have centred on the village The idea of payments for environmental
of Sesaot. Farmers are given 0.1 hectare of services is still being pursued but as a comple-
land and are allowed to grow eld crops for ment to other approaches.The isolated hillside
the rst 4 years, until the trees grow. In the villages have few social services and the
Case Study: Conserving the Cloud Forests of Mount Rinjani, Lombok 305
peoples lives are still precarious. The people The situation in Lombok, where valuable
in the lowlands are richer and the rice farmers natural forests exist alongside poverty-
are making money out of the water that ows stricken people desperate for more land, is
from the mountains, so there is some potential typical of many developing countries in the
for a small water tax. This will not be given as tropics.
cash to the upland farmers but will be used to Rinjani National Park is one of Indonesias
build clinics and schools and improve the most spectacular natural areas but there is no
roads. The hillside people will get these ser- way that it can be protected if thousands of
vices only if they respect the agreement and poverty stricken, land-hungry people live
grow only tree crops.They will lose these social around the base of the mountain. Giving
contributions if they grow tobacco, cassava, or people rights to some areas of degraded
other annual crops that are bad for soil erosion natural forest may help save the national
and do not conserve water. park.
44
Restoring Floodplain Forests
Simon Dufour and Herv Pigay
306
44. Restoring Floodplain Forests 307
dynamic systems, and their conservation and users. The stakes are also less complex with
restoration must take into account the hydro- fewer conicts than those that must be
geomorphic processes that structure the catch- managed when dealing with entire systems.384
ment and the landscape evolution.
In most cases, it is impossible to re-create
1.2.1. Hydrological Connections
pristine oodplain forest conditions, but miti-
gation measures can be developed to im- Reestablishment of hydrological uctuation is
prove ecosystem quality. For this purpose, a common topic in oodplain restoration, par-
managers must identify practical strategies and ticularly reestablishment of the ood pulse that
tools.383 inundates forest patches according to their
position within the riparian corridor. For this
purpose, some actions must be promoted at a
1.2. General Principles large scale, by specic management strategies
The restoration of oodplain forest is often controlling water diversion and storage for
achieved at three scales: hydroelectric and pumping purposes. Increas-
ing minimum ow downstream of dams is one
1. Catchment scale: The improvement (e.g.,
of the most common options at this scale.
more natural levels) of controlled factors
At the reach scale, various options can also
(discharge, bedload supply) can be done at the
be implemented to reestablish a more active
catchment scale or in an upstream branch of
hydrological connection, such as reinundating
the river network. Such hydrological and sedi-
areas by dike removal or reconnecting side
mentary river improvements have positive
channels. Low-ow in groundwater levels
effects on oodplain habitats in terms of
should also be considered carefully, in particu-
structure and diversity. The success of such
lar downstream of dams and in reaches with
self-restoration options, when they can be
active water pumping for agriculture and indus-
promoted, are difcult to evaluate because of
tries. Managers can then perform some meas-
multiple potential channel adjustments acting
ures to raise the groundwater level, such as
at various timescales.
favouring more ow in the oodplains former
2. Reach scale (10 to 100 km river length):
channel network or articial groundwater input
The improvement of the hydrological connec-
from a reservoir or canal.
tion between the active channel and the ood-
plain is an approach that can be accomplished
at the reach scale by modifying the topography 1.2.2. Bedload Transport
to lower the riparian surface in order to
Restoration of sediment transport is another
improve water ow across the oodplain, and
process-based option. Complete restoration of
also by raising the groundwater table.
a dynamic system with all types of forest suc-
3. Local scale (a few hectares of forest): The
cessional stages, when it has been affected
maintenance of the riparian structure slows
by lateral and longitudinal disconnection
down succession (preserves pioneer stages
(embankment, dams that interrupt sediment
when the river has lost its capacity to do so) or
transfers), must include not only channel shift-
favours specic assemblages of the modied
ing, but also bedload transport preservation.
ecosystems (removes exotic species, reforesta-
Bedload reintroduction and riparian zone re-
tion in cultivated areas, grazing control).
dynamism can be accomplished at the reach
Restoration can be promoted at different scale by increasing levels of bank erosion and
scales depending on the target. The interven- sediment remobilisation during oods, and by
tions at local scale usually generate fewer prob- removing unnecessary dikes. Sediment reintro-
lems in terms of social acceptance, because duction to maintain channel dynamics is being
plots are smaller in size and concern fewer considered along the Ain River in France,
383 384
FISRWG, 1998. Hughes, 2003.
308 S. Dufour and H. Pigay
where dam construction in the 1960s disrupted practices is often not enough, except in the very
peak ows and the character of sediment trans- long term. Instead, reconversion measures
fers (through a Life Nature Programme). (dened as transformation of stand structure
Even within the framework of process-based with a change of socioeconomic functions) have
restoration at the basin scale, the problem of to be implemented. This often implies more
dams and their possible removal sparks consid- intensive and expensive programmes (like
erable debate within the scientic community. plantations of indigenous species). In agricul-
If the solution looks good from an ecological tural areas, plantation programmes can be pro-
point of view (i.e., more natural hydrology, moted at a large scale for biodiversity purposes
bedload transport, and biological connection), but also for ooding management (preserving
the reality is much more complex. It is advis- areas of low vulnerability that can attenuate the
able, in particular, to distinguish big dams from peak ow), for water quality (buffer strip along
small dams that are located in the upper part of agricultural-river contact), and for global
the channel network. Next, the socioeconomic warming (sequestration of carbon dioxide from
context of each dam must be taken into the atmosphere).
account. Lastly, all the effects of dam removal
are not known (for example, in the case of
sediment contaminated by organic or inorganic 2. Examples
components).
Experiences in oodplain forest restoration are
shaped by specic ecological problems, such as
1.2.3. Forest Structure
base ow decrease, peak ow cutting, sediment
Actions proposed at the catchment and reach transport disruption, channel degradation and
scales can be achieved by interventions at ner groundwater drop down, channel stabilisation,
scales by focussing on existing forested struc- and diking and ooding protection, and by
tures (which is cheaper and easier), through socioeconomic issues, industrial or agricultural
structural transformation of degraded wood- water pumping, human pressure on forested
lands or by creating new units. corridor and landscape fragmentation. When
For existing woodlands, forestry practices looking at the European examples, a few cases
have to be adapted to their specicities. Gen- use a process-based approach, such as on the
erally, the ecological aims of restoration will be Rhone, the Danube, the Elbe, and the Rhine
to improve biodiversity by respecting some (Table 44.1). In North America, the objectives
basic rules that enhance or conserve near- for the Mississippi river and the Chesapeake
natural functioning and structuring of the Bay watershed (Potomac River, Susquehanna
forest: high vertical complexity of different River) focussed more on water quality im-
strata (uneven age structure), broad range of provement (nutrient, pollutant, and sediment
different successional states organised as a contents).
patchy mosaic, presence of woody debris, use of In other parts of the world, such as in
natural regeneration, etc. Such an approach is Malaysia, the objective of oodplain restora-
proposed in reaches where alluvial forest is still tion tends to be for the preservation of native
present but is no longer rejuvenated by channel fauna and ora. Finally, for many large rivers, in
processes (primarily bank erosion and ood- particular in recently industrialised countries,
ing). The preservation of pioneer units is best some restoration programmes are in place
accomplished articially (cutting). Moreover, (River Ganga, River Yamuna in India,
actions can also be performed to ght exotic Amazonas/Solimoes River in the Amazonian
species that themselves form monospecic watershed). In these cases the main priority,
communities on pioneer biotopes. even if restoration is considered, often remains
For highly disrupted forest structures like the conservation of natural areas and the decr-
articial plantations, modication of forestry ease of physical and chemical water pollution.
44. Restoring Floodplain Forests 309
Table 44.1. Examples of restoration measures proposed on different large rivers in Europe, America,
and Asia.
From catchment To reach To local options
Raise groundwater
Increase modied
forestry practices
Reconnection of
former channels
dike removal or
Re-inundate by
Modication of
minimum ow
setting back
Replanting
oodplain
woodland
Lowering
and laws
Danube River, Austria x x
Danube River, Bulgaria x
Elbe River, Germany x
Rhone River, France x x x
Rhine River, France x x x
Chesapeake Bay watershed, U.S. x
Lower Mississippi River, U.S. x x
Middle Sacramento River, U.S. x
Kissimmee River Corridor, U.S. x
Chikuma River, Japan x x x
Kinabatangan, Malaysia x x
Examples of different restoration measures 1992 to re-inject water into the aquifer by
proposed on large rivers in Europe, America reconnecting a side channel from which water
and Asia are shown in Table 44.1. can inltrate and raise the groundwater table
by half a metre. The hydrological connection
is still infrequent for some forest patches,
2.1. Restoration of Physical but functionality is greater today than it was
Processes at the Reach Scale: 20 years ago. The next step to improve
The Rhone River (France) on the hydrological connection is to increase the
the Site of la Platire minimum ow that is not derived from the
The Rhone River has been regulated since the canal for electricity production.
middle of the 19th century to ght ooding, to
improve navigation and irrigation, and to
2.2. Buffer Zone Restoration to
produce electricity. Along most of its French
Reduce Nutrient Pollution in
course the Rhone is characterised by a
the Chesapeake Bay Watershed
degraded landscape. In the reach of lle de la
Platire (60 km south of Lyon), channel degra- In 1983 federal, state, and local stakeholders
dation and bank stabilisation caused by the established a programme to restore water
installation of groins at the end of the 19th quality and health conditions in the Chesapeake
century, water pumping by chemical factories Bay watershed in Virginia and Maryland. The
after 1950, and ow diversion to bypass canals objective of the programme was to increase
after 1977 have all led to oodplain-channel water quality and habitat resources within this
disconnection and lowered the groundwater formerly forested watershed (forest covered 95
table (a loss of 2 m between the end of the 1960s percent of the watershed 300 years ago versus 6
and 1990). Consequently the forest has become percent today). One of the main measures was
drier, losing much of its alluvial characteristics. the restoration of streamside forests along the
A restoration project has been in place since hydrographic network. After restoring almost
310 S. Dufour and H. Pigay
5000 km along the river bank, today the riparian tions, how it has evolved to its present state, and
forest buffers almost 60 percent of the channel the causes of human-induced modications.
network.This forest growth is complemented by Historical analysis is helpful in understanding
a decrease in nitrogen and phosphorus utilisa- forest cover evolution over the last century.
tion, and has led to a signicant decrease in Land-survey maps and aerial photos are useful
nutrient pollution in the bay. documents to establish the structural state of
alluvial forests over the past 50 to 100 years.
Written forestry reports can be used for some
2.3. Actions on Riparian Cover large alluvial forest corridors, such as the Rhine
Characteristics: Reforestation or the Mississippi river that have both been
Along the Kinabatangan managed for a few centuries.
River (Malaysia)385 Prior to acting at a local scale, it can be
With the exception of the southeastern part of helpful to approach the problem at a larger
the United States, the issue of oodplain forest regional scale to tailor actions to the right scale.
restoration in nontemperate areas is a more An inventory at the national scale can be used
recent development than in industrialised as a preliminary step to identify possible
regions. Thus, few projects exist. The restoration project sites. Such inventories can be exhaus-
and conservation programme of the Kin- tive for small areas, like in Switzerland or in
abatangan River oodplain forest is one of Belgium, or more cursory for larger regions (for
the most advanced examples in the tropics. example, by satellite imagery). With either
The forest, located in the Malaysian part of the method, the inventory must include a database
island of Borneo, is highly impacted by the that contains some information on each site
presence of palm plantations. This programme (percent of surface forested, stand structure,
is carried out by the Sabah Wildlife department, regrowth, plant diversity, river form, etc.).
Sabahs Department of Irrigation, and WWF
Malaysia, and includes several actions, in par-
ticular reforestation along the riverbanks and 3.2. Monitoring
reconnection of isolated forest fragments. At
Monitoring is important, as with all restoration
the regulatory scale, actions include modifying
programmes and should include both ecologi-
the legislation that enables the transformation
cal and socioeconomic factors. Some socio-
of the natural forest patches into palm planta-
economic factors that need to be taken into
tions, and campaigns that inform consumers of
account for oodplain forests, but also for other
the origin of the palm oil and the forestry prac-
large-scale restoration efforts, include ensuring
tices of the producer.
legal protection status and property rights, and
understanding and mitigating the impact on
local stakeholders. Specically, for oodplain
3. Outline of Tools forests, variables that need to be measured
include hydrological, geomorphic, and biologi-
Two types of tools must be differentiated: (1)
cal characteristics (pre- and postrestoration
diagnosis tools to understand the status of the
survey).
oodplain ecosystems in terms of diversity and
connectivity, and (2) implementation tools and
methods to use in restoration projects.
3.3. Integrated River Basin
Management
3.1. Assessment and Inventory Integrated river basin management is one of
Before improving any landscape patch, one the tools that can be used to attain objectives
needs to understand how the landscape func- of water quality improvement, local develop-
ment, ooding management, etc., and allow
385
Teoh et al, 2001. stakeholders to consider their options in
44. Restoring Floodplain Forests 311
purpose, there is a need to identify and to States: overview and perspective. Restoration
develop technical and methodological tools to Ecology 5(4):414.
quantify these benets (the costs are easier Griggs, F.T., and Golet, G.H. 2002. Riparian valley
to estimate). Economic studies should be con- oak (Quercus lobata) forest restoration on the
Middle Sacramento River, California. USDA
ducted in different local demonstration pro-
Forest Service; pp. 543550.
grammes in order to validate the benet of the
Harris, R., and Olson, C. 1997. Two-stage system for
measures for stakeholders. prioritising riparian restoration at the stream
reach and community scales. Restoration Ecology
5(4):3442.
References Hunter, J.C., Willett, K.B., McCoy, M.C., Quinn, J.F.,
and Keller, K.E. 1999. Prospects for preservation
FISRWG. 1998. Stream corridor restoration: princi- and restoration of riparian forests in the Sacra-
ples, processes and practices. The Federal Intera- mento Valley, California, USA. Environmental
gency Stream Restoration Working Group, GPO Management 24(1):6575.
item n 0120-A. Landers, D.H. 1997. Riparian restoration: current
Hughes, H.G. ed. 2003. The ooded forest: guidance status and the reach to the future. Restoration
for policy makers and river managers in Europe Ecology 5(4):113121.
on the restoration of oodplain forests. Moring, J.R., Garman, G.C., and Mullen, D.M. 1985.
FLOBAR2, Department of Geography, University The value of riparian zones for protecting aquatic
of Cambridge, UK. systems: general concerns and recent studies in
Naiman, R.J., and Dcamps, H. eds. 1990. The Maine. In: Johnson, R.R., Ziebell, C.D., Pattern,
Ecology and Management of Aquatic-Terrestrial D.R., Folliot, P.F., and Hamre, R.H., eds. Riparian
Ecotones. MAB 4, UNESCO. Ecosystems and their Management: Reconciling
Teoh, C.H., Ng, A., Prudente, C., Pang, C., and Tek Conicting Uses. USDA Forest Service.
Choon Yee, J. 2001. Balancing the need for sus- National Research Council. 2002. Riparian Areas,
tainable oil palm development and conservation: Functions and Strategies for Management.
the lower Kinabatangan oodplains experience. National Academy Press, Washington DC.
Proceeding in ISP National Seminar, Strategic Pigay, H., Pautou, G., and Rufnoni, C. 2003. Les
Directions for the Sustainablility of the Oil Palm Forts Riveraines des Cours dEau: cologie,
Industry, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia, 1112 Fonctions, Gestion. Institut pour le Dveloppe-
June 2001. ment Forestier, Paris.
Schoenholtz, S.H., James, J.P., Kaminski, R.M.,
Leopold, B.D., and Ezell, A.W. 2001. Afforestation
Additional Reading of bottomland hardwoods in the Lower Missis-
sippi Alluvial Valley: status and trends. Wetlands
Alpert, P., Griggs, F.T., and Peterson, D.R. 1999. 21(4):602613.
Riparian forest restoration along large rivers: Tockner, K., and Schiemer, F. 1997. Ecological
initial results from the Sacramento river project. aspects of the restoration strategy for river-
Restoration Ecology 7(4):360368. oodplain system on the Danube River in
Goodwin, C.N., Hawkins, C.P., and Kershner, J.L. Austria. Global Ecology and Biogeography
1997. Riparian restoration in the Western United Letters 6:321329.
45
Restoring Mediterranean Forests
Ramon Vallejo
313
314 R. Vallejo
tendencies, moving from thousands of years of current demands from forests (or more gener-
steady degradation to a new phase of regener- ally from land-use interests) may become obso-
ation that is related to the loss of direct market lete in only a few decades, leaving the next
prot from forests and woodlands and rural generations with a problem that may be dif-
depopulation. Clearly, this general process has cult to reverse or that may even be irreversible.
local exceptions in the less economically devel- Examples of this time mismatch include (1) the
oped regions of southern Europe. clear-cutting of cork oak woodlands conducted
Meanwhile, in southern and eastern in Portugal for wheat production during the
Mediterranean countries, resource exploitation 1930s, the later abandonment of many of these
mostly follows the same historical trends in elds because of poor soil productivity, and the
relation to the increasing population growth recent attempts to recover cork oak in these
and direct dependence of rural populations on now degraded soils; and (2) the eucalyptus
natural resources. Poverty, now and in the past, plantations established in dry areas of western
is one of the main drivers of forest degradation Spain in the 1960s, which are now abandoned
forced by the primary need for food, fuelwood, and no longer exploited, suffer wildres, and, in
and bre. some cases, are uprooted at a large economic
Recent land use changes in southern Europe cost to restore native forest.
are resulting in the abandonment of less Forest management and restoration is con-
productive lands and substantial reductions in strained by land tenure and traditional uses and
grazing pressure and forest exploitation. These rights, which are very diverse throughout the
changes are enabling spontaneous vegetation Mediterranean countries. There are countries
to recover, increasing connectivity in wildland where most of the forest land is private, such as
areas and promoting fuel load accumulation Portugal with around 90 percent, and countries
in forests and shrublands. In addition, large where practically all forest land is public, such
afforestation programmes conducted during as Turkey, Greece, and the Maghreb countries
the 20th century signicantly increased the (fort domaniale).
forest surface, mostly with pine species and, to
a minor extent, eucalyptus. A direct conse-
1.3. Reforestation Activities
quence of this dramatic modication in land-
scape structure and composition has been the Recognition of the need to preserve and
spread of large wildres in the Northern enhance forests is very old. Already in 13th-
Mediterranean countries since the last quarter century Spain, King Alfonso X promoted regu-
of the 20th century.386 Wildres have now lations to preserve forests against res and
become the major forest management problem uncontrolled clearing. Some relevant and
in the region. We can expect the problem to documented pine afforestation dates back to
become more and more acute in southern the early Middle Ages in Spain. Throughout the
Mediterranean countries if the trend toward Middle and Modern Ages, forests competed
rural abandonment continues in the future. with grazing and agriculture, with rural people
always trying to convert forests into pasture
and cropland. Traditionally, grazing was consid-
1.2. Structural Problems
ered by foresters as the prime enemy of forest
Ancient societies adjusted their lives to conservation. The traditional pastured wood-
natures pace. Industrialisation has caused the lands (dehesa, montado, pascolo arbolato) in
gap between both paces to increase dramati- the western Mediterranean can be considered
cally. Present industrial and postindustrial soci- multifunctional adaptations and compromise
eties change faster than forests. As a land uses given to these forests to solve the
consequence, forest policies that respond to demands of rural population. Throughout the
18th and 19th centuries, there was an attempt
386
Pausas and Vallejo, 1999. to preserve and promote forests. Efforts began
45. Restoring Mediterranean Forests 315
to crystallise in the afforestation of relevant Spain. These were caused by torrential streams
surfaces by the end of the 19th century and draining from the nearby mountain ranges.
became fully developed during the 20th Most of these ranges were denuded of trees as
century. In southern Europe, most of these a result of long-term overexploitation and the
afforestation efforts addressed watershed large logging activities pursued by the Navy for
protection and dune xation. ship construction, especially during the 18th
In relation to socioeconomic development century. In the Segura basin (Murcia), after the
and the decreasing dependence of the popula- devastating oods of October 1879 (761 casu-
tion on forest resources, a new perception alties), the forest administration launched a
of nature is growing in the European reforestation project in 1886 called Defence
Mediterranean countries. This is generating new Works Against the Floods in the Segura basin.
demands on the wildlands, more biased toward The forest engineer R. Codorniu, one of the
recreation, ecological, cultural, and landscape directors of this restoration project, wrote that
valuation. Of course, these new demands on in 1889 he did not see a single tree when cross-
forests and other wildland uses require the ing the hill slopes of the basin. This project
corresponding adaptation of forest restoration started in 1892 and included the reforestation
techniques to meet these demands.387 With this of almost 5000 hectares, accompanied by check
in mind, recent afforestation measures for dams, rebreaks, and temporary on-site forest
setting aside agricultural lands, promoted nurseries. The climate of the site is dry to sub-
under the Common Agricultural Policy of the humid. After studying the ecological conditions
European Union, were conceived with the aim of the site, the species planted were mostly the
to recover native forest ecosystems. native conifers Pinus halepensis, P. nigra, P.
pinaster, and P. pinea, but with minor propor-
tions of hardwoods (Quercus faginea, Ulmus
2. Examples minor) and other allochthonous or nonnative
species in the site such as P. canariensis, Acacia
The old reforestation projects conducted in the sp., and Abies pinsapo. In 1902 some two
Mediterranean countries were not, strictly million seedlings were produced for the project.
speaking, restoration projects as we understand In those times, most of the plantation work was
this term nowadays. However, they share the manual and it took almost 30 years! (This
main global aims of restoration, such as reduc- would be difcult to repeat today.) Every year
ing soil erosion and runoff, or recovering gaps were lled in order to achieve full survival
natural forests, though sometimes exotic of the stands. Nowadays, the site is covered with
species were used as intermediate stages in the beautiful pine forests that have reached the
rehabilitation process. second generation (Figs. 45.1 and 45.2), with a
rich understorey and some scattered patches
and individuals of hardwoods, mostly holm oak
2.1. Old vs. New Approaches388 (Quercus ilex). Flood incidence in the basin has
signicantly decreased since the establishment
2.1.1. Sierra Espua (Murcia, Southeast of the forest. After several protection regula-
Spain) in the Late 19th and early tions, the site was declared a natural park in
20th Centuries 1978 and a regional park in 1992. The site con-
Frequent severe oods were chronically stitutes an island of green surrounded by agri-
causing heavy casualties and large economic cultural lands, and desertied, hilly landscapes
losses on the coastal oodplains in Eastern with a semiarid climate, and it is the main green
recreational attraction in the whole region. The
387
Cortina and Vallejo, 1999.
site has thus generated economic activities
388
These projects are collected in the REACTION data- mostly related to ecotourism for the entire local
base: www.ceam.es/reaction. population.
316 R. Vallejo
with sparse vegetation and shows evidence of catchments for runoff collection were created,
soil compaction and water erosion in the form and complemented with mulching using forest
of rills and gullies. Attempts to reforest the area debris. The soil was amended with good-quality
with Aleppo pine were conducted through compost from urban bio-solids, and the see-
plantations in terraces in the 1970s and again in dlings protected using tree shelters. Soil prepa-
the 1990s, both times without success. Terraces ration techniques were efcient in collecting
show signs of advanced degradation. Under runoff, thereby signicantly increasing water
the initiative of the Spanish Ministry of availability for the planted seedlings. As a con-
Environment, the Regional Forest Administra- sequence, seedling survival and growth was
tion of the Valencia Region conducted a pilot much higher than usual in these harsh, semiarid
restoration project, with the aim of putting in degraded lands. Two years after planting, some
practice the latest scientic and technical inno- seedlings reached 70 cm in height. Although the
vations developed through several research and project is in its very early stages of develop-
development projects funded by the regional, ment, good seedling establishment in the criti-
national, and European Commission pro- cal transplanting shock provides promising
grammes. The project was carried out with sci- perspectives for the recovery of mature and
entic assessment from CEAM Foundation diverse native macchia in the medium-term.
(Mediterranean Centre for Environmental This recovery would entail more diverse
Studies). The challenge for plantations in these ecosystems and improved protection against
degraded semiarid lands lies in improving plant soil erosion and ooding risks.
survival rates (which are often lower than 50
percent) and growth. Irrigation is not applied in
regular reforestation/afforestation projects in
2.2. National Mobilisation Project
Spain. The main objective of the project was to
enhance the recovery of woody vegetation and In the 1970s, the Algerian government
its diversity, and to stop land degradation, espe- launched an ambitious reforestation pro-
cially soil erosion. The project was based on gramme to stop the desert, called the Green
previous eld research in the same region and Belt. The target area was a strip (1500 km, or
on a specic study on the physical and ecolog- around 3 million hectares) of steppes receiving
ical characteristics, and degradation process between 200 and 300 mm of precipitation per
occurring in the site. Restoration work was exe- year, and crossing the whole country from west
cuted during the period 20022004. A relatively to east parallel to the Sahara desert. These
large number of native shrubs and trees were steppes were degraded because of overgrazing
planted in the various habitats identied in the and inappropriate cropping promoting wind
site: wild olives (Olea europaea var. sylvestris), erosion and exacerbating the natural drought
mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus), kermes oak of the region. In its initial phase, the project was
(Quercus coccifera), juniper (Juniperus oxyce- implemented by the Army using nearly exclu-
drus), oleander (Nerium oleander),Aleppo pine sively Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis). The
(Pinus halepensis), carob tree (Ceratonia local population, especially shepherds, reacted
siliqua), Rhamnus lycioides, Tetraclinis articu- strongly against the plantations that obstructed
lata, Retama sphaerocarpa, Ephedra fragilis, their pastoral activities and in some cases
European palm (Chamaerops humilis), Tamarix destroyed natural pastures of alpha grass (Stipa
africana, Salsola genistoides, and the alpha grass tenacissima). Later on (from 1986 onward), and
(Stipa tenacissima) for the most degraded soils. under the direction of the National Institute of
Seedlings were produced in the nursery using Forest Research, the whole programme was
the latest criteria for quality control, promoting revised and reshaped. The local population was
root development and good physiological per- involved in the afforestation work and rural
formance. Soil preparation was designed to development criteria were introduced, integrat-
optimise water collection under the extremely ing afforestation with other activities. As a
dry conditions of the site. Therefore, micro- consequence, the species used were diversied,
318 R. Vallejo
including both native and alien species: Cupres- water stress. Planting was carried out in winter,
sus sempervirens, C. arizonica, Gleditsia triacan- from November to February when the accu-
thos, Casuarina sp., Acacia sp., Pistacia atlantica, mulated precipitation reached 50 mm. The
Eleagnus angustifolia, and Simmondsia chinen- surface of the project site was 22 hectares, and
sis. In addition, seeding with herbs was con- the project implementation was carried out
ducted for dune xation, and fodder shrubs during the period 19911993. Out of the 18
(Atriplex, Opuntia, Acacia, Prosopis) and trees species tested, the best growth results were
(Tamarix gallica, Retama sp., Eleagnus angusti- obtained with some exotics, especially Acacia
folia) were planted for small family holdings. cyanophylla (rewood species) that reached
The initially ambitious target of 3 million 21/2 m in height in 2 years in the eld, and some
hectares was revised down to around 300,000 eucalyptus. Retama monosperma, bridal veil
hectares. The estimated survival rate for plan- broom, which is native in the region had a 100
tations was around 70 percent in the long percent survival rate after the rst postplanta-
term.389 The programme received both positive tion year. It is used for rewood in the region
and negative coverage. On the negative side, and cultivated as an ornamental plant in many
the initial lack of agreement with local popula- warm areas of the world; Atriplex nummularia
tions, the extensive use of monospecic planta- also yielded good survival and growth rates.
tions of Aleppo pine, facilitating the expansion This species accumulates salt from the soil and
of pests (mostly pine processionary moth), and is used for fodder, although sheep and goats
the little attention paid to biodiversity were only consume it when no better palatable
cited. The positive aspects included the estab- species are available. Therefore, its extensive
lishment of native Aleppo pine forests in the use in Northern Africa has been questioned.
best sites and the national and international Native species such as Argania spinosa (a
impact of the initiative. species that is good for fodder), Pistacia
atlantica, and Acacia gummifera (a North
African endemic) also gave acceptable results.
2.3. The Pilot Experiences in Sidi
This pilot project proved that using appropriate
Jaber: Approaching the Limits
species and plantation techniques may both
for Restoration
promote ecosystem recovery and supply valu-
Sidi Jaber is located in southeast Morocco, with able resources for local people.
a precipitation between 200 and 300 mm per
year, with large interannual variability. The
region is considered to be at the threshold 3. Outline of Tools
limit of having any productivity. As in the pre-
vious example, overgrazing and overcropping Hydrology and forest restoration projects have
resulted in severe wind and water soil erosion. a long tradition in southern Europe.390 Com-
In the area there was competition between bining short-term stream correction engineer-
cereal cropping and the production of rewood ing with reforestation for long-term watershed
and fodder. A project funded by the World protection has resulted in the global improve-
Bank was set up with the objective to establish ment of degraded ecosystems and landscapes,
tree cover to produce re wood, fodder, and and reduced oods and soil erosion. Nowadays,
shelter, and to reduce the drought effects on these projects have to be compatible with
agricultural lands and pastures. For that the social demands for biodiversity and land-
purpose, adapted trees and fodder shrubs were scape services. Recent research and develop-
selected, including both native and alien ment advances enable using a larger variety of
species. Seedlings were produced in local nurs- native woody species for forest restoration.391
eries using on-site materials and applying One specic difculty in the Mediterranean
reduced irrigation to pre-adapt the seedlings to is the lack of original reference ecosystems
390
See, for example, Molina et al, 1989.
389 391
Lahouati, personal communication. Pausas et al, 2004.
45. Restoring Mediterranean Forests 319
to guide restoration. Instead, cultural land- tries, it is usually carried out using public funds.
scapes that were created and were functional The generalised decrease of direct prot from
under past land-use systems are widespread forest exploitation under semiarid and dry cli-
but are being degraded under present land-use mates results in a negative cost-benet balance
conditions. The challenge is trying to make in market terms. Therefore, the most relevant
the conservation of these cultural landscapes, benets from forest restoration derive from
and their diversity, compatible with stopping nonmarket goods and services provided by
degradation. restored forest and shrublands, such as limiting
New forest restoration techniques have been soil erosion and oods, carbon sequestration,
recently developed from several European increase of diversity, aesthetic landscape values,
Commission (EC) research projects. These and recreation. Public investments in forest
include the procedures for cultivation of good- restoration rely too much on political uctua-
quality seedling, soil preparation techniques, tions, all the more so in developing countries.
including water harvesting with micro- Economic internalisation of the goods and
catchments, mulching and organic amend- services provided by forests is clearly needed
ments, and the use of tree shelters to improve to progress in sustaining forest restoration
seedling survival and growth under harsh soil activities.
and climate conditions.392 These techniques
allow the use of local seeds and alternative
materials, so they tend to be cheap and of wide- References
spread application.
Reforestation projects are traditionally weak Cortina, J., and Vallejo, V.R. 1999. Restoration of
in monitoring and evaluation. This deciency Mediterranean ecosystems. In: Farina, A. ed.
limits the opportunities to learn from past Perspectives in Ecology. Backhuys, Leiden, pp.
479490.
successes and failures, and especially to take
Molina, J.L., Navarro, M., Montero de Burgos, J.L.,
advantage of the unique source of information and Herranz, J.L. 1989. Afforestation Techniques
provided by old afforestation and reforestation in Mediterranean Countries (multilingual publica-
programmes. For that purpose, evaluation tools tion: Spanish. English and French). ICONA,
and the inventory of old paradigmatic forest Madrid.
restoration projects in southern Europe Pausas, J.G., Blad, C., Valdecantos, A., et al.
are being undertaken within the European 2004. Pines and oaks in the restoration of
Commissions Research and Development Mediterranean landscapes of Spain: new perspec-
Programme (see REACTION project: tives for an old practicea review. Plant Ecology
www.ceam.es/reaction). 171:209220.
Pausas, J.G., and Vallejo, V.R. 1999. The role of re
in European Mediterranean ecosystems. In:
Chuvieco, E. ed. Remote Sensing of Large Wild-
4. Future Needs res. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 316.
Vallejo, V.R., Bautista, S., and Cortina, J. 1999.
Who pays the bill? Forest restoration is a very Restoration for soil protection after disturbances.
expensive activity. In the Mediterranean coun- In: Trabaud, L. ed. Life and Environment in the
Mediterranean. WIT Press, Southampton, pp.
392
Vallejo et al, 1999. 301343.
46
Restoring Temperate Forests
Adrian Newton and Alan Watson Featherstone
393
Groombridge and Jenkins, 2002.
320
46. Restoring Temperate Forests 321
re. When canopy trees die, the resulting gaps deciduous forest ecosystems that could be
in the canopy are colonised by different ele- used to dene restoration objectives, or as
ments of the forest ora. This process of gap the basis for monitoring restoration progress
dynamics is important in maintaining stand (Table 46.1). While providing a valuable rst
structure and diversity. step, this analysis placed relatively little
Temperate forests provide many services to emphasis on landscape-scale attributes, and
people, including watershed protection and soil was restricted to temperate deciduous forest
stabilisation, and also account for more than ecosystems in the eastern United States.
half of the carbon stored in forest ecosystems. The approach, therefore, could be usefully
In many areas they provide signicant rec- extended to other temperate forest types,
reational use. Natural temperate forests are such as conifer forests and Southern
important reservoirs of genetic material of Hemisphere forests, and to the landscape scale.
timber trees of economic importance, such as Denition of restoration objectives: In some
oaks, beeches, pines, and eucalypts. However, areas, such as central Europe and eastern
more than 500 temperate tree species are now Asia, deforestation has occurred over time
threatened with extinction, often as a result of scales of thousands of years. In such situa-
overexploitation.394 Large areas of temperate tions, the characteristics of pristine forest
forest have been cleared for agriculture. In can be difcult or even impossible to dene
Europe and parts of Asia, this process of defor- with precision, greatly complicating the
estation has taken place over thousands of development of appropriate restoration
years, but continues to be a principal threat in objectives.
many areas. Timber harvesting is also wide- Rate of forest recovery: Temperate trees, partic-
spread. As a result many temperate forests are ularly those growing on infertile or marginal
highly fragmented and old growth forests are sites, display relatively low growth rates com-
now very restricted in extent. Other main pared to tropical forests. Rates of forest
threats to temperate forests include invasive recovery following the alleviation of distur-
species, urban development, browsing by verte- bance generally tend to be low; it could take
brates, mining, acid rain, and air pollution. many centuries to fully restore the charac-
teristics of old-growth forest ecosystems.
Many conifers are particularly slow growing.
1.2. Restoration Issues Restoration of key ecological processes: Eco-
Forest landscape restoration depends on pre- logical processes and natural disturbance
venting forest loss and degradation caused by regimes (e.g., occasional large-scale wildres,
the above-mentioned threats, and enabling wind throw, insect infestations, etc.) are
forest ecosystems to recover their functionality. important characteristics of temperate for-
Many of the issues relating to restoration of ests, particularly at a landscape level. The
temperate forests are the same as those for absence of such processes is a key difference
other forest types. As elsewhere, the main focus between old-growth forests and the ecologi-
of restoration will be to identify the main cally simplied plantations that have often
causes of forest loss and degradation, and to replaced them. Restoration of these ecologi-
develop management responses to address cal processes presents challenges in many
them. Issues that are particular to temperate situations today, yet this may be critical to
forests include: the recovery of fully functioning forest
ecosystems.
Attributes of temperate forests: Keddy and
Restoration potential of secondary forests: In
Drummond395 provided a detailed analysis of
some temperate areas where forests were
the properties or attributes of temperate
previously cleared (e.g., the northeast United
States and parts of Scandinavia), second-
394
Oldeld et al, 1998. growth forests have become established nat-
395
Keddy and Drummond, 1996. urally, and relatively minimal management is
322 A. Newton and A.W. Featherstone
Table 46.1. Ecological attributes for the evaluation, management, and restoration of temperate decidu-
ous forest ecosystems.
Property Potential values
Tree size Old growth forests tend to be characterised by relatively high numbers of large trees.
A mean basal area of 29 + 4 m2 per hectare was recorded on 10 pristine sites.
Canopy composition Mature forests tend to be dominated by only a few relatively shade-tolerant species.
Successional forests tend to incorporate a larger number of tree species, including
shade-intolerant species.
Coarse woody debris Includes fallen logs, snags, and large branches. An important habitat component for
many organisms including birds, mammals, invertebrates, and fungi. Highest volumes
tend to be recorded in old growth stands (a mean of 27 mg per hectare recorded on 10
pristine sites).
Herbaceous layer Many temperate deciduous forests are characterised by a diverse herbaceous ora,
which may be sensitive to logging and especially grazing.
Epiphytic bryophytes Diverse communities of cryptogams (mosses, and lichens) may typically be present on
and lichens the trunks and branches of trees, particularly in undisturbed forests unaffected by
aerial pollution, in humid environments.
Wildlife trees Many birds, mammals, and invertebrates require trees with particular characteristics for
habitat (e.g., as sites for nesting, perching, roosting, or foraging). Large-diameter
snags (standing dead trees) and cavity trees (live trees with central decay) are of
particular importance. Old growth forests tend to be characterised by 4 wildlife trees
per 10 hectares.
Fungi Temperate forests are often characterised by diverse communities of larger fungi,
which play a critical role in decomposition and nutrient cycling. Many temperate
trees form associations with ectomycorrhizal fungi, which assist in nutrient uptake
and form an important food resource for many other organisms. The composition of
fungal communities remains poorly documented, but diversity in old growth forests
may exceed 100 species per hectare.
Birds The composition of bird communities appears to be particularly sensitive to the area of
forest patches, some species being dependent on large areas of intact forest.
Large carnivores As large carnivores tend to be at the top of food chains, their presence indicates an
intact food web. They may play an important role in keeping herbivore numbers in
check, preventing overgrazing and browsing. Large carnivores have explicitly been
exterminated in many temperate forests and therefore may need to be considered as
an explicit objective of restoration action.
Forest area In many areas, once-continuous tracts of forest have been highly fragmented as a
result of human activity. Fragmentation reduces species diversity and changes species
composition in remaining forests. Many mammals and birds are most affected because
of their large territorial requirements. For a forest to contain the full complement of
species, it must be large enough to accommodate, those species with largest area
requirements (i.e. >100,000 hectares).
required to facilitate the further restoration make the cost of forest restoration prohibi-
of such sites toward an old-growth condition. tive. Many areas are subject to intensive
Socioeconomic context: Extensive temperate patterns of land use, which may themselves
forest areas are situated within countries have long cultural traditions, such as in much
with a high level of economic development. of Europe. This greatly reduces the scope
While this can be of value in obtaining the for large-scale forest restoration, which often
necessary nancial support for restoration can be achieved only through the deve-
action, it also creates difculties. Land prices lopment of partnerships with relevant lan-
are often high, particularly in areas where the downers. In such circumstances economic
land has some agricultural value. Coupled incentives for forest restoration may be of
with the high costs of human labour, this can critical importance.
46. Restoring Temperate Forests 323
Ecological complexity: Given that the ecologi- extent of boreal forest in Europe, and originally
cal functioning of temperate forests is rela- covered 1.5 million hectares. By the late
tively well understood, and that temperate 20th century, their area had been reduced
forests are relatively simple in terms of struc- to 17,000 hectares, in isolated remnants con-
ture and composition, it could be argued that sisting mostly of old trees, and there was a real
the restoration of temperate ecosystems danger of the forest disappearing completely.
should be technically simpler than in tropical Situated west of Inverness in the northern
regions. However, very little is known regard- Highlands, Glen Affric contains the third
ing the functioning of the soil fauna and largest remnant of the native pinewoods, and
microbial communities, which are likely to be this is also the largest extent of least-disturbed
of critical importance to ecosystem function. forest in Scotland. Most of the pinewood area
Restoration methods: Forest restoration should there is owned by the U.K. government, and
ideally focus on encouraging natural regen- restoration work began in the early 1960s, when
eration and ecological recovery. However, 800 hectares of forest were fenced off to
many temperate forest areas are so degraded exclude deer and sheep. This enabled a new
that articial establishment of trees may be generation of young trees to regenerate
required to facilitate restoration efforts. Such the rst to do so in 150 years (Figs. 46.1 and
planting has to be done with great care, and 46.2). Restoration work increased substantially
should seek to mimic natural regeneration from 1990 onward, and the main management
as much as possible, if restoration objec- techniques initially utilised included the
tives are to be achieved. Tree establishment following:
approaches typically employed in commer-
cial afforestation initiatives are generally Facilitating natural regeneration of the sur-
inappropriate for use in forest restoration. viving native forest, through the exclusion of
deer by fencing
Extending the forest in areas where it had
already disappeared by planting native trees,
2. Examples grown from seed of local provenance, in pat-
terns that sought to replicate those of natural
2.1. Caledonian Pine Forest, Glen regeneration
Affric, Scotland Felling of substantial areas of commercial
The native pinewoods of the Caledonian plantations of exotic tree species, which were
Forest in Scotland, characterised by Scots pine inhibiting the regeneration of the native
(Pinus sylvestris), comprise the westernmost forest
Further restoration initiatives have been and associated biodiversity, can be used to
developed in Senda Darwin, a eld station on prioritise areas for forest restoration and to
the island of Chile, by the Fundacin Senda develop restoration plans at the landscape
Darwin. This area is typical of much of south- scale.397
ern Chile, having suffered the combined effects
of forest re, logging, and browsing by live-
3.2. Spatial Modelling
stock. Restoration is being achieved by remov-
ing livestock from remnant forest areas, and Spatial modelling of forest dynamics is increa-
protecting them by fencing. Although recovery singly being used to explore management
of the forest is slow, a noticeable increase in options and possible restoration pathways.
tree cover has been observed within the rst 10 Spatial modelling approaches coupled with GIS
years of the initiative. Evidence suggests that are also being used to analyse the habitat
loss of soil organic matter as a result of forest requirements and distribution of particular
burning has resulted in soils becoming water- species.398
logged, which has limited tree seedling estab-
lishment. Research has indicated that on such
sites the presence of decaying logs or tree
4. Future Needs
stumps is of particular importance in providing
There is a general need for a shift from site-
sites for seedling establishment. Recent activi-
based restoration action to landscape-scale
ties have focussed on developing a nursery facil-
restoration. The development of forest habitat
ity to raise native tree seedlings for articial
networks, linking forest fragments, is a useful
establishment, to assist the restoration process.
concept in this context.
Seedlings are being planted as linear corridors
There is a need for increased research on the
connecting forest fragments, to assist in the
effectiveness of different restoration options in
movement of plant and animal species between
temperate forests, e.g., expansion of core area
fragments. In this way, and by developing col-
of forest fragments versus increasing connec-
laborative links with neighbouring landowners,
tivity between fragments. Research is also
the project is moving toward a landscape
needed on identifying appropriate methods
approach to forest restoration.
for monitoring progress toward restoration
objectives.
A critical need is to identify how the restora-
3. Outline of Tools tion of forest landscapes can be achieved in
areas of intensive, competing land uses, for
Restoration of temperate forests is greatly example, through the development of partner-
assisted by the extensive information resources ships of many stakeholders, supported by devel-
that exist, based on many years of research and opment of appropriate policy and funding
forest management, regarding the ecological mechanisms.
requirements of different species and the Increased emphasis is needed on restoring
processes of forest dynamics. ecological processes in degraded temperate
forests; many restoration initiatives currently
focus solely on reestablishing tree cover, rather
3.1. Geographical Information than on entire communities of plants and
Systems animals. In particular, practical methods are
required for the reestablishment of microbial
Geographical information systems (GISs) have
communities on degraded soils, as these may
proved to be of great value as a tool for plan-
often be of critical importance for ecosystem
ning and managing forest restoration projects.
function.
Their databases incorporating environmental
information, such as soil, hydrology, and current 397
Humphrey et al, 2003.
land use, combined with maps of forest cover 398
Humphrey et al, 2003.
326 A. Newton and A.W. Featherstone
Around two thirds of Finlands land area is species distribution of the trees, as well as the
covered by forest. For hundreds of years, spatial variation of the forest, is often
slash-and-burn agriculture and tar burning increased.
have inuenced the structure of forests. Also, Forests are the primary habitat for 564 (38
the intensive forestry practised after the percent) of Finlands threatened species.
Second World War has caused signicant Furthermore, some 60 (33 percent) forest-
changes in forest habitats. Few natural forests dwelling species have already gone extinct in
remain, and they are fragmented and now Finland. Many more species have gone extinct
found mainly in protected areas. from parts of the country, especially from the
In natural boreal forests, decaying wood of southern part, which has been most inu-
varying size and in various stages of decay is enced, and for the longest period of time, by
formed all the time. The decaying wood orig- humans. Particularly invertebrates, especially
inates from various tree species, and is far beetles, as well as fungi have become extinct.
more abundant than in commercial forests. As Only a small fraction of the forests in pro-
trees fall, they create small openings where tected areas are being restored. It has been
new saplings grow. Deciduous trees, which estimated that the forest area on mineral soil
demand more light, grow in the slightly larger that needs to be restored is approximately
openings, whereas spruces grow in the more 29,000 hectares in protected areas in Finland.
shaded ones. Due to the constant changes, a In addition, many extensions that are to be
natural forest is like a mosaic. Trees of differ- joined to existing nature protected areas are
ing size and species grow in random order; in need of ecological restoration. During the
occasional small openings are found, as well years 2003 to 2012, 16,500 hectares of forest
as thickets. are to be restored in protected areas in south-
As a result of effective re prevention, ern and western Finland. The need for eco-
extensive forest res hardly occur anymore in logical restoration of forests will diminish in
Finland. In the past, there were frequent the future, because natural processes that
forest res that left behind dead or dying create habitats for endangered species begin
charred wood. If a forest re is limited to to take place.
ground level, the entire tree stand may
survive. If the re reaches the tree tops, at
least some of the trees die, and sometimes all
of them. Forest res usually increase the Increasing the Amount of Dead
mosaic nature of forests. After the re, dead and Decaying Wood
and decaying wood is found unevenly distrib-
uted in the forest. Saplings grow in the open- The amount of dead and decaying wood is
ings formed, and the variation in the age and increased primarily in areas where the natural
327
328 J. Pivinen and M. Hokkanen
331
332 P. Moore
opportunities for the proliferation of a wide sition, so when a re does start, instead of being
range of grazing animals. For example, Aus- relatively small, it is much more intense and on
tralian vegetation has been subject to the inu- a large scale. This conclusion seems to have
ence of re, by indigenous (aboriginal) burning been reinforced almost annually in the United
and then by the burning practices of European States since 1986.
settlers,400 over a wide range of environments.401 Understanding the reason re is introduced
This pervasive re presence has inuenced a to or suppressed from a landscape is critical.
transformation in Australia to the current ora Should the reason not be addressed, restoring
that are considered both re tolerant and also the landscape will be difcult and ultimately
in many cases are re adapted requiring re for futile.
regeneration and life-cycle stages.402 This same
story can be told for many ecosystems.
1.3. Brief Description of
Forest res occur because of either anthro-
Fire Impacts
pological or natural causes. Lightning is the
most common natural cause of re. The major- Fire has played, and will continue to play, a
ity of res around the globe are caused by major role in shaping ecosystems throughout
human activity. The extent and timing of res the world. Fires can produce local extinctions
differs between natural ignitions and res of species, alter species composition and suc-
by people, those by people generally being cessional stages, and bring about substantial
smaller. While it is difcult to compile precise changes in ecosystem functioning (including
gures, in the year 2000, a year that was not soils and hydrology). In almost all forest ecosys-
strongly associated with bad res, the European tems throughout the world, humans have
Communitys Global Burned Area Assessment altered the natural re regimes by changing the
Project identied 251,000,000 hectares of burn frequency and intensity of res. People have
scars worldwide.403 excluded or suppressed res and changed the
In re-sensitive ecosystems re causes severe nature of the landscape so that a naturally
damage. One widely known example, tropical occurring re will not behave in the same way
rainforest ecosystems, are characterised by high it would have done in the absence of human
levels of humidity and moisture, they do not impact. The interrelationship between humans,
normally burn and are extremely prone to re, and forests is a complex one and has been
severe re damage when they do. Damage from the subject of many studies and reports.405
re can be long lasting on a tropical forest In some ecosystems, however, re is an
ecosystem.404 uncommon or even unnatural process that
Just as too much re can cause problems, so severely damages vegetation and can lead
can too little. Many res in boreal forests are to long-term degradation. Such re-sensitive
caused naturally by lightning. However, some ecosystems, particularly in the tropics, are
countries, such as the United States, have had a becoming increasingly vulnerable to re due to
policy of suppressing most res that threaten to growing population, economic, and land-use
grow out of control. Under these circumstances pressures.406
re suppression can lead to unnatural condi- In most developed nations the process of
tions in which forests, which have historically natural area loss and degradation has been
experienced small intermittent res, no longer slowed or reversed. Public responses to re,
burn. Fire suppression can lead to a buildup of generally viewing re as negative and destruc-
dead biomass, and altered tree species compo- tive, have led to a focus on re suppression. This
in its turn has had profound effects on vege-
400
401
Singh et al, 1981. tation patterns.407
Luke and McArthur, 1978.
402
Gill, 1981.
403 405
Joint Research Center of the European Commission, Jackson and Moore, 1998.
406
2002. Goldammer, 2000.
404 407
Cochrane, 2002. Bond and van Wilgen, 1996.
47. Forest Landscape Restoration After Fires 333
Replanting with local species to overcome meet other objectives can continue. Fire may
losses, which will normally have to include also be used as an active tool to accelerate
protecting the replanting from re that is restoration.
inconsistent with the landscape re regime
Removing species that have been favoured
by inappropriate re or that have invaded, 2. Examples
including the use of re in some cases
Undertaking physical works to protect, In general there are very few efforts to restore
restore, or limit the degradation of the land- landscapes after re anywhere in the world.
scape features such as soil and drainage lines Of the aspects of re management, two
prevention and restorationare notably
absent and apparently ignored in most jurisdic-
1.5.2.2. Introducing Fire to Reestablish tions. Much of the work that is done on burnt
a Fire Regime Consistent with areas has apparently been simplistic in origin
the Landscape (to stop erosion) and implementation (drop-
ping grass seed from aircraft). Consequently
Setting res under prescribed conditions con- in the literature and documentation there is
sistent with the re regime little carefully considered re-related restora-
Measuring and if necessary managing fuels tion work described.
Suppressing res that do not meet the
requirements for the landscape
Removing species that have been favoured 2.1. Attempting to Rehabilitate
by inappropriate re or that have invaded Rainforests in East Kalimantan,
(including the use of re in some cases) Indonesia
Undertaking physical works to protect,
Following the severe res that burnt through
restore or limit the degradation of the land-
Grand Park Bukit Soeharto in East Kaliman-
scape features such as soil, drainage lines.
tan in the 1980s and early 1990s, the timber
concession companies that had responsibility
for areas elsewhere in the province were
1.5.3. Fire as a Degradation Factor
required to rehabilitate the park. This has
Where re has no natural role in the landscape, taken the form of narrow plantings of an intro-
then the steps are much clearer. Fire needs to duced Acacia species and roadside signs identi-
be controlled to reduce its pressure on the land- fying the company responsible for each section
scape. Removing re from a landscape entirely of the rehabilitation. While it has reestablished
is generally impossibleaccidents and very tree cover, the vegetation is introduced and
infrequently occurring combinations of factors does not resemble the forest removed or lost to
will at some time create conditions that lead the res in terms of species mix, structure, or
to res. habitat.
As part of GTZs Sustainable Forest Man-
agement Project, which was operating at the
1.5.4. Fire Used as a Tool time of the res, the following principles were
developed for the rehabilitation of re-affected
Where re is being used as a tool in the land-
forests:
scape there is rst a need to clearly establish
the aspects of cause: ignition, source, and moti- Maintenance of the forest area
vation. Depending on the insights developed Sustainable management of forest resources:
there are likely to be a range of options Economically sound management targets
for landscape restoration. If re is not impact- should be dened and agreed to by the con-
ing negatively on the landscape, there may be cessions stakeholders, giving consideration
no need to deal with re and restoration to to the local conditions and forest functions.
47. Forest Landscape Restoration After Fires 335
339
340 D. Vallauri
(like spruce) on sandy or humid soils are erally started with complete and rapid salvage
more sensitive to damage. logging, including in wilderness area (although
One of the consequences of the two previous it required a waiver from wilderness state
points is that violent storms may result in legislation).
very different levels of damage in terms of Considering the specic context of the 1995
the proportion of uprooted trees or snags, storm, for which key elements were a well-
and in terms of distribution (single-tree prepared science-based expertise (including an
openings, medium-size gaps, or very large information system that enabled rapid and reli-
gaps). In Fontainebleau, violent winter able evaluation of scenarios), ecological pres-
storms in old-growth broad-leaved forest sure from society and weak economic demand
usually damage from 2.7 to 21.2 trees per for timber, a new ofcial policy was adopted by
hectare (a majority of beech trees with dbh the governor for the forest preserves. It corre-
(diameter at breast height) from 35 to 85 cm) sponds to a near-complete reversal of preced-
and create a mosaic of small gaps (mean size ing policy: no salvage logging, reinforcement
175 m2) on 4 to 21 percent of forest area. of the forever wild statement for forest
Resilience depends on numerous factors, preserves; and operations limited to cleaning
including biodiversity, ecosystem health, and roads, trails, and campsite facilities. Salvage
structural complexity (forest stand and logging was specically rejected as being
understorey). Depending on the size, charac- uneconomic.
teristics, and context of gaps (seed availabil- In Europe, another example of such a policy
ity, for example), natural regeneration occurs is the one from Bavaria National Park
rapidly or not, with the expected target (Germany) following violent storms in 1983
species or not. In Fontainebleau, single-tree and 1990.415 Both examples are very relevant
gaps are rapidly closed by beech, whereas in to the violent storm that damaged Tatra
larger openings oak could be dominant and National Park (Slovakia) in November 2004.
birch colonises bare soil. In Tatra National Park the restoration that
Where forest is near natural in structure, began after the storm of 1915, which included
storms support natural functioning which in salvage logging and articial replanting of
turn supports biodiversity conservation, spruce, led 90 years later to the same
including species depending on open and catastrophic results, both ecologically and
humid habitats. economically.
2.2. New York State: Banning 2.3. Restoration After the 1999
Salvage Logging in Protected Storm in France: When
Areas414 Short-Term Subsidies Dene
the Strategy
In northern New York State, strong winds
caused signicant damage in July 1995 over The storms of December 1999 in France
approximately 400,000 hectares of private affected about 500,000 hectares, that is, 1/30 of
and public forests. Out of the approximately the French forest area (140 million m3 of
175,000 hectares of public area designated as downed wood). Apart from the importance of
the Adirondack Park Forest Preserve, damage the damage, the sharp social debate following
was particularly high (60 to 100 percent) over this storm forced forest stakeholders, including
9700 hectares and moderate (30 to 60 percent) NGOs, to revise their strategy and to
over 25,300 hectares. design restoration far more carefully than in the
State policy following such events since the past.
1950s was technically based, focussed on forest WWF promoted a science-based strategy
health (threat of re, deadwood, pests) and gen- emphasising multifunctionality and sustainable
414 415
Robinson and Zappieri, 1999. Fisher, 1992.
342 D. Vallauri
management. The strategy outlines seven main adapted by each regional administration.
principles: Although some improvements were proposed
at the national level, very little was in fact sub-
Make a clear analysis of forest goals within
sidised at the regional level. The result was that
the landscape.
key operations like salvage logging and arti-
Dene the priority of the actions (logging,
cial plantations were relied on more than
planting, natural regeneration).
natural regeneration, for example. Salvage
Follow the time scale of nature (especially to
logging was subsidised for up to 1500
allow natural regeneration).
euros/hectares, without any precise rules for
Reduce additional actions likely to lead to
key environmental topics (like deadwood or
degradation while logging, such as using
habitat tree retention for example).
pesticides, etc.
Use all the opportunities offered by nature
(alternative natural successions).
Closely mimic nature and facilitate its 3. Outline of Tools
work.
Avoid doing poorly and at high cost what 3.1. Learning About Storms, Forest
nature could do better and at a lower cost Ecology, and Restoration
(reduce articial work, ploughing, spraying). Storms, their impact on forests and biodiversity,
WWF and partner NGOs proposed detailed and strategies for restoration are frequently
management rules, compiled into a published written about in the scientic literature for
charter in 2000.416 The Ofce National des various countries and forest types. Good syn-
Forts, the manager of national and municipal theses of these reports also exist, but are not
forests, published also in 2001417 a detailed used enough as references to renew forest
guidebook for restoration. management and policies.
However, despite important evolution in
French forest management rules on paper, two
3.2. Forest Policies
main problems were driving the operations in
the eld: There are three main reasons to support policy
work that integrates natural disturbances into
1. Salvage logging was the norm and done in
national forest laws and science-based manage-
a hurry, sometimes with very little concern for
ment guidelines. First, forest managers are
soil sensitivity and biodiversity. It was even
usually reactive to storms rather than proactive.
implemented in some protected areas or forest
We need to anticipate forest damage due to
identied as being of high conservation value
storms. Second, as stated earlier, national poli-
(e.g., forests inhabited by the last highly endan-
cies and subsidies tend currently to support
gered capercaillie Tetrao urogallus in the
rapid implementation of salvage logging in the
Vosges mountains). Because of the storms psy-
eld. Third, a rapid response to such disorgan-
chological shock and the will to sell damaged
ising, catastrophic, psychologically shocking
wood, forest managers and owners sometimes
events rarely produces good results unless
seek above all to work fast, which means very
there is already a deep understanding of forest
often work as usual, and they forget recent
ecology, rmly embedded in management rules
innovative rules and agreements.
and culture. It is important to be well prepared.
2. The French forest subsidies framework
Political lobbying helps to clarify questions
(including EU subsidies) after the storms of
about salvage logging, deadwood retention,
December 1999 was redened nationally and
logging in protected areas, management of
pests, biodiversity, and sustainable manage-
ment. Developing laws, subsidies, and technical
416
Vallauri, 2001; WWF et al, 2000. tools in accordance with these issues is an
417
Mortier, 2001. important task.
48. Restoring Forests After Violent Storms 343
Pontailler, J.Y., Faille, A., and Leme, G. 1997. Storms Faille, A., Leme, G., and Pontailler, J.Y. 1984a.
drive successional dynamics in natural forests: a Dynamique des clairires dune fort inexploite
case study in Fontainebleau forest (France). Forest (rserves biologiques de la fort de Fontaine-
Ecology and Management 98(1):115. bleau). I. Origine et tat actuel des ouvertures.
Robinson, G., and Zappieri, J. 1999. Conservation Acta Oecologica, Oecologica Generalis 5(1):35
policy in time and space: lessons from divergent 51.
approaches to salvage logging on public lands. Faille, A., Leme, G., and Pontailler, J.Y. 1984b.
Conservation ecology [online] 3(1): 3, Dynamique des clairires dune fort inexploite
http://www.consecol.org/vol3/iss1/art3. (rserves biologiques de la fort de Fontaine-
Rogers, P. 1996. Disturbance ecology and forest man- bleau). II. Fermeture des clairires actuelles.
agement: a review of the literature. USDA Forest Acta Oecologica, Oecologica Generalis 5(2):181
Service Intermountain Research Station, report 199.
INT-GTR-336. Foster, D.R., Knight, D.H., and Franklin, J.F. 1998.
Schaetzl, R.J., Johnson, D.L., Burns, S.F., and Small, Landscape patterns and legacies resulting from
T.W. 1989. Tree uprooting: review of impacts on large, infrequent forest disturbances. Ecosystems
forest ecology. Vegetatio 79:165176. 1:497510.
Vallauri, D. 2001. Si la fort scroule. Quelle gestion Larsen, J.B. 1995. Ecological stability of forests and
forestire franaise aprs les temptes. Revue sustainable silviculture. Forest Ecology and Man-
Forestire Franaise 54(1):4354. agement 73:8596.
WWF, Greenpeace, RNF, FNE. 2000. Partnership Peterson, C.J., and Pickett, S.T.A. 1991. Treefall and
charter for forest restoration after the December resprouting following catastrophic windthrow in
99 storms in France. Paris. an old-growth hemlock-hardwoods forest. Forest
Ecology and Management 42(34):205217.
Peterson, C.J., and Pickett, S.T.A. 1995. Forest reor-
Additional Reading ganisation: a case study in an old-growth forest
catastrophic blowdown. Ecology 76:763774.
Armstrong, G.W. 1999. A stochastic characterisation Pickett, S.T.A., Kolasa, J., Armesto, J.J., and Collins,
of the natural disturbance regime of the boreal S.L. 1989. The ecological concept of disturbance
mixedwood forest with implications for sustain- and its expression at various hierarchical levels.
able forest management. Canadian Journal for Oikos 54:129136.
Forestry Research 29:424433. Romme, W.H., Everham, E.H., Frelich, L.E.,
Baker, W.L. 1992. The landscape ecology of large dis- Moritz, M.A., and Sparks, R.E. 1998. Are large,
turbances in the design and management of nature infrequent disturbances qualitatively different
reserves. Landscape Ecology 7(3):181194. from small, frequent disturbances? Ecosystems
Bergeron, Y., and Harvey, B. 1997. Basing silviculture 1:524534.
on natural ecosystem dynamics: an approach Schaetzl, R.J., Johnson, D.L., Burns, S.F., and Small,
applied to the southern boreal mixedwood forest T.W. 1989. Tree uprooting: review of terminology,
of Quebec. Forest Ecology and Management process and environmental implications. Canadian
92(13):235242. Journal of Forest Research 19:111.
Dale, V.H., Lugo, A.E., MacMahon, J.A., and Pickett, Sousa, W.P. 1984. The role of disturbance in natural
S.T.A. 1998. Ecosystem management in the communities. Annual Review of Ecological
context of large, infrequent disturbances. Ecosys- Systematics 15:353391.
tems 1:546557. Ulanova, N.G. 2000. The effect of windthrow on
Ennos, A.R. 1997. Wind as an ecological factor. forests at different spatial scales: a review. Forest
Trends in Ecology and Evolution 12(3):108111. Ecology and Management 135:155167.
49
Managing the Risk of Invasive Alien
Species in Restoration
Jeffrey A. McNeely
345
346 J.A. McNeely
reduce crop yields, increase control costs, species used in agroforestry, perhaps as many as
and decrease water supply by degrading water 10 percent are invasive.419 While only about
catchment areas and freshwater ecosystems. 1 percent are highly so, this includes some
Pests and pathogens of crops, livestock, and popular species such as Casuarina glauca,
trees destroy plants outright, or reduce yields Leucaena leucocephala, and Pinus radiata.
and increase pest control costs.
2.2. Invasive Species Introduced
1.2. Controlling Invasive Species Unintentionally
Removal of IAS often forms an important com- A worse risk may be the IAS that are intro-
ponent of efforts to restore forest quality to duced unintentionally, such as disease organ-
existing forests. isms that can devastate an entire tree species
Because of their adaptability and release that is being used to restore a habitat.
from their natural prey or enemy, alien species The Dutch Elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi and
are very difcult to control and can seriously O. nova-ulmi) and the American chestnut blight
hamper restoration efforts. Often a major (Cryphonectria parasitica) in North America
factor of restoration is the removal of invasive are notorious examples. Pests can have pro-
species; for example, control of Rhododendron found economic impact on native forests or
ponticum from the Himalayas is a major task in plantations, such as gypsy moths (Lymantria
many U.K. nature reserves. In recent decades dispar) or long-horned beetles (Anoplophora
control has typically included herbicides and glabripennis). The economic impact of such
re. However, both of these may in turn cause pests amounts to several hundred million
serious damage to the natural landscape unless dollars per year.420 Much of this economic toll
properly supervised and managed. is felt in forested ecosystems, even within well-
In addition, some stakeholders may not protected national parks.
wish for an invasive species to be removed, for
example, if the species in question provides eco- 2.3. Controlling Invasive Grasses in
nomic benets. In such cases, it will be neces- Hawaii to Promote Restoration
sary to negotiate trade-offs and see how best to of a Unique Ecosystem
contain the species and ensure that its prolifer-
ation can be controlled. In Hawaii, the invasion of alien grasses has
dramatically increased the frequency and
intensity of res in dry forests. This has con-
tributed to the conversion of almost all native
2. Examples dry forests to grasslands dominated by alien
species. A study was launched to investigate the
2.1. Invasive Species Introduced role that landscape-level herbicide applications
Intentionally followed by native plant reforestation plays in
In some cases, introduced species can be a sig- reducing re fuel load hazards and reversing
nicant problem, becoming established in the the cumulative adverse ecosystem level effects
wild and spreading at the expense of native of monotypic stands of invasive grasses.420a Suc-
species and affecting entire ecosystems. Notori- cessful small-scale restoration and alien grass
ous forest examples of these IAS that have neg- control efforts at the Kaupulehu Forest,
ative effects on native biodiversity include located in North Kona on the Big Island of
various species of Northern Hemisphere pines Hawaii, have provided baseline information
(Pinus spp.) and Australian acacias (Acacia necessary to expand restoration efforts to a
spp.) in southern Africa, and Melaleuca from landscape level. Fountain grass (Pennisetum
South America invading Floridas Everglades
National Park. These and many other woody 419
Richardson, 1999.
plants were introduced intentionally but had 420
Perrings et al, 2002.
unintended consequences. Of the 2000 or so 420a
Cordell et al, 2002.
49. Managing the Risk of Invasive Alien Species 347
setaceum) cover has effectively been reduced ence is undesirable. The rst line of defence is
from over 90 percent to less than 10 percent to avoid introducing nonnative species in the
using weed-whacking and follow-up herbicide rst place, so forest restoration should use
applications. Following this, natural regenera- native species to the maximum extent possible.
tion can be observed in the following sequence: That said, it may well happen that a nonnative
vines, followed by herbs, and then native species has characteristics that are especially
canopy trees 2 to 3 years after grass removal. valued by the local people, for example pro-
Furthermore, it has been documented that ducing valuable fruit, nuts, or gums. In such a
native tree canopy cover reduces fountain grass case, special efforts (for example, see point 3.2,
biomass by 50 percent, and native tree growth below) are required to ensure that the species
increases by 50 percent when fountain grass is does not become invasive.
removed from forested areas.
3.2. Containing Purposefully
2.4. Controlling Invasive Species in Introduced Species
New Caledonias Dry Forests Great care is required to ensure that such
Since Europeans arrived in New Caledonia 150 species serve the economic purposes for which
years ago, over 800 exotic plant species, 400 they were introduced, and do not escape to
invertebrates and 36 vertebrates, have invaded cause unanticipated negative impacts on native
the original ecosystem.421 One notable example ecosystems and their biodiversity. One man-
is an Indonesian deer (Cervus timorensis russa), agement option would be to plant only sterile
which provides game for hunters on the island. forms, so reproduction and spread would be
Because this deer does not have any natural impossible. An even better option, especially
predator, it has multiplied rapidly and become when seeking to restore habitats, is to use only
a serious problem as it feeds on dry forest native species.
species. In doing so, this deer also hampers
natural regeneration by eating the understorey 3.3. International Agreements
and saplings. Fencing has been used to limit the
damage caused by these ungulates. However, The 1951 International Plant Protection Con-
because of the high costs involved, this tech- vention was established to address some of the
nique has only limited value. Research is also issues pertaining to invasive species, and new
underway to identify more specically which international programmes have been devel-
plants are preferred by the deer in order to oped to respond to current serious problems.
better focus which species to use in restoration
activities. 3.4. Best Practices for Management
of Invasive Species at the Site
Level
3. Outline of Tools Best practices for prevention and management
of IAS have been designed.422
3.1. Prevention
Preventing damage requires predicting which
3.5. Global Strategy
species can cause harm and preventing their
introduction, and dealing effectively with the A global strategy has been developed by the
cases in which a species is already causing prob- Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP).
lems. It is not always simple to distinguish an This has been widely circulated and provides
alien species from an invasive one; taxa that are guidance to countries. It includes aspects of
useful in one part of a landscape may invade research, capacity building, communications,
other parts of the landscape where their pres- international cooperation, and quick response.
421 422
Gargominy et al, 1996. Wittenberg and Cock, 2001.
348 J.A. McNeely
423 424
McNeely et al, 2001. Shine et al, 2000.
49. Managing the Risk of Invasive Alien Species 349
public awareness programme would involve the developing an international vocabulary, widely
key stakeholders who are actively engaged in agreed and adopted; cross-sectoral collabora-
issues relevant to IAS, including botanic tion among international organisations
gardens, nurseries, agricultural suppliers, and involved in agriculture, trade, tourism, health,
others. The public can also be involved as vol- and transport; and improved linkages
unteers in eradication programmes of certain among the international institutions dealing
IAS, such as woody invasive species of national with phytosanitary, biosafety, and biodiversity
parks. issues related to IAS and supporting these
8. National strategies and plans: The many by strong linkages to coordinated national
elements of controlling IAS need to be well programmes.
coordinated, and a national strategy should
promote cooperation among the many sectors
whose activities have the greatest potential to
introduce IAS, including the military, forestry, References
agriculture, aquaculture, transport, tourism,
health, and water supply.The government agen- Cordell, S., Cabin, R.J., Weller, S.G., and Lorence,
cies with responsibility for human health, D.H. 2002. Simple and cost-effective methods
control fountain grass in dry forests (Hawaii). Eco-
animal health, plant health, and other relevant
logical Restoration 20:139140.
elds need to ensure that they are all working Gargominy, O., Bouchet, P., Pascal, M., Jaffr, T., and
toward the same broad objective of sustainable Tourneur, J.C. 1996. Consquences des introduc-
development in accordance to national and tions despces animales et vgtales sur la biodi-
international legislation. Such national strate- versit en nouvelle-caldonie. Revue dEcologie
gies and plans can also encourage collaboration (Terre et Vie) 51:375402.
between different scientic disciplines and McNeely, J.A., Mooney, H.A., Neville, L., Schei, P.,
approaches that can seek new options to deal and Wagge J. eds. 2001. A global strategy on inva-
with IAS problems. sive alien species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
9. Build IAS issues into global change ini- Perrings, C., Williamson, M., and Dalmazzone, S. eds.
tiatives: Global change issues relevant to IAS 2002. The Economics of Biological Invasions.
Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK.
begin with climate change but also include
Rejmanek, M., and Richardson, D.M. 1996. What
changes in nitrogen cycles, economic develop- attributes make some plant species more invasive?
ment, land use, and other fundamental changes Ecology 77(6):16551661.
that might enhance the possibilities of IAS Richardson, D.M. 1999. Commercial forestry and
becoming established. Further, responses to agroforestry as sources of invasive alien trees and
global change issues, such as sequestering shrubs. In: Sandlund, O.T., Schei, P.J., and Viken, A.
carbon, generating biomass energy, and recov- eds. Invasive Species and Biodiversity Manage-
ering degraded lands, should be designed in ment. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
ways that use native species and do not increase pp. 237257.
the risk of the spread of IAS. Shine, C., Williams, N., and Burhenne-Guilmin, F.
10. Promote international cooperation: The 2000. Legal and institutional frameworks on alien
invasive species: a contribution to the Global Inva-
problem of IAS is fundamentally international,
sive Species Programme Global Strategy Docu-
so international cooperation is essential to ment. IUCN Environmental Law Programme,
develop the necessary range of approaches, Bonn, Germany.
strategies, models, tools, and potential partners Wittenberg, R., and Cock, M. eds. 2001. Invasive
to ensure that the problems of IAS are effec- Alien Species: A Tool Kit of Best Prevention
tively addressed. Elements that would foster and Management Practices. CAB International,
better international cooperation could include Wallingford, UK.
50
First Steps in Erosion Control
Steve Whisenant
350
50. First Steps in Erosion Control 351
lesce, ow concentrations and velocity increase from water or wind, is reduced with strategies
until the more deeply incised rills become that accomplish the following:
gullies.
1. Maintain or establish a cover of vegeta-
Wind erosion is greatest on ne soil particles
tion, especially when erosion is most probable.
such as silt, clay, and organic materials. This
Although perennial plants are most desirable,
wind-driven sorting increases the proportion of
annual plants may provide critical, short-term
coarse materials in wind-eroded sites. Wind-
seasonal protection.
blown particles are moved in three ways: (1)
2. Create a ground cover of litter, rocks,
saltation, the bouncing of particles across the
woody debris, erosion matting, or other materi-
surface; (2) suspension in wind; and (3) surface
als until vegetation becomes established.
creep, the movement of larger particles caused
3. Increase soil surface roughness with
by the pushing action of saltating particles
above-ground structures or soil surface manip-
striking larger particles.426 The amount of wind
ulations (such as pits or furrows) that are per-
erosion is affected by soil erodibility, surface
pendicular to water or wind ows. This
roughness, climate, unsheltered distance of soil
increases inltration, reduces water velocity,
exposed to wind, and vegetation cover. Thus
and increases the wind speed necessary to ini-
wind erosion is reduced by rougher soil sur-
tiate saltation.
faces, lower wind speed at the soil surface, and
4. Reduce fetch length of unobstructed
more plant or litter coverage of the soil surface.
slope surfaces. This reduces the ability of
Mass movement is the downward movement
water or wind to detach and transport soil par-
of slope-forming materials without the primary
ticles and minimises opportunities for overland
assistance of a uid. It occurs on steep slopes
ows to coalesce and form larger rills and
under the inuence of gravity, often exacer-
gullies.
bated by the weight of water in the soils. Mass
5. Incorporate biomass into the soil
movement occurs on steep slopes when defor-
where possible. Like the previous strategies, it
estation, mining, re, overgrazing, construction,
increases the rate and capacity of inltration,
or cultivation disrupts the landformclimate
thus reducing the amount of water available
vegetation equilibrium by removing the vege-
for erosion. Biomass incorporation also
tation. Well-vegetated slopes generally move
stimulates plant growth and soil biotic devel-
downward much slower than less vegetated
opment that improve soil structure and nutri-
slopes.427 Plants, especially woody plants
ent cycling.
with strong, deep roots, greatly increase soil
strength, providing a stabilising effect on the
slope. In some cases, the plants also transpire 1.3. Additional Protection Against
signicant quantities of water from the slope, Mass Movement of Steep
thus reducing the weight that contributes to Slopes
mass movements.
Each of the previous strategies provides some
protection against mass movement. Two addi-
1.2. Protection Against Wind and tional strategies provide specic protection for
Water Erosion slopes susceptible to mass movement.428
Increasing the cover of vegetation or litter, 1. Steep slopes susceptible to mass move-
preferably both, is the most effective strategy ment are most effectively stabilised with trees
for reducing erosion. Plants protect the soil and shrubs that have strong woody root
with their canopy, add litter to the soil surface, systems. Signicant taproot development below
and stabilise the soil with their roots. Litter on the slip surface greatly increases slope shear
the soil surface reduces erosion. Soil erosion, strength, which has a strong slope-stabilising
inuence.
426
Toy et al, 2002.
427 428
Morgan and Rickson, 1995. Morgan and Rickson, 1995; Whisenant, 1999.
352 S. Whisenant
2. High transpiration rates reduce sus- matrix, between villages, consisted of slope-
ceptibility to mass failure by reducing the stabilising trees that will provide wood
amount of water in the soil. Water increases the resources in the future. Many of the long, steep
slope shear stress that causes mass movement slopes were terraced to increase both surface
of a slope. Transpiration increases as the leaf roughness and inltration. Many of the terraces
area of a particular species becomes higher. were reinforced with rock walls built by a
Thus, transpiration losses of new plantings readily available labour force in this region
are often increased with higher planting (Fig. 50.1). This created a stable environment
densities or larger trees. It is also important to for forest landscape restoration that should
select species that transpire during the highest provide soil coverage, organic materials, and
water season when mass movement is most increased shear strength from the woody roots.
probable. With careful management, the forest vegetation
will stabilise the slopes indenitely.
2. Examples
2.2. Stabilising Mobile Dunes in
2.1. Slope Stabilisation in Sichuan Shaanxi Province, China
Province, China
Highly mobile sand dunes were covering pro-
In the upper watershed of the Yangzi River, ductive farms in northern China, near Yulin.
steep, deforested slopes of unconsolidated These dunes, created by overgrazing of sandy
materials are very susceptible to mass move- lands to the north, were moving southward into
ment. To reduce mass movement and soil productive agricultural lands. Local scientists
erosion into the Three Gorges Reservoir, the developed a simple, practical strategy for dune
Sichuan Forestry Institute, and several cooper- stabilisation. Dormant willow (Salix spp.)
ating organisations initiated forest landscape branches cut to 1-m lengths were stuck verti-
restoration. The goal was to reforest cultivated cally into the dune crests with only about 1
elds and deforested slopes within this water- decimetre (dm) above the soil level. The willow
shed. They created landscapes with fuel wood, branches set root and began a rapid growth that
medicinal plants, tree crops, and Chinese stabilised the dunes and captured additional
peppers around the villages. The landscape wind-blown soil and organic particles (Fig.
50. First Steps in Erosion Control 353
50.2). Combined with an effective ban on These changes dramatically increased inltra-
grazing by sheep and goats, this was a highly tion, water retention, nutrient cycling, and
effective dune stabilisation programme that energy ows into the soil. This effectively pre-
protected the farmland. Policies that improved vented erosion and ooding problems on the
grazing practices on the sand sources (in the plateau as well as in the villages and farms sur-
northern desert) also diminished the volume of rounding the plateaus.
sand reaching the farms.
429 430
Manu et al, 1999. Whisenant, 1999.
354 S. Whisenant
forests may require protection from grazing available organic materials. Organic materials
animals for several years. can be incorporated into the soil or placed on
the surface to reduce erosion, increase inl-
tration, and moderate temperature extremes.
3.2. Wood Harvesting Schedules, Examples of organic materials include woody
Methods, and Spatial Patterns debris following wildre (Fig. 50.3), animal
that Maintain Soil Coverage waste, cotton gin trash, coconut bre, olive pulp,
and Root Biomass and other readily available materials that can
Fuel wood, timber, or any other type of be used to protect the soil surface. Gravel
wood harvesting must be scheduled and or rocks may also be used as above-ground
spatially arranged to maintain good soil cover- obstructions or to protect the soil surface.
age of plants and litter. Uneven aged and
mixed species forests are more easily har-
3.4. Soil Surface Manipulations or
vested in small areas, which reduces the size of
Above-Ground Obstructions
disturbed areas that can contribute to soil loss.
Harvesting methods that reduce the presence Features that roughen the soil surface have the
of skid trails will reduce the concentration of potential to reduce wind and water erosion
water ows that increase erosion problems. while increasing soil water available for plant
Practices that leave more leaves, duff, and growth.431 Pits, microcatchments, furrows, or
woody debris on the surface will reduce erosion cultivation may be used in appropriate circum-
hazards. stances to roughen the soil surface. Rocks,
gravel, terraces, soil bunds, or plant materials
are potential above-ground obstructions where
3.3. Local Materials for available. These surface changes contribute to
Soil Protection additional plant growth that establish positive
Ultimately, perennial plants are the most effec- feedback improvement systems that continue
tive and practical means of protecting the soil. to increase inltration, water storage, and nutri-
However, it is often necessary to provide a ent cycling. This leads to still more functional
window of opportunity during which plants improvements on the site.
can be established. Soil protection is essential
and may be obtained with the use of locally 431
Whisenant, 1999.
50. First Steps in Erosion Control 355
356
51. Restoring Forests After Land Abandonment 357
has been devoted to study how plantation proj- rior forest species after land abandonment
ects benet from appropriate management. The could sharply accelerate the process of restora-
mortality of native Quercus species seedlings tion of complex communities. Pioneer stands or
during the rst year is often above 60 percent monocultural plantations may be enriched with
if nothing is done to facilitate their establish- seedlings of late-successional animal-dispersed
ment, and around 10 percent if management is trees, or initial plantings could be done with
applied.435 Further, some studies have shown mixes of late-successional and pioneer species.
that appropriate management may provide a Active ecological research related to this topic
rapid plot cover by the introduced seedlings is being undertaken in a few places such as the
and reproductive saplings of slow-growing Highlands of Chiapas (Mexico). There, broad-
species by the seventh year. For instance, it has leaved tree species have declined because they
been reported for an experimental Q. ilex plan- are intensively harvested by the local Mayan
tation in central Spain that, after 3 years of communities for rewood, and pines are
managementarticial shading and summer consequently in expansion. Seedlings of the
irrigationand six additional years of inter- broad-leaved trees are being introduced at the
rupted management, the plot cover attained by fringe between the pine-dominated forests and
the managed seedlings was 50 percent higher clear cuts, with survival rates higher than 50
than that attained by the unmanaged seedlings; percent after 3 years due to the positive effect
additionally, 15 percent of the managed of pines on the introduced seedlings. However,
seedlings produced acorns, whereas only 1.5 pines may inhibit establishment of native vege-
percent of the unmanaged seedlings were tation in some environments.
capable of producing seeds.436
is a major limiting factor for seedling establish- limited by the fact that the subsidies have
ment of native shrubs and trees. These tech- encouraged some landowners to plough and
niques include articial shading, irrigation in reforest lands that had already been abandoned
the dry season, elimination of herb competi- and were undergoing passive restoration.
tion, use of gels that absorb and very slowly Further socioeconomic toolswhich are still
release water, ground preparation to increase very marginalare related to the links between
inltration, and microtopography modication active restoration and environmental educa-
to canalise run-off toward the reforested plots. tion and local sustainable development. For
When nutrients are limiting, manure and com- instance, the reforestation of vast extensions of
post from agricultural, industrial, or sewage abandoned land or the enrichment of second-
plants residues have been utilised. Another ary forests in developing countries requires the
technique that has successfully been used is creation of a labour force and small industries
planting the seedling below the canopy of such as specialised nurseries.
naturally established nurse shrubs, which
provide an ameliorated microenvironment for
the introduced seedlings. Many of these tech- 4. Future Needs
niques are discussed in more detail in other
chapters of this book. It should be noted that 4.1. Evaluating Ecosystem Values
the choice of technique will need to be deter-
mined by the climatic, biophysical, and socio- Before initiating any restoration programme
economic conditions. after land abandonment, it is necessary to
answer this question: Active or passive restora-
tion? The answer necessarily goes through an
3.2. Socioeconomic Tools evaluation of costs and benets of the various
Socioeconomic tools can also be passive and options. We must never forget that the envi-
active. In a free market economy, the ratio ronmental benets that humans receive from
between benets and costs of livestock or agri- functional ecosystems or the loss of these ben-
cultural production has triggered the abandon- ets is part of the balance. We need better
ment of large extensions of land throughout the knowledge and awareness of what could
world. In other cases, removal of perverse enhance natural succession after abandonment,
subsidiessuch as elements of the Common and the temporal terms, in various ecosystems.
Agricultural Policy in Europe that has encour- Natural regeneration should be properly mon-
aged farming on uneconomic and marginal itored and mapped by eld work and remote
landscould help stimulate natural regenera- sensing and geographical information system
tion. Active nancial tools that foster abandon- (GIS) techniques. We must also take into
ment of livestock grazing and agricultural account the potential social benets of active
production also exist. restoration, particularly in developing coun-
An innovative and promising tool is payment tries. There is a need for scientic research to
for the environmental services that forests correctly assess such benets.
provide to humans, which favours forest con-
servation rst and encourages forest restora-
4.2. Rethinking the Concept
tion second. This programme is already widely
of Reforestation
applied in Costa Rica (see Payment for Envi-
ronmental Services and Restoration). It seems that we need a different concept of
Another tool is to subsidise set-aside pro- reforestation of abandoned cropland where
grammes for agricultural lands and to convert plant production is limited as it occurs, for
those into forest plantations or restore the example, in dry Mediterranean regions. Nowa-
natural vegetation. This tool has been widely days, these reforestation efforts are based on
applied in the European Union (EU) Mediter- extensive plantations of aligned trees, often of
ranean countries. However, its success has been exotic species, that provide articial monocul-
360 J.M. Rey Benayas
tures that are rarely managed. Restoration Goodman, S.M., eds. Diversity and Endemism in
ecology and forest landscape restoration Madagascar. Orstom Editions, Paris.
present more integrated approaches to resto- Hooper, E., Condit, R., and Legendre, P. 2002.
ration. After land abandonment, the reforesta- Responses of 20 native tree species to refo-
restation strategies for abandoned farmland in
tion approach should be replaced by little,
Panama. Ecological Applications 12:16261641.
dense, diverse, strategically placed, and wisely
Rey Benayas, J.M. 1998. Growth and mortality in
managed reforested patches. These patches Quercus ilex L. seedlings after irrigation and
would actually be islands of functional ecosys- articial shading in Mediterranean set-aside agri-
tems in a sea of intensively used or abandoned cultural lands. Annals of Forest Sciences 55:
land, thus being compatible with other land 801807.
uses (e.g., livestock grazing or crop production) Rey Benayas, J.M., and Camacho, A. 2004. Perfor-
and passive restoration in their surroundings. mance of Quercus ilex saplings planted in aban-
The islands would act as sources and traps doned Mediterranean cropland after long-term
of propagules of different species of plants interruption of their management. Forest Ecology
and animals since many organisms would nd and Management 194:223233.
Running, S.W. 2003. Climate-driven increases in
refuge and food. These biodiversity reservoirs
global terrestrial net primary production from
could function as nuclei for passive restoration
1982 to 1999. Science 300:15601563.
of large extensions in the world. Such experi-
ences need to be started rapidly and their
lessons shared and replicated widely.
Additional Reading
Bakker, J.P., van Andel, J., and van der Maarel, E.
References 1998. Plant species diversity and restoration
ecology: introduction. Applied Vegetation Science
Bot, A.J., Nachtergaele, F.O., and Young, A. 2000. 1:38.
Land Resource Potential and Constraints at Perrow, M.R., and Davy, A.J. 2002. Handbook of
Regional and Country Levels. Land and Water Ecological Restoration. Vol. 2. Restoration in
Development Division, FAO, Rome, Italy (avail- Practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
able on line at ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/ Temperton, V.M., Hobbs, R.J., Nuttle, T., and Halle,
wsr.pdf). S. 2004. Assembly Rules and Restoration Ecology.
Holloway, L. 2000. Catalysing Rainforest Restora- Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice.
tion in Madagascar. In: Lorenco, W.R., and Island Press, Washington.
52
Restoring Overlogged Tropical Forests
Cesar Sabogal and Robert Nasi
361
362 C. Sabogal and R. Nasi
Two main logging systems are usually cient number of trees to reach maturity,
distinguished: and then to remove these alone. Compared
Monocyclic logging represents the re- with monocyclic logging, fewer trees and
moval of up to 100 percent of the commer- a lower volume of timber is harvested,
cially valuable stocking from a forest at but the intervals between harvests are
relatively long intervals. The interval shorter. In some polycyclic systems, such
between harvesting operations is typically as the CELOS (Centre for Agricultural
equal to the maturation period of the main Research in Surinam) system developed for
species of trees felled, the so-called rotation Surinam, or the Tebang Pilih system advo-
period, which may be as long as 60 to 80 cated in Indonesia, this interval may be as
years or more. Because monocyclic logging short as 20 to 25 years. Volumes of wood
removes not only mature but also semi- removed are typically 20 to 30 m3/hectare per
mature trees, a relatively large proportion of coupe.
the forest may be affected. The volume of Monocyclic logging inevitably causes
timber removed during monocyclic opera- more disturbances to the forest canopy and
tions may be as high as 120 m3/hectare in the soil surface than polycyclic systems. Typ-
certain Southeast Asian forests, although ically, for every tree that is logged, a second
more commonly the harvested volumes tend is destroyed and a third is damaged beyond
to converge around a value of about 60 m3/ recovery. Under unimproved, standard
hectare. The result of such intense logging is management practices, polycyclic logging
the creation of relatively large gaps in the may cause damage to 15 to 35 percent of the
canopy, stimulating light-demanding species remaining trees, whereas under monocyclic
in the regrowth. logging this gure may increase to 40 to
Polycyclic logging is the selective removal 60 percent.
of only the largest individuals of desirable
species. The objective is to wait for a suf- (Adapted from Bruijnzeel and Critchley, 1994.)
The most severe impacts at the landscape trophic structure of forest stands. The most
level result from indirect consequences of obvious impact is the change in proportions
logging such as increased access to remote of successional stages in forest stands. Key
areas, fragmentation, and altered re ecological processes such as pollination, her-
regimes. Changes in the size, spatial distri- bivory, seed dispersal, and predation are all
bution, and connectivity of habitat patches affected by logging especially when it is
alter species distribution patterns, forest more intensive. The most obvious species-
turnover rates, and hydrologic processes. level impact of logging is on the abundance
Most ecosystem-level impacts are a direct and age/size distribution of harvested and
consequence of logging activities. The struc- damaged trees. The genetic component of
tural impacts of logging change the relative biodiversity is likely to be the most sensitive
proportions of life forms and biogeochemi- of all components to logging because of
cal stocks, as well as nutrient and hydrologic reductions in effective population size and
cycling, productivity, and energy ows.At the interruptions in gene ow.
community level, logging can substantially
change the characteristics, composition, and (Source: Putz et al. 2002)
52. Restoring Overlogged Tropical Forests 363
be able to recover an acceptable timber yield landowner or land user, and the (biophysical
within a reasonable and economically prof- and socioeconomic) context at the landscape
itable harvesting cycle period.440 The extraction level. The restoration work can either empha-
pressure on a set of high-value species may sise the protection functions for biodiversity
cause a dysgenic trend (removal of large trees recovery and other environmental services
with each cut leaving genetically inferior trees (e.g., water, carbon uptake) or privilege the
for future crops and seed sources).441 potential for production functions of the
Other dramatic, indirect impacts are associ- ecosystem (safety net functions, commercial
ated with logging wherever social pressures production, or multiple-use) or both.
(e.g., by colonists) and institutional weaknesses
(e.g., law enforcement) prevail. Under these
1.3. Improving Logging Practices
conditions logged-over forests are frequently
subject to further disturbance, leading to One aspect of restoration would be to prevent
increased degradation or even conversion to adding more overlogged areas by implementing
other land uses. Land invasions, illegal logging, sound logging, silvicultural, and management
poaching, and re are amongst the most serious practices. Good planning and careful imple-
threats faced by forest owners/managers. This mentation of timber harvesting operations
tragedy is at the crux of most of the debate on substantially contribute to reduce the negative
sustainable forestry in tropical regions and will impact of bad logging. Reduced-impact logging
certainly last for a while. (RIL), a term now widely used, encompasses
the implementation of a series of pre- and
postlogging guidelines designed to protect
1.2. Why Restore Logged-Over
advanced regeneration (i.e., seedlings, saplings,
Forests?
poles, and small trees) from injury, to minimise
Overlogged forests are degraded but neverthe- soil damage, to prevent unnecessary damage to
less important. They may continue to be a nontarget species (e.g., wildlife and nontimber
source of timber and supply an important forest products), and to protect critical ecosys-
amount of forest products, particularly for local tem processes (e.g., hydrology and carbon
people whose livelihoods depend on their sequestration). The Model Code of Forest
extraction. Such forests may still provide Harvesting Practices published by the United
special biodiversity conservation services or be Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation442
important for other environmental services has been widely used as a reference to elabo-
(e.g., water, carbon). With alarming rates of rate similar sets of harvesting guidelines.
landscape fragmentation, these remnant forest The RIL techniques constitute a substantial
resourcesmore and more frequently found as step toward sustainable management. A further
patches of logged-over/degraded primary improvement in RIL is the integration of silvi-
forestsare becoming critical components of cultural principles, guidelines, and practices.443
restoration strategies. Logged-over forests may These techniques should in particular aim to
also represent a valuable means of stabilising keep extraction rates below an acceptable
small-scale colonists in agricultural frontier threshold compatible with timber yield capa-
areas. bility, limit the impact of harvesting on tree
Objectives for restoration of overlogged species diversity and composition, and main-
forests must be set by societal demand and tain timber species populations by reducing
encompass both social and ecological goals. the impact of logging on their ecology.444
They will depend on the degree of degradation,
the desired future condition as dened by the
442
Dykstra and Heinrich, 1996.
440 443
Applegate et al., 2004. Wadsworth, 1997.
441 444
ITTO, 2002. Sist et al., 2003.
364 C. Sabogal and R. Nasi
growth and production of organic matter will (approaches, tools, and methods) that can be
improve the soils physical and chemical prop- used for this purpose.448 The ITTO restoration
erties, particularly if nitrogen-xing species are guidelines449 also provide some principles and
used; (3) as the dipterocarp seedlings are recommended actions (see principles 8, 11, 12,
planted under a partially established canopy, a 15, 16, 20, and 22).
wider range of species can be used, and mor- As a result of the eld assessment, some pre-
tality due to heat and water stress will be ventive or corrective measures will need to be
reduced. put in place. Most critical in many situations are
re prevention and control measures. Bad
logging creates favourable conditions for re
3. Outline of Tools outbreaks (e.g., accumulation of biomass, inva-
sion by weed species, and desiccation of organic
Restoration interventions to attain the dened soil matter, all of which can increase re risks).
objectives may range from simply protecting Other threats frequently result from external
the site from further disturbances (e.g., illegal forces such as illegal extraction activities, inva-
logging, re) and allowing natural regeneration sion by settlers, and the expansion of agricul-
and successional processes to restore ecosystem tural activities. Fire prevention and control are
functionality, to intensive silvicultural practices therefore critical for any sustainable use of the
to improve species composition and com- area to be restored. These involve a range of
mercial productivity, and even soil and water active and passive measures, including consul-
conservation measures to prevent and control tation and training of local people, buffer zones
erosion. of green rebreaks (especially comprising
Most tools and technologies needed for species valued by the local people), and systems
restoration of logged-over (and also secondary) for early detection and suppression. (More
forests can be found in the extensive literature information on restoration and res can be
on silviculture and forest management.447 found in Forest Landscape Restoration After
Four broad steps may be considered for Fires.)
restoration: secure protection of the area; plan
for restoration; implement restoration inter-
3.2. Plan For Restoration
ventions; and monitor and evaluate them. The
sections below mainly focus on some of the Protection measures and restoration interven-
tools and technologies for planning and tions should be adequately planned. Drawing
implementation. up a medium-term management/restoration
plan may be necessary.
A management plan requires information
3.1. Secure Protection of the Area such as an inventory of the standing stock and
A precondition of investing in restoration work its condition, including composition, size, and
is to secure the protection of the area against stem quality. An assessment of the regeneration
further undesired disturbance (illegal logging, (seedlings, saplings, and advanced growth of
poaching, re, grazing, etc.). This entails an marketable or preferred timber and nontimber
assessment of the local conditions (e.g., species) should be considered. Information on
exploitation practices and consequences, past nontimber forest products (NTFPs) can be
and existing agreements) and the analysis of its collected as part of this inventory. Important
outcomes, as well as the capacity to effectively for planning (zonation and mapping purposes)
control or reduce stress and risk factors. There is also the systematic assessment of the physi-
is an ample suite of participatory techniques cal conditions affecting the restoration work
447
Useful references for tropical forests include Dupuy,
448
1998; FAO, 1998, 2000; Higman et al., 1999; Hutchinson, For instance; Carter; 1996; Jackson and Ingles, 1998;
1988; Lamprecht, 1989; Peters, 1996; Thomson, 2001; Wyatt- and Shell et al., 2002.
449
Smith, 1963. ITTO, 2002.
366 C. Sabogal and R. Nasi
450
Hutchinson, 1991.
451
FAO, 1998.
452 453
ITTO, 2002. Weidelt and Banaag, 1982.
52. Restoring Overlogged Tropical Forests 367
Projet FORAFRI, CIRAD, CIFOR, Montpellier, Jackson, W.J., and Ingles, A.W. 1998. Participatory
France. Techniques For Community Forestry. A Field
Dykstra, D., and Heinrich, R. 1996. FAOModel Manual. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cam-
code of forest harvesting practice. Food and bridge, UK and World Wide Fund for Nature,
Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Gland, Switzerland.
FAO, Rome. Korpelainen, H., Adjers, G., Kuusipalo, J., Nuryanto,
Effendi, R., Priadjati, A., Omom, M., Rayan, M., K., and Otsamo, A. 1995. Protability of rehabili-
Tolkamp, W., and Nasry, E. 2001. Rehabilitation of tation of overlogged dipterocarp forest: a case
Wanariset secondary forest (East Kalimantan) study from South Kalimantan, Indonesia. Forest
through dipterocarp species line plantings. In: Ecology and Management 79:207215.
Hillegers, P.J.M., and Iongh, H.H., eds.The Balance Lamprecht, H. 1989. Silviculture in the Tropics. Trop-
Between Biodiversity Conservation and Sustain- ical Forest Ecosystems and Their Tree Species
able Use of Tropical Rain Forests. Tropenbos Possibilities and Methods for Their Long-Term
International, Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. Utilization. GTZ, Eschborn, Germany.
3144. Montagnini, F. 1997. Enrichment planting in over-
FAO. 1998. Guidelines for the Management of Trop- exploited subtropical forests of the Paranaense
ical Forests1. The Production of Wood. FAO region of Misiones, Argentina. Forest Ecology and
Forestry Paper 135. Rome. Management 99:237246.
FAO. 2000. Management of Natural Forests of Dry Nussbaum, R., and Hoe, A.L. 1996. Rehabilitation of
Tropical Zones. FAO Conservation Guide 32. degraded sites in logged-over forest using dipte-
Rome. Prepared by R. Bellefontaine, A. Gaston rocarps. In: Schulte, A., and Schne, D., eds. Dipte-
and Y. Petrucci. rocarp Forest Ecosystems. Towards Sustainable
Fimbel, R., Grajal, A., and Robinson, J., eds. 2001. Management. World Scientic Publ., Singapore,
Conserving Wildlife in Managed Tropical Forests. pp. 446463.
Columbia University Press, New York. Peters, C.M. 1996. The Ecology and Management of
Frumhoff, P.C. 1995. Conserving wildlife in tropical Non-Timber Forest Resources. World Bank Tech-
forests managed for timber. BioScience 45(7): nical Paper Number 322. Washington, DC.
456464. Putz, F.E., Redford, K.H., Robinson, J.G., Fimbel, R.,
Grieser Johns, A. 1997. Timber Production and Bio- and Blate, G.M. 2002. Biodiversity conservation in
diversity Conservation in Tropical Rain Forests. the context of tropical forest management. The
Cambridge Studies in Applied Ecology and World Bank, Environment Department Papers,
Resource Management. Cambridge University Paper No. 75. Washington, DC.
Press, Cambridge, UK. Sheil, D., et al. 2002. Exploring biological diversity,
Haworth, J. 1999. Life After Logging: The Impacts environment and locals peoples perspectives
of Commercial Timber Extraction in Tropical in forest landscapes. Methods for a multidiscipli-
Rainforests. Friends of the Earth Trust, nary landscape assessment. CIFOR, Bogor,
London. Indonesia.
Higman, S., Bass, S., Judd, N., Mayers, J., and Sist, P., Fimbel, R., Nasi, R., Sheil, D., and Chevallier,
Nussbaum, R. 1999. The Sustainable Forestry M.-H. 2003. Sustainable management of mixed
Handbook. A Practical Guide for Tropical Forest dipterocarp forests needs more ecological rules
Managers on Implementing New Standards. than a minimum diameter for harvesting. Envi-
IIEDSGS. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London. ronmental Conservation 30(4):364374.
Hutchinson, I.D. 1988. Points of departure for silvi- Stadtmller, T. 1994. Impacto hidrolgico del manejo
culture in humid tropical forests. Commonwealth forestal de bosques naturales tropicales: medidas
Forestry Review 67(3): 223229. como mitigarlo. Una revisin bibliogrca.
Hutchinson, I.D. 1991. Diagnostic sampling to orient CATIE, Proyecto silvicultura de Bosques Natu-
silviculture and management in natural tropical rales, Turrialba, Costa Rica.
forest. Commonwealth Forestry Review 70(3): Thomson, L. 2001. Management of natural forests for
113132. conservation of forest genetic resources. In:
International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO). FAO/DFSC/IPGRI, Forest Genetic Resources
2002. ITTO guidelines for the restoration, man- Conservation and Management. Vol. 2: In
agement and rehabilitation of degraded and sec- Managed Natural Forests and Protected Areas
ondary tropical forests. ITTO Policy Development (In Situ). International Plant Genetic Resources
Series No. 13. ITTO, Yokohama, Japan. Institutte, Rome pp. 1344.
52. Restoring Overlogged Tropical Forests 369
370
53. Open-Cast Mining Reclamation 371
- Modification/intermittence SURROUNDING
of mining operations ECOSYSTEMS AND PEOPLE:
changes in reclamation
works and plan. - Runoff and sediment flows.
- Mistakes in the - Sources of propagules.
P
performance of reclamation - Herbivorism.
works. - Grazing, hunting, land uses
- Changes in environmental
rules and/or policies)
RECLAMATION PLANNING
P - Integration into mining
operation planning.
P - Land use objectives
(social actors participation)
ENVIRONMENTAL ECOSYSTEM - Deep knowledge about
LIMITING FACTORS DESIGN ecosystem of reference.
- Research programme
- Soil physical constraints - Topography - Earthworks (landforms
(texture, structure, water - Topsoil design and erosion control
holding capacity, stability). - Species composition plan).
- Soil nutrients. - Pattern - Topsoil handling -
- Toxicity (pH, heavy metals, - Key biological - Revegetation
salinity). interactions - Nutrient accumulation and
- Climate (mycorrhizae, N fixers cycling.
INITIAL CONDITIONS / pollinisators, ...) - Management.
LEGACY - Successional - Monitoring.
(lithology, natural topography trajectories (inhibitor - Success criteria
and landforms, topsoil, species, facilitation,
opportunities (source of alternative stable
propagules, springs) states)
(natural climate and topography, type and set of reclamation techniques and tools have
abundance of topsoil); (2) natural perturba- been developed. Most typical of them in mining
tions (droughts, extreme rainfall events, frost reclamation are abiotic limiting factors and
periods, pests); (3) inuence of the surrounding nutrient cycling. Bradshaw458 identied the
ecosystems and people (runoff and sediment main physical and chemical problems that can
ows, sources of propagules, herbivorism, be found in mine soils and their short and long-
grazing, hunting, land uses); and (4) human term treatments, which are shown in Table 53.1.
contingencies (modication/intermittence of Following the proposed conceptual frame-
mining operations; mistakes in the performance work, the Reclamation Planning box in Figure
of reclamation works; changes in legal rules, 53.1 shows the main issues that should be con-
etc.). sidered, from the practical perspective, in order
Deterministic processes involved in mining
reclamation have been well studied and a wide 458
Bradshaw, 1988.
372 J.M. Nicolau Ibarra and M. Moreno de las Heras
Table 53.1. Specic problems of mine soils and their treatments (Bradshaw, 1988).
Category Problems Immediate treatment Long-term treatment
planted. A mixed fertiliser (nitrogen, pho- Native forest species propagation and per-
sphorus and potassium (NPK) and micronutri- formance assessment programmes involved
ents) was applied at 500 kg per hectare by evaluations of fruiting phenology, seed viability,
helicopter. seed germination treatments, propagation
In 1997 Alcoa and the Department of Con- methods (direct seeding, use of stumped
servation and Land Management (CALM) saplings, wildings, and nursery-grown seed-
developed completion criteria and standards. lings), and early survival and growth during the
Specically, the completion criteria require rst 2 years after outplanting. A total of 160
restored areas to be resilient to re and capable species were evaluated. The standard reclama-
of integration into CALMs Jarrah forest re tion and site preparation sequence was fol-
management programme. Alcoa supported lowed, which includes levelling of the clay
research to determine how the vegetation and overburden, replacement of approximately
associated faunal communities respond to re, 15 cm of topsoil and woody debris (removed
in order to dene when and under what condi- from the site prior to mining and stockpiled for
tions re should be reintroduced into rehabili- up to 6 months prior to application), deep-
tated areas. ripping of lines to a depth of 90 cm (1 m
between lines), and planting along alternate rip
lines at 2- by 2-m spacing (2500 trees per
2.2. Restoring Tropical Forests on hectare) using seeds, stumped saplings, or
Lands Mined for Bauxite potted seedlings, depending on species and
Examples from Brazilian treatment. The total cost came to approxi-
Amazon461 mately $2500 per hectare.
Since 1979, the Brazilian mining company Min- The following conclusions can be drawn:
eraao Rio do Norte (MRN) has developed a Careful site preparation practices, particul-
reforestation programme aimed at restoring arly judicious topsoil handling and reappli-
the evergreen equatorial moist forest destroyed cation prior to tree planting, are essential for
at a rate of 100 hectares per year during bauxite the establishment of forest cover, elimination of
ore extraction at Trombetas in western Par competing grasses, and acceleration of natural
State. The Trombetas bauxite mine is located forest succession. Floristic enrichment of the
in the Sarac-Taquera National Forest on an reforested areas is largely dependent on seed-
upland mesa at an elevation of 180 m. Restora- dispersing wildlife, so restoration managers
tionists working in most tropical settings are need to be cognizant of the critical role of
usually hampered by lack of basic information wildlife, actively encourage wildlife conserva-
on the wide variety of native tree species that tion in the surrounding landscape, and design
characterise the pre-disturbance forests, as well restoration treatments that will provide suit-
as insufcient understanding of the ecology able habitats for a variety of target wildlife
of disturbance and natural recovery to design species.
effective restoration programmes. A notable
exception is MRN, which has used a systematic
2.3. Open-Cast Coal Mining
nursery and eld research strategy to develop
Reclamation in Utrillas-Teruel
a reforestation programme based on mixed
(Spain) in a Semiarid
plantings of more than 70 native old-growth
(Mediterranean-Continental)
forest tree species.
Environment462
Two main research programmes were carried
out in the last 11 years, and a number of refor- Minas y Ferrocarril de Utrillas, SA (MFUSA)
estation methods as well as site preparation and company commenced open-cast mining in the
topsoil replacement protocols were tested. Utrillas coaleld in the early 1980s. The area is
461 462
Parrotta and Knowles, 2001. Nicolau, 2003.
374 J.M. Nicolau Ibarra and M. Moreno de las Heras
The rst measure for protecting the most expert working in the eld as mining and
valuable ecological areas from mining reclamation projects are going on. This
impacts should be the use of geographical personin addition to being responsible for
information systems (GIS) plus environmen- the fullment of the reclamation project
tal planning methodologies at the regional should foresee the contingencies and should
scale. prot from the opportunities offered by the
In relation to topography design, Evans465 physical environment, mining operations,
afrms that to successfully incorporate the local administration, and social actors.
design of relief forms, the stability of the nal
forms must be predicted, which implies the
use of hydrological and erosion models. In
recent years, some erosion models for 4. Future Needs
reclaimed areas have been developed, which
are now being used in relief design. We Performance of surface mining reclamation
suggest using the RUSLE (Revised Univer- shows high heterogeneity depending on the
sal Soil Loss Equation) 1.06 (for mined lands, countries, the environments, and the companies;
construction sites, and reclaimed lands), consequently, the needs are very different. In
which is a model that estimates the annual developed countries the main task is to reclaim
surface erosion by water466 and can be used again thousands of reclaimed hectares, which
for slope design. This model is available free do not full minimum requirements.
on the Web site http://sedlab.olemiss/rusle. From the technical point of view the weakest
As off-site impacts on aquatic ecosystems are points are land-form design and ecosystem
among the heaviest disturbances produced dynamics knowledge. Erosion and hydrological
by open-cast mining, an erosion and runoff models should be incorporated into reclama-
control plan is essential. Several software tion planning. Also the reference ecosystem
packages are available on the market. We has to be used for reclaimed ecosystem design
recommend evaluating the effectiveness of and to identify a number of successional tra-
erosion and sediment control plans.467 This jectories, stable states, and thresholds of
can be acquired through the International irreversibility.
Erosion Control Association at http:// In developing countries, efforts in research
www.ieca.org. must be intensied as has been seen in the
Topsoil handling is a key but easy issue when example of the Brazilian bauxite mine. Recla-
it is planned. A critical point is storage. It mation laws must be enhanced or enacted in
should be stored for a short period of time some cases, but most importantly, laws must
and in small stockpiles. A second point is the be observed and enforced. However, often
spreading of topsoil on the reconstructed in practice, this may seem utopian. In many
topography. To avoid soil compaction, such cases mineral deposit discovery and exploita-
an operation must be carried out with topsoil tion means deep environmental impacts, social
that is neither too dry nor too wet. and political conicts, corruption, and even
Soil amendment is a quite general matter in armed violence. The imbalance is so high that
land reclamation. Table 53.1 shows a number often neither society nor the politicians are
of remediation procedures proposed by sufciently prepared to have a positive rela-
Bradshaw.468 tionship with the transnational mining corpora-
A very useful tool from the practical point tions. Given such conditions, an international
of view is to count on an environmental mining code of good practice would be useful.
We think that NGOs can be very helpful in:
465
(1) promoting experimental research, (2) train-
Evans, 2000.
466
Toy and Foster, 1998.
ing local restorationists, (3) favouring local
467
Field, 1997. communities participation, and (4) advising
468
Bradshaw, 1988. governments of developing countries.
376 J.M. Nicolau Ibarra and M. Moreno de las Heras
379
380 J. Sayer and C. Elliott
astonishing 30 percent, trees are planted but Large commercial plantations subsidised
they are often not cared for and die. by the World Bank were a cause clbre for
Of the estimated 187 million hectares of the environmental movement in India in the
plantations worldwide, Asia has by far the 1980s. Rural people complained that the exotic
largest area, accounting for 62 percent of the species planted did not provide fodder for their
world total. In terms of composition, Pinus (20 animals or supplies of the nontimber products
percent) and Eucalyptus (10 percent) remain that they needed for their daily subsistence.
the dominant genera worldwide, although the Tree-hugging campaigns were launched to
diversity of species planted is increasing. Indus- prevent the clearing of natural forests by the
trial plantations (producing wood or bre for plantation agencies.471
supply to wood processing industries) account Pulp plantations in Indonesia have been
for 48 percent of the global forest plantation strongly opposed by environmentalists because
estate and nonindustrial plantations (e.g., for they often replace natural forest and deny
provision of fuelwood or soil and water protec- access to the land to local people. Similar
tion) for 26 percent. The purpose of the remain- controversies have surrounded commercial
ing 26 percent is unclear. plantations in Chile and government sponsored
The extent of plantations in industrialised plantation schemes in Vietnam.472
countries is harder to measure than in develop- However, forest landscape restoration
ing countries. Most forests in Western Europe almost always involves reestablishing trees, and
contain some planted trees, so the distinction the purpose of this chapter is to illustrate how
between plantations and natural forests is less commercial plantations can be part of the solu-
clear cut than in the new plantations in the tion to the challenge of restoration and not
tropics. Industrialised countries tend not to dis- always part of the problem.
tinguish between plantations and natural
forests in their inventories.
The FAO has identied the 10 countries 2. Examples
with the largest plantation development pro-
grammes (as reported by percentage of the 2.1. Environmentally Benecial
global plantation area): China, 24 percent; Commercial Plantations:
India, 18 percent; the Russian Federation, 9 Plantations in Brazil
percent; the United States, 9 percent; Japan, 6
The plantations established by the American
percent; Indonesia, 5 percent; Brazil, 3 percent;
billionaire Harvey Ludwig at Jari in Brazil473
Thailand, 3 percent; Ukraine, 2 percent; and the
are an excellent example of how sensible man-
Islamic Republic of Iran, 1 percent. These coun-
agement has turned what started as a major
tries account for 80 percent of the global forest
environmental threat into a model of good
plantation area. All of them are countries with
landscape management. The scheme started
large extents of degraded landscapes.
with the planting of large areas of a single
Global interest in forest landscape restora-
exotic species. Many trees died and the planta-
tion was partly triggered by environmental con-
tions failed to achieve their commercial objec-
cerns about plantation forestry. Public criticism
tives, but their establishment did cause the
of large-scale Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)
loss of large areas of natural forests. The Jari
plantations in Scotland led the U.K. Forestry
plantations have changed hands twice and are
Commission to reverse its policies on upland
now owned by a Brazilian family company.
tree planting. The emphasis is now given to
A greater diversity of trees is now planted in
planting native woodlands for amenity and
300,000 hectares of plantations and large areas
wildlife values. Not only the species planted but
also the spatial layout of the plantations is 471
Carrere and Lohman, 1996; Cossalter and Pye-Smith,
designed to imitate natural woodlands.470 2003.
472
Lang, 2002.
470 473
See Smout, 2000. See www.metsopaper.com.
54. The Role of Commercial Plantations 381
of natural forest have been set aside for pro- commercial conifer plantations began to be
tection within the plantation area. Additionally, phased out, a new problem arose. It was dis-
700,000 hectares of natural forest in the imme- covered that the conifer plantations when they
diate areas have been brought under sustain- were newly planted provided the habitat for a
able management for timber. The Jari opera- large proportion of the U.K. population of the
tions are now certied by an internationally rare falcon, the merlin (Falco columbarius).
accredited certication scheme. The area now Early successional woodlands that occur after
represents an environmentally sound balanced commercial plantations have been logged were
landscape containing protected, managed, and providing the only habitat for a rare species. In
plantation forests. this case, keeping some of the land under com-
mercial plantations was contributing to land-
2.2. Environmentally Benecial scape functionality.
Commercial Plantations: Pulp
Plantations in Sumatra474
3. Outline of Tools
Pulp plantations in Sumatra have been under a
lot of criticism for their negative environmen- In many landscapes commercial plantations
tal and social impacts. They often replaced will have a potential role in restoration. Much
natural forest of high biodiversity value, and will depend on where in the landscape they are
many local people were displaced by their located and how they are managed.
establishment. Indonesian law required that Plantations do not always have to be of a
plantation companies set aside up to a third of single species. It is not always necessary to keep
their land as natural forest set asides, but this the land under the trees bare; weeds and spon-
rule was largely ignored or the set asides were taneously colonising local trees can be encour-
neglected and illegally logged, often by sub- aged. Mixed local species can be planted along
contractors who sold the logs to the pulp mills. water courses or around the periphery of the
Under pressure from environmental NGOs, plantation to soften the visual impact of the
one of the companies, APRIL, has now sup- plantation and provide habitat for wildlife.
ported the establishment of a national park to Plantations can be used to provide corridors
conserve the remaining forests located within between patches of natural woodlands. Planta-
its plantation estate. The infrastructure of the tions can provide many products and thereby
plantation company provides access for park reduce the pressure on natural forests. Planta-
managers, and prots from the plantation oper- tions can sometimes be used as nurse crops to
ation help to pay for park protection costs. help improve the soil and create conditions so
that native species can become established.
2.3. Environmentally Benecial Plantations are often established using indus-
Cosmmercial Plantations: trial techniques that tend to result in uniform
Conifer Plantations in the stands that are relatively low in biodiversity
United Kingdom and other environmental and social values.
But considerable work has been done on
In the United Kingdom exotic conifer planta-
more environmentally friendly approaches to
tions have long been opposed by the public,
tree establishment.476 In any use of commercial
which often preferred the open treeless land-
plantations to contribute to landscape restora-
scapes of upland Scotland and Wales even
tion objectives, it is essential to ensure that the
though these were the result of overgrazing by
plantations are managed to the highest possible
sheep in the 19th century. A good account of
standards. The International Tropical Timber
the controversy surrounding the issue of upland
Organisation (ITTO) Guidelines for the
conifer plantations is given in Smout.475 As
474 476
APRIL, 2004. Good accounts of this work are given in Nilsen, 1991,
475
Smout, 2000. and Whisenant, 1999.
382 J. Sayer and C. Elliott
Cossalter, C., and Pye-Smith, C. 2003. Fast Wood Buckley, G.P., ed. 1989. Biological Habitat Recon-
Forestry: Myths and Realities. CIFOR, Bogor, struction. Belhaven Press, London.
Indonesia. Cairns, J. Jr., ed. 1988. Rehabilitating Damaged
ITTO. 1993. ITTO Guidelines for the Establishment Ecosystems, Vols 1 and 2. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
and Sustainable Management of Planted Tropical FL.
Forests. ITTO, Yokohama, Japan. FAO. 2001. Global Forest Resources Assessment
ITTO. 2002. ITTO Guidelines for the Restoration, 2000Main Report. Forestry Paper 140. ISBN 92-
Management and Rehabilitation of Degraded and 5-1046425. FAO, Rome.
Secondary Tropical Forests. ITTO, Yokohama, Gobster, P.H., and Bruce Hull, R., eds. 1999.
Japan. Restoring Nature: Perspectives from the Social
IUFRO. 2003. Occasional paper No. 15. Part 1: Sciences and Humanities. Island Press,
Science and technologybuilding the future of Washington, DC.
the worlds forests. Part ll: Planted forests and bio- Holl, K.D., Loik, M.E., et al. 2000. Tropical montane
diversity. ISSN 10241414X, IUFRO, Vienna. forest restoration in Costa Rica: overcoming bar-
Lang, C. 2002. The pulp invasion; The international riers to dispersal and establishment. Restoration
pulp and paper industry in the Mekong Region. Ecology 8(4):339349.
World Rainforest Movement, Moreton-on-the- Jordan, W.R. III, Gilpin, M.E., and Abers, J.D., eds.
Marsh, UK. 1987. Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach
Liu, J., and Taylor, W.W. 2002. Integrating Landscape to Ecological Research. Cambridge University
Ecology into Natural Resource Management. Press, Cambridge, UK.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Lamb, D. 1998. Large scale ecological restoration
Nilsen, R., ed. 1991. Helping Nature Heal: An Intro- of degraded tropical forest lands: the potential role
duction to Environmental Restoration. A Whole of timber plantations. Restoration Ecology 6(3):
Earth Catalogue, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA. 271279.
(Deals with restoration in a U.S. context.) Luken, J.O. 1990. Directing Ecological Succession.
Smout, T.C. 2000. Nature Contested: Environmental Chapman and Hall, London.
History in Scotland and Northern England since Reiners, W.A., and Driese, K.L. 2003. Propagation of
1600. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, UK. Ecological Inuence Through Environmental
Whisenant, S.G. 1999. Repairing Damaged Wild- Space. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
landsA Process-Oriented, Landscape-Scale UK.
Approach. Cambridge University Press, Walker, L.R., and del Moral, R. 2003. Primary Suc-
Cambridge, UK. cession and Ecosystem Rehabilitation. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Additional Reading
Aide, T.M., Zimmerman, J.K., et al. 2000. Forest Web Sites
regeneration in a chronosequence of tropical
abandoned pastures: implications for restoration www.metsopaper.com.
ecology. Restoration Ecology 8(4):328338. www.developments.org.uk/data/issue21/amazon.htm.
55
Attempting to Restore Biodiversity in
Even-Aged Plantations
Florencia Montagnini
384
55. Attempting to Restore Biodiversity in Even-Aged Plantations 385
the seeds entering open pastures were wind- been planted on old pasture or agricultural land
dispersed, while most seeds entering the were surveyed.486 Soils were acid Ultisols and
plantations were bird- or bat-dispersed. This Inceptisols. Initial spacing was 21/2 by 3 m or 3
suggests that the plantations facilitate tree by 3 m. Plots were set along transects where
regeneration by attracting seed-dispersing basal area of trees, open canopy percentage,
birds and bats into the area (Fig. 55.2). The dif- leaf litter, percent plant cover, number of indi-
ferent species of the plantations created differ- viduals, and biomass of understorey were
ent conditions of shade and litter accumulation, measured. A total of 66 plant families and 132
which in turn affected forest regeneration.485 genera were recorded. Teak density was the
Competition from grasses is a major factor strongest predictor of understorey develop-
inuencing woody invasion under these planta- ment; therefore, it was concluded that thinning
tions. High accumulation of litter on the plan- is the most important management strategy
tation oor may help diminish grass growth to increase understorey biodiversity in these
and thus encourage woody invasion under the plantations.
species canopies. Farmers who manage their
plantations with the purpose of restoring local
2.3. Restoring Indigenous
biodiversity may have as an option, after har-
Biodiversity While Dealing
vesting the timber, the tending of the natural
with Invasive Species
regeneration of useful species. In this manner,
in Plantations
they obtain the prots from selling the timber
from the plantation, and later they will have In several cases, a previously forested area
valuable timber species in the regenerated is invaded by aggressive grass, for example,
forest. Imperata cylindrica in Indonesia, Imperata
brasiliensis in Brazil, Saccharum spontaneum in
Panama, and Pennisetum purpureum in Africa,
2.2. Thinning to Restore or by ferns. The competitive advantage of
Biodiversity in Pure Plantations grasses, combined with degraded soils and lack
of Teak (Costa Rica) of nutrients, prevents germination and initia-
In the Parrita valley, seven teak stands of three tion of tree seedlings. These grassland areas are
to 12 years and one 49-year-old stand that had often maintained by res that inhibit colonisa-
485 486
Carnevale and Montagnini, 2002. Luoma, 2002.
388 F. Montagnini
tion by tree species.487 In many cases it is not forests by long and narrow patches. Some spe-
feasible to plant tree seedlings without rst cies are better as perches due to their archi-
removing the invasive vegetation. Following tectural characteristics. For example, at La
treatment to eliminate or reduce the invasive Selva Biological Station in Costa Rica, more
vegetation, fast-growing tree species, often abundant regeneration was found under the
exotic, are planted to initiate tree cover, sup- canopy of Vochysia guatemalensis than under
press the grass, and ameliorate the environ- other native species of the same plantation.490
ment.488 This facilitates the establishment of The result was attributed in part to the archi-
other tree seedlings that may be brought later tecture of this species, whose branching pattern
to restore the original forest, or to start a mixed is particularly suited to birds and bats. In
or a monospecic plantation, depending on the addition, the architecture of this tree species
objectives. allowed for a more varied light environment
that could accommodate a larger number of
species.
2.4. Fighting Invasive Species in a
Plantation in the Eastern
United States 3.2. Planting to Improve Local
Microclimatic Conditions
In the eastern U.S., one of the most challenging
invasive plants for forest restorationists is As mentioned in the examples above, planta-
the nonindigenous shrub, Amur honeysuckle tions create better light conditions for seedlings
(Lonicera maackii), which has an ability to that are shade-tolerant. Plantation shade sup-
resprout after cutting and possibly has allelo- presses grass and fern growth, thus favouring
pathic effects on native vegetation, turning the growth of woody seedlings. Temperature
invaded sites into shrublands.489 In southwest- uctuations are also ameliorated under the
ern Ohio, glyphosate herbicides were used canopy. Litter production can also help sup-
to eliminate honeysuckle and facilitate the press the growth of grass.491
establishment of planted seedlings of native
tree species (Fraxinus pennsylvanica, Quercus 3.3. Factors Inuencing Natural
muehlenbergii, Prunus serotina, Juglans nigra, Regeneration Under
Cercis canadensis, Cornus orida). The end Plantation Canopies
result was successful restoration with an
increase in native woody plant diversity. 3.3.1. Plantation Type
A low-density plantation may favour growth
3. Outline of Tools of grasses instead of a varied understorey. An
initial tight tree planting density (2 2 m,
3.1. Role in Attracting Seed 3 3 m) will ensure early shading of grass,
Dispersal Agents into thus favouring competition by shade-tolerant
the Landscape woody seedlings. Thinning will be needed later
to free up the growing tree seedlings.
Positioning of plantations in the landscape
inuences the movements of seed-dispersing
birds. For example, plantations attract more dis- 3.3.2. Plantation Design
persers if they are set between forest patches to Mixed plantations have a higher variety of
facilitate bird movement. Tree recruitment may environments for seed dispersers and create
be higher in plantations that are connected to greater variety of ecological niches allowing for
487
more diverse regeneration.
Chapman and Chapman, 1996.
488
Ashton et al, 1997; Fimbel and Fimbel, 1996; Kuusipalo
490
et al, 1995; Otsamo et al, 1999; PRORENA, 2003. Guariguata et al, 1995.
489 491
Hartman and McCarthy, 2004. Lamb, 1998; Parrotta and Turnbull, 1997.
55. Attempting to Restore Biodiversity in Even-Aged Plantations 389
Planting at different times so as to have a seed sources for future regeneration of native
mosaic of plantations of different ages is often species.492
done to suit different market demands. This There are a variety of management strategies
offers a more varied environment that can help that can be used to increase diversity in
recruitment of other species and can create plantation ecosystems, even those including
different niches and habitats that may favour exotic species. These strategies include thin-
some wildlife. ning, as mentioned above; decreasing the inten-
Planting at wider distances and thinning can sity of management operations (fertilisation,
allow greater light penetration in the under- weeding); diversifying the number of tree
storey. At the same time, early shading by species planted; planting so as to have a mosaic
a rapidly developing plantation canopy may of plantations of different ages; and leaving
help suppress aggressive grass vegetation, forest remnants in the landscape.493 Manage-
therefore favouring broad-leaved species in ment strategies that fall within the guidelines
colonising the understorey and thus increasing needed for forest certication (according
biodiversity. to schemes such as the Forest Stewardship
Council scheme, FSC) help to ensure that
3.3.3. Distance to Natural Forest or plantation forests as well as native forests are
managed in a way that promotes wildlife
Other Sources of Seeds
habitat.
Regeneration may be seriously prevented by
lack of seed and other propagules, if plantations
are set like islands in a sea of pasture or other 4. Future Needs
degraded vegetation.
More experiences are needed on plantations
and connectivity across landscapes. For
3.3.4. Species Choices
example, connectivity can be obtained through
Native pioneer species should be the rst choice the use of lines or even isolated trees in the
because fast-growing pioneer species shade out landscape, serving to buffer the actual planta-
grasses sooner. Native species are in better tion area, changing the shape of the planta-
balance with the rest of the ecosystem. tion, etc.
However, in extreme cases, when the land has There needs to be more work on the rela-
been too damaged for native species to grow on, tionship between the plantation itself and its
exotics are an option as shown in the examples. surroundings. Taking a landscape approach
helps deal with both the area inside a planta-
tion and the area around it.
3.3.5. Plantation Management
More information is needed on the long-term
Thinning is probably the most important man- dynamics of tree regeneration in plantations;
agement intervention to favour regenerating most studies focus on young plantations.
trees in plantations. For example, an analysis of Specic management guidelines are needed
forest restoration after 120 years of reforesta- to favour biodiversity, especially thinning
tion with the exotic Pinus nigra in the Alps and enrichment. For example, Ashton et al494
in France, showed that in order for the pines designed a comprehensive set of guidelines
to serve as a true nurse for the native broad- suited to the forests of Sri Lanka. The guide-
leaved vegetation, thinning and enrichment lines indicate silvicultural treatments needed
planting were needed. Thinning facilitates for a number of understorey and canopy
the dissemination of seeds of the native species. species, including size of the canopy openings
Gap openings or even small clear cuts in
the pine plantations were recommended in 492
Vallauri et al, 2002.
areas affected by infestation with mistletoe. 493
Carnus et al, 2003.
Planting patches of native trees can serve as 494
Ashton et al, 2001.
390 F. Montagnini
needed for each species, and mode of planting story diversity in degraded pasturelands of Costa
(isolated seedlings or in groups or patches), as Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 188:115.
well as the economic value of each species. See Fimbel, R.A., and Fimbel, C.C. 1996. The role
next chapter Best Practice for Industrial Plan- of exotic conifer plantations in rehabilitating
degraded tropical forest lands: a case study from
tations for other management interventions to
the Kibale forest in Uganda. Forest Ecology and
promote biodiversity.
Management 81:215226.
Attention should be given to alternatives Guariguata, M.R., Rheingans, R., and Montagnini, F.
that can help farmers to increase biodiversity 1995. Early woody invasion under tree plantations
while maintaining a protable system, by in Costa Rica: implications for forest restoration.
enquiring into farmers goals and preferences Restoration Ecology 3(4):252260.
for tree species. Hartman, K.M., and McCarthy, B.C. 2004.
Finally, many countries need to improve leg- Restoration of a forest understory after the
islation related to subsidies and establishment removal of an invasive shrub, Amur honeysuckle
and monitoring of plantations, and their inu- (Lonicera maackii). Restoration Ecology 12(2):
ence on biodiversity. 154165.
Keenan, R.J., Lamb, D., Parrotta, J., and Kikkawa, J.
1999. Ecosystem management in tropical timber
plantations: satisfying economic, conservation, and
References social objectives. Journal of Sustainable Forestry
9:117134.
Ashton, P.M.S., Gamage, S., Gunatilekke, I.A.U.N., Kuusipalo, J., Goran, A., Jafarsidik, Y., Otsamo, A.,
and Gunatilekke, C.V.S. 1997. Restoration of a Tuomela, K., and Vuokko, R. 1995. Restoration of
Sri Lanka rainforest: using Caribbean pine Pinus natural vegetation in degraded Imperata cylin-
caribaea as a nurse for establishing late- drica grassland: understory development in
successional tree species. Journal of Applied forest plantations. Journal of Vegetation Science
Ecology 34:915925. 6:205210.
Ashton, P.M.S., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Singhakumara, Lamb, D. 1998. Large scale ecological restoration
B.M.P., and Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. 2001. Restora- of degraded tropical forest lands: the potential
tion pathways for rain forest in southwest Sri role of timber plantations. Restoration Ecology
Lanka: a review of concepts and models. Forest 6:271279.
Ecology and Management 525:123. Luoma, J. 2002. Understory vegetation characteris-
Carnevale, N.J., and Montagnini, F. 2002. Facilitating tics along teak (Tectona grandis) plantation/
regeneration of secondary forests with the use of natural forest ecotones in Costa Rica. In: Tropical
mixed and pure plantations of indigenous tree Resources: The Bulletin of the Tropical Resources
species. Forest Ecology and Management 163: Institute. Yale University, School of Forestry and
217227. Environmental Studies, New Haven, CT, pp. 11
Carnus, J.-M., Parrotta, J., Brockerhoff, E.G., et al. 16.
2003. Planted forests and biodiversity. In: Buck, A., Michelsen, A., Lisanework, N., Friis, I., and Holst, N.
Parrotta, J., and Eolfrum, G., eds. Science and 1996. Comparison of understory vegetation and
TechnologyBuilding the Future of the Worlds soil fertility in plantations and adjacent natural
Forests. Planted Forests and Biodiversity. IUFRO forests in the Ethiopian highlands. Journal of
Occasional Paper No. 15. IUFRO, Vienna, Austria, Applied Ecology 33:627642.
pp. 33 49. Montagnini, F. 2001. Strategies for the recovery of
Chapman, C.A., and Chapman, L.J. 1996. Exotic tree degraded ecosystems: experiences from Latin
plantation and the regeneration of natural forest America. Interciencia 26(10):498503.
in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Biological Otsamo, A., Hadi, T.S., Kurniati, L., and Vuokko, R.
Conservation 76(3):253257. 1999. Early performance of 12 Acacia crassicarpa
Cossalter, C., and Pye-Smith, C. 2003. Fast-wood provenances on an Imperata cylindrica dominated
forestry. Myths and realities. Forest perspectives. grassland in South Kalimantan, Indonesia. Journal
Center for International Forestry Research of Tropical Forest Science 11(1):3646.
(CIFOR), Jakarta, Indonesia. Parrotta J.A. 1992. The role of plantation forests in
Cusack, D., and Montagnini, F. 2004. The role of rehabilitating degraded tropical ecosystems. Agri-
native species plantations in recovery of under- culture, Ecosystems and Environment 41:115133.
55. Attempting to Restore Biodiversity in Even-Aged Plantations 391
392
56. Best Practice for Industrial Plantations 393
enhance social values by providing benets ties can help to reduce problems. A number of
to local communities. tools exist:
Sound environmental management prac-
Initial cost-benet analysis: draws on desk
tices: the industry should adopt management
studies, remote sensing, and initial site
practices that minimise environmental
surveys to determine whether further invest-
impacts such as air and water pollution,
ment is justiable, and covers government
forest res, soil erosion, pest invasion, and
policies and regulations; tenure; social issues
biodiversity loss.
relating to local communities; geography
Respect for rights of local communities
(soil, climate, topography); existing land use;
and indigenous peoples: the industry should
nearby protected areas; existing and planned
recognise legal and customary rights of local
infrastructure (roads, rivers, etc.); options for
and indigenous communities to own, use, and
plantation species; and economics.
manage their lands, territories, and resources.
Feasibility study: provides the information
Positive social impacts: the industry should
needed to make the decision about whether
maintain or enhance the social and econo-
or not to go ahead with the project, covering
mic well-being of plantation workers and
topography; vegetation/land cover; ecology
communities.495
and biodiversity; soils; hydrology of major
Procient regulatory frameworks: regulatory
watercourses and ground water sources;
frameworks should encourage best practices.
land use and land rights; socioeconomics;
At a minimum, the industry should respect
interest in investment projects; eld trials of
all national laws. Responsible behaviour will
possible plantation species if necessary; and
often require performance standards exceed-
economics.
ing local and national laws, especially where
Principles for plantation establishment:
regulatory frameworks are underdeveloped
several existing principles provide the basis
or governance is weak.
for site location and should include minimis-
Transparency: the industry should adopt and
ing impact on important natural habitats
make public, policies, practices, and imple-
and minimising detrimental impacts on local
mentation plans pertaining to their social and
human communities.
environmental performance. They should
encourage independent, publicly available
performance monitoring, involving local 2.2. Managing Plantations
stakeholders in both development of stan-
Once a suitable site has been identied, care
dards and performance monitoring.
needs to be taken to minimise the environ-
mental and social costs of the plantation,
with particular emphasis on groundwater con-
2. Outline of Tools tamination, soil erosion, and re disturbance.
Several codes of practice and detailed guide-
Assuring that plantations play a positive rather
lines exist496 and it is possible to apply for a
than a negative role depends on two factors:
credible third-party certication scheme. An
locating plantations in places where they do not
outline guide to best practice is given in Table
destroy valuable natural habitat or undermine
56.1, designed to be used as a site-level rapid
peoples livelihood options, and managing them
assessment tool.497
in ways that minimise detrimental impacts.
401
402 N. Dudley
critical levels or because forest loss is causing found in the absence of humans. But many of
wider problems such as siltation of freshwater the worlds forests have only developed since
or mangroves498. One implication has been Homo sapiens evolved and have never existed
increased support for restoration activities in a pristine prehuman state. More speci-
within conservation programmes, including by cally, the social goals of many restoration
the Convention on Biological Diversity. activities mean that some useful forests may
be profoundly unnatural if they are primarily
aimed at, for instance, supplying food or energy.
1.2. Restoration Needs to Be This is sometimes also the case from the
Integrated with Protection perspective of biodiversity conservation, for
and Management instance, when forests are suppressed by re to
Restoration is generally a time-limited process, provide savannah habitat or conversely where
albeit often a lengthy one, that will eventually forests are already so small and fragmented
result in an ecosystem that either can function that re is articially suppressed to protect
by itself, perhaps in a protected area, or remnant species. Setting end points for restora-
requires some level of continual management. tion remains a challenge in many cases and one
One important element in planning restoration that involves asking larger questions about the
is to decide how a restored forest will be long-term aims of both conservation and devel-
managed in the long term, which itself helps to opment within a landscape.
decide what type of restoration activities are
required. The transition between restoration
1.4. A Suite of Responses
and management can sometimes be quite
is Required
subtle; for instance, removal of alien invasive
species may involve a single operation or a Experience from WWFs project portfolio and
long-term management task. Restoration may from other restoration initiatives suggests that
sometimes be an intervention in a landscape the traditional focus of restoration projects on
that is already protected or managed for some establishing tree nurseries and tree planting is
other purpose. For example, efforts to increase usually irrelevant in terms of creating major
the deadwood component in some Finnish changes to forest cover or forest quality,
protected areas involve articially creating although there are exceptions to this general
deadwood to help maintain a few endangered rule. Large-scale tree planting is also too costly
saproxylic species (see Restoration of Dead- an option for most situations. The programme
wood as a Critical Microhabitat in Forest Land- has experimented with ve different responses:
scapes); it is assumed that in the future natural
processes will maintain this microhabitat. 1. Policy changes that can increase the pro-
portion of natural regeneration or near-natural
forest management on a major scalefor
1.3. Restoration Should Be example, work with the Vietnamese and
Regarded as a Process Chinese governments aiming at making strate-
Restoration, being a time-limited intervention, gic changes to policy initiatives like the Chinese
is different from other forms of permanent Grain for Green Programme and Vietnams
management, including protection. Specic 5-million Hectare Programme, which both
restoration projects, therefore, need to identify currently focus almost exclusively on planta-
an end point.This raises philosophical and prac- tions, to increase the proportion of natural
tical questions about what such an end point regeneration within these programmes (see
could be; many conservation organisations Perverse Policy Incentives and case study
implicitly assume that restoration should seek Monitoring Forest Landscape Restoration in
to re-create a natural forest such as might be Vietnam).
2. Stakeholder involvement and negotiation
498
Dudley and Mansourian, 2003. at a landscape or ecoregional scale to create
57. What Has WWF Learned About Restoration? 403
conditions conducive to natural regeneration are currently still focussed on a very narrow
for example, work with local organisations in band of options, including a predominant
New Caledonia and Madagascar (see case emphasis on large-scale exotic monocultures.
study Madagascar: Developing a Forest Land- While these may well have a role in the land-
scape Restoration Initiative in a Landscape in scape, they are only one fairly small part of what
the Moist Forest) that aims to agree on prior- makes up a forest estate. Work with govern-
ities and actions that will benet both human ments in countries as diverse as Vietnam, China,
society and wildlife Madagascar, Morocco, the United Kingdom,
3. Management interventions to change the and Portugal has shown that there is also a will-
nature of forest management and thus increase ingness to look at new approaches. Progressing
forest qualityfor example, initiatives being from words to actions, including changing well-
undertaken by WWFs European Forest Team funded schemes that have already developed
in terms of responses following major storms or some momentum, is a considerable challenge,
policies toward management of dead timber in but is probably the way of making the largest
secondary forests (see Restoring Forests After impact. However, policy work is seldom as
Violent Storms and the chapter cited above on popular as practical projects with donor agen-
deadwood.) cies or other bodies that might support restora-
4. Use of specialist knowledge in the devel- tion, as the latter provide instant results for
opment and dissemination of technical expert- reporting, whereas the impacts of changes in
ise to facilitate restorationfor example, the policy, whilst often more profound, are harder
guidance being developed in Portugal with the to report. Building support for long-term policy
aim of helping improve use of European Union work on restoration is an urgent priority.
grants (see case study The European Unions
Afforestation Policies and their Real Impact on
1.6. Success or Failure is Hard
Forest Restoration) or the use of economic
to Measure
analysis to make the case for natural regenera-
tion of endangered island forest ecosystems Work on Integrated Conservation and Devel-
in the Danube (see Practical Interventions opment Projects (ICDPs) suggests that a good
that will support Restoration in Broad-scale monitoring and evaluation system is often the
Conservation). key to success, giving project staff the informa-
5. Small-scale strategic tree planting, linked tion needed for the adaptive management that
to identication of need through, geographical is always needed in a complex project499. Devel-
information system (GIS) mapping and eld opment of a monitoring programme, therefore,
surveysfor example, to reconnect elephant was the rst discrete piece of work undertaken
habitat through oil palm plantations along the by the WWF restoration programme and this
banks of the Kinabatangan River in Sabah, has been tested and applied but is still a long
Malaysia, to allow natural movement of ele- way from capturing all relevant data (see
phant herds, and to reduce other impacts of Monitoring Forest Landscape Restoration in
forest fragmentation (see Restoring Quality in Vietnam). Many of the changes aimed for by
Existing Native Forest Landscapes) restoration programme are inevitably subtle,
may be slow to emerge, and are not easy to
capture in simple statistics. Monitoring of
1.5. Policy Changes are Often the
impacts or outcomes is inevitably a long-term
Most Urgent Challenge
process. Yet these are precisely the kind of data
A succession of national and international that many governments and funding agencies
commitments, practical projects, and workshops require, and much work needs to be done on
have demonstrated general support amongst better monitoring systems.
governments, businesses, and communities to
look seriously at the question of restoration.
However, most large-scale restoration projects 499
McShane and Wells, 2004.
404 N. Dudley
405
406 U. Chokkalingam et al
tion of products should be considered from the related and occurred across different project
start if rehabilitation aims at economic objec- types with different implementing actors,
tives. Integrated production systems (e.g., agro- project scales, objectives, funding sources, and
forestry, livestock, and sh) can help increase socioeconomic conditions. Project types ranged
food security and overcome market instability. from government-driven reforestation to com-
Positive and negative cases exemplifying this munity-based forest management, joint man-
lesson exist in all six study countries. agement, state or private company plantations,
3. Ensure clear and appropriate institutional companycommunity partnerships, cooperative
support and arrangements. Strong and appro- or group activities, integrated livelihood proj-
priate institutional support is critical for pro- ects, and private tree farming or agroforestry.
moting investment and local participation in Each of the three lessons is illustrated below
rehabilitation projects, and ensuring their sus- with cases from different countries. Some cases
tainability. This includes clear and undisputed are illustrative of more than one of the speci-
land-tenure status, a facilitating legal frame- ed lessons, but have been placed under the
work and policies, and good coordination major lesson to which they relate.
among agencies at different levels. Also impor-
tant are formalised institutional arrangements
with clear division of tasks, rights, costs, and
benets among multiple stakeholders as a result 2. Examples
of thorough and mutually acceptable negotia-
tions. Clear and mutually accepted institutional 2.1. Strengthen Local Organisation
arrangements help to avoid conicts, support and Participation in
coordinated project management and full- Rehabilitation Projects
ment of assigned tasks, and ensure agreed-upon
benet ows to different stakeholders and their 2.1.1. KMYLB (Farmers Association
stake in the long-term success of the project. for Forest Land Inc.)
Enforcement of agreements is an important Agroforestry Development
part of such institutional arrangements. Positive Corporation, Brgy, Nugas, Alcoy,
and negative cases exemplifying this lesson exist Cebu, Philippines
in Vietnam, China, and Indonesia.
KMYLB is a community-based forest manage-
These three factors that contribute to suc- ment (CBFM) project of the government of
cessful forest rehabilitation are highly inter- the Philippines Department of Environment
408 U. Chokkalingam et al
committee of ecological farmers who adopted The mill, however, provided a stable market
low-impact production strategies (including where people could sell wood products, and
agroforestry and management of naturally they responded by starting to grow trees.
regrowing forests) in buffer zones of protected
areas. The project promoted community
involvement in conserving and managing their 2.2.2. Rehabilitation of Degraded
natural resources, in generating added value for Pasture Lands Project
their products, and in developing markets for Alternative Association of
nontraditional timber species. Producers, Brazilian Amazon
The Alternative Association of Producers
2.2. Consider Local Socioeconomic (APA) in the Municipality of Ouro Preto
Needs in Choice of Approaches DOeste, Rondnia, Brazilian Amazon, was
and Options funded in 1992 by small-scale farmers in the
region with the objective of providing land-
2.2.1. The Bai Bang Pulp and Paper use alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture
Mill, Vietnam502 and cattle ranching. With the support of
government-sponsored programmes (Type A
The Bai Bang Pulp and Paper Mill Project in Ministry of Environment, Brazilian Fund for
Vietnam costing $360 million was implemented Biodiversity) and NGOs (Movement Laici
between 1974 and 1992. The project was Latin American, Group of Research and Exten-
designed by the Vietnamese government and sion in Agroforestry Systems of Acre-Pesacre),
Swedish Development Assistance with little APA focussed work on rehabilitating degraded
consideration of how sufcient wood supply pastures and secondary regrowth through
could be obtained from the surrounding region, integrated production systems involving the
where there was high pressure on the land from planting of various fruit and forest tree species
small farmers who subsisted on low-technology along with aquaculture and bee keeping. With
agriculture and grazing. As a result, the mill around 300 participating families, the associa-
operated at less than full capacity for a long tion has improved the infrastructure for
time. The local population challenged the processing and commercialisation of the
monopoly on the wood and forest land claimed diverse products coming out from the rehabili-
by the forestry sector. Only a minor part of the tated areas, which include fruit pulp and syrups,
wood and bamboo cut by forest enterprises canned palm hearts, honey, guarana powder,
could be used in the mill, as some 50 percent medicinal oils, and furniture from wood
was diverted, for instance, to Hanoi as fuel- residue. Labour conditions and quality of life of
wood. Population pressure on the forest lands the families have improved signicantly, con-
increased with the construction of new roads tributing to the sustainability of this project.
and loss of jobs in the forest enterprises.
However, in recent years private farmers have
been selling wood to the mill, thereby altering 2.2.3. Project in Vila de Novo Paraso,
the supply situation dramatically, and the mill Municipality of So Geraldo
is now producing at capacity. Some state forest do Araguaia, Par State,
enterprises are still in operation and producing Brazilian Amazon
wood for Bai Bang, but much of the current
supply of mostly bamboo is grown and sold by AGROCANP (Associaao dos Pequenos
farmers. One important failure of the whole Productores do Groto dos Caboclos de Novo
process was inadequate project planning that Paraso), an association of small-scale farmers
led to the adoption of inappropriate strategies. and residents of the community of Novo
Paraso, started a project to rehabilitate
degraded areas in several farmers lands in
502
Ohlsson et al, 2004. 1996. The project was supported by an NGO
410 U. Chokkalingam et al
and funding from a government programme education, health, and other services have also
(Type AMinistry of Environment). The activi- improved.
ties proposed by the project included the intro- What differentiates this case from numerous
duction of production systems based on the others is that the effort was not a top-down
agroforestry practice known as agriculture in approach with the government forcing an ini-
stages, which consists of establishing herb, tiative on the community. Rather, the govern-
shrub, and woody species together with small, ment acted appropriately in response to local
medium-sized, and large tree species in the needs and provided strong institutional and
same area. This project experienced the same nancial support for the local initiative. Local
problems already found in various other proj- institutions were recognised and empowered,
ects implemented in the Amazon in the 1970s technical support was provided, and the com-
and 1980s. Farmers did not participate directly munity was allowed to sell timber and to
in the initial project proposal and even less in continue its activities. The community itself was
the selection of species to be included in the highly motivated to transform the area and its
agroforestry modules. There was no market livelihoods, and were also supported by strong
prospecting or planning for the products to be leadership from within. Rights and responsibil-
grown. Labour investment was too high, and ities were clearly divided among the govern-
there was little security of production and ment, the forestry agency, and community
income. Given this situation, families aban- groups in the implementation of this effort.
doned the agroforestry modules and returned
to their only income source, livestock rearing
2.3.2. Diversied Institutional
for milk production, despite much criticism.
Arrangements in
Guangdong, China
2.3. Ensure Clear and Appropriate
Institutional Support The province of Guangdong in southern China
and Arrangements has had considerable experience in recent years
with formalising institutional arrangements,
2.3.1. Farm Forestry in Gunung Kidul, and clarifying rights and roles of different
Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia stakeholders to ensure the success and sustain-
ability of its extensive rehabilitation efforts.
Gunung Kidul used to be a dry area with With these efforts, Guangdong has increased its
limited water supply that made it a poor region. forest cover from 27 to 57 percent of the land
The local community started rehabilitating the area from 1985 to 2003. The provinces experi-
degraded land in the 1970s. The local govern- ences with diverse institutional arrangements
ment then supported community efforts are serving as models for the rehabilitation of
through formal recognition of the community degraded forest lands nationwide.503 Tenure
initiative, the provision of facilitating local reg- stabilisation, institutional reform in the rural
ulations, and funding support. The community areas, and opening up of wood markets helped
and the local forestry agency successfully to stimulate the involvement of different
rehabilitated the area using participatory stakeholders in rehabilitation. Diversied
approaches. The dry landscape of 11,072 institutional arrangements among stakeholders
hectares has been afforested with mainly teak appeared, such as cooperative and joint
and some Acacia sp., and now provides both afforestation by different levels of government,
wood and ecological benets. Land productiv- state forest farms with village committees, and
ity, forest cover, and water availability in the village committees with private individuals;
area have increased, sedimentation rates have stock sharing; and private investment on leased
decreased, and the microclimate has improved. land. From 1999 to 2000, Guangdong issued a
All of the above have in turn resulted in series of favourable policies further encourag-
increased supply of timber, fodder, and
fuelwood. Community income and access to 503
SFA (State Forestry Administration), 1999.
58. Local Participation, Livelihood Needs, and Institutional Arrangements 411
ing and facilitating the development of private in Bac Giang, Quang Ninh, and Lang Son
commercial afforestation. There have been provinces in northern Vietnam. Since their start
540,000 private entities (including private indi- (in 1995, 1999, and 2001, respectively), the
viduals, and private, civil, and foreign enter- projects have established some 23,000 hectares
prises) that have invested in afforestation in of new forest through plantation and natural
Guangdong using a wide range of institutional regeneration and have established 17,000
arrangements since 1993, and they have deposit accounts with a total savings of 2.5
contributed to rehabilitation of 1.04 million million Euros.505 The projects have had positive
hectares of degraded lands with fast-growing results because they effectively implemented
and high-yielding plantation forests by 2003.504 early on the national forest land allocation
The development of different types of man- programme such that participant farmers had
agement options involving multiple institutions clear rights over their land. The project worked
in Guangdong was accompanied by a clear in 80 communes (each with several villages)
division of responsibilities, rights, and benets and established forest farm groups and com-
of the different stakeholders through formal pleted village land use planning in 75 of them.
contracts. For example, in the 30-year joint In addition, funds invested into the project
afforestation projects of the Chikan and Xian- were carefully directed to generate benets for
gang towns of Kaiping city, the state forest participating farmers, while strict responsibili-
farms offer funds and technology, the village ties were agreed upon. This combination of
committees provide the degraded forest land, three essential factorsclear tenure, benets
and the town forestry stations guarantee super- for participating farmers, and agreements on
vision. Rights, responsibilities, and cost- and roles and responsibilitiesexplains the success
benet-sharing arrangements are rst decided of this project.
by negotiation among the three stakeholders
and then spelt out in a contract. Net prots
from the fast-growing high-yielding timber and 3. Outline of Tools
resin plantations within the 30-year contract
period would be shared by these stakeholders 3.1. Strengthen Local Organisation
in agreed proportions50 percent due to the and Participation in Projects
investing party, 40 percent due to the land-
The literature is replete with tools to streng-
owning party, and 10 percent to the man-
then local participation and collaboration in
agement party. The investing party has
resource management. Key volumes include
decision-making rights from project planning
Borrini-Feyerabend506, the Food and Agricul-
to implementation, and responsibilities for
ture Organisations (FAO) series for commu-
afforestation and plantation protection. The
nity forest management, and training materials
land-owning and management parties have
from the Regional Community Forestry Train-
consulting rights from project planning to
ing Center for Asia and the Pacic, in Bangkok.
implementation, and responsibility for protect-
These include participatory tools and processes
ing the plantations from man-made or natural
for social communication, information gather-
disasters. The land is to be delivered back to the
ing and assessment, local organisational devel-
village committees within half a year after the
opment, planning, implementation, considering
projects expiration.
local knowledge, conict management, and
monitoring and evaluation. CIFOR has devel-
2.3.3. Three KfW-Funded Afforestation oped interactive tools (Co-learn507) for collabo-
Projects, Northern Vietnam rative learning and creating shared visions
and pathways to reach these visions. General
Three afforestation projects funded by the
German Development Bank (KfW) operated 505
KfW Project in Brief, 2003.
506
Borrini-Feyerabend, 1997.
504 507
Deng Huizhen, 2003. CIFOR, ACM Team, 2003.
412 U. Chokkalingam et al
criteria and indicators or guidelines are avail- combines ecological sustainability and social
able for community participation and organisa- and nancial objectives in small-scale, low
tion, conict management, and use of local capital, low-skills enterprises. Networking espe-
knowledge in community managed land- cially between technicians working on forest
scapes508, plantation landscapes509 and restora- products and potential producers and markets
tion of degraded landscapes.510 Tools have also is also mentioned as a possible approach.
been designed to engage local forest dwellers in Numerous sets of indicators have been devel-
collaborative development of criteria and indi- oped within CIFOR and elsewhere for assess-
cators for sustainable forest management using ing and evaluating socioeconomic impacts of
their local knowledge.511 Many of these tools different projects, processes, or policy changes.
are directly applicable or can be easily adapted The current rehabilitation review study has a
to strengthen participation in rehabilitation set of such indicators specically tailored
projects. for assessing the impacts of rehabilitation
initiatives.
3.2. Consider Local Socioeconomic
Needs in Choices of 3.3. Ensure Clear and Appropriate
Approaches Institutional Support and
Arrangements
DFIDs (the UK Department for International
Development) sustainable livelihoods toolbox The FAO516 provides a rapid appraisal tool for
provides numerous tools for using sustainable tree and land tenure. Participatory mapping can
livelihoods approaches at different stages of the be used to develop and afrm agreements
project cycle, from planning to implementation, among stakeholders about tenure bound-
monitoring, and evaluation. The FAO512 has a aries.517 Other tools available to design and
manual on selecting tree species based on assess institutional arrangements and support
community needs. Ames513 describes methods include group and key informant interviews,
for comparing the economic value of producing Venn diagrams, matrices, ow diagrams,
commercial forest products with other local cost-benet analysis of different institutional
income earning opportunities. The ITTO options, stakeholder analysis518, and the 4 Rs
restoration guidelines514 provide numerous approach, which attempts to dene stakehold-
suggestions on livelihood-enhancing activities, ers by their respective rights, responsibilities,
including evaluating prospects for forest returns from a given resource, and relation-
products and environmental service payments, ships.519 The 4 Rs approach draws attention
evaluating different rehabilitation options and to tenure issues as crucial in shaping peoples
trade-offs with other land uses, adding value to differentiated concerns with and capacities to
rehabilitation products, and developing part- manage land and trees. Relationships among
nerships for processing and marketing. stakeholders comprise various facets: service,
Various tools have been outlined and legal/contractual, market, information ex-
assessed for processing and commercialisation change, and power. CIFOR has developed
of forest products including business planning, general criteria and indicators for institutional
the enterprise development approach, and agreements, land tenure, and legal frameworks
market analysis and development.515 The latter to ensure sustainability of community-managed
and large-scale plantation landscapes.
508
Ritchie et al, 2000.
509
Poulsen et al, 2001.
510
ITTO, 2002.
511
Haggith et al, 1999.
512 516
FAO, 1995. FAO, 1994.
513 517
Ames, 1998. Wollenberg et al, 2002.
514 518
ITTO, 2002. Grimble and Chan, 1995.
515 519
Lecup et al, 1998. Vira et al, 1998.
58. Local Participation, Livelihood Needs, and Institutional Arrangements 413
Lecup, I., Nicholson, K., Purwandono, H., and Karki, Sayer, J., Chokkalingam, U., and Poulsen, J. 2004. The
S. 1998. Methods for assessing the feasibility of restoration of forest biodiversity and ecological
sustainable non-timber forest product-based values. Forest Ecology and Management 201:311.
enterprises. In: Wollenberg, E., and Ingles, A., eds. SFA (State Forestry Administration). 1999. Forestry
Incomes from the Forest: Methods for the Devel- development of China. Chinese Forestry Publish-
opment and Conservation of Forest Products for ing House, Beijing.
Local Communities. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia, Sim, H.C., Appanah, S., and Durst, P.B., eds. 2003.
and IUCN. Bringing back the forests, Policies and Practices
Ohlsson, B., Sandewall, M., Sandewall, R.K., and for degraded lands and forests. Proceedings of an
Phon, N.H. 2004. Government plans and farmers international conference, 710 October 2002,
intentionsa study on forest land use planning in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, FAO Regional Ofce for
Vietnam. Ambio; in press. Asia and Pacic, Bangkok, Thailand.
Poulsen, J., Applegate, G., and Raymond, D. 2001. Vira, B., Dubois, O., Daniels, S.E., and Walker, G.B.
Linking C&I to a code of practice for industrial 1998. Institutional pluralism in forestry: consider-
tropical tree plantations. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia. ations of analytical and operational tools.
Ritchie, B., McDougall, C., Haggith, M., and Burford Unasylva 49(194):3542.
de Oliveira, N. 2000. Criteria and indicators of sus- Wollenberg, E., Anau, N., Iwan, R., van heist, M,
tainability in community managed forest land- Limberg, G., and Sudana M. 2002. Building agree-
scapes: an introductory guide. CIFOR, Bogor, ments among stakeholders. ITTO Tropical Forest
Indonesia. Update 12(2):17.
59
A Way Forward: Working Together
Toward a Vision for Restored
Forest Landscapes
Stephanie Mansourian, Mark Aldrich, and Nigel Dudley
415
416 S. Mansourian et al
foresters look at the potential for restoration, and it would appear that for restoration to
and development organisations promote sus- make a difference, it usually needs to be
tainable agriculture (see, for instance, Chapters planned and implemented at the landscape
10, 13, 18, and 21). scale in the context of forest protection and
6. Restoration is a moving target with no management and other interrelated elements in
ultimate end state; rather, the most preferable the landscape (see, for instance, Chapter 7).
end state is for the landscape to be nudged into 14. Financing restoration is a challenge. A
the tracks of a natural trajectory. While refer- number of possible sources exist: the public
ence landscapes and forests are essential to sector (through subsidies and incentives), the
help set a target for restoration, they are not the private sector (through payments for environ-
only element to consider, as long-term human mental services and ethical investments), and
interaction with forests and the evolution of multilateral and aid agencies (through grants).
cultural landscapes, and anticipation of future Through the Kyoto protocol there is potential
changes, such as climatic patterns, all need to be to nance restoration, although there remains
factored in when setting goals for restoration of some uncertainty and concerns over these
forest landscapes (see Chapters 14 and 15). carbon sink projects as critics argue that
7. Environmental, socioeconomic, and polit- funds and efforts should go toward reducing
ical circumstances evolve during the (lengthy) fossil fuel emissions at their sources rather
duration of a restoration initiative, thus adding than absorbing carbon (see Chapters 22, 23,
complexity to the planning of a restoration ini- and 24).
tiative. Climate change is another factor adding 15. Agriculture and forests often compete
complexity and uncertainty to the process (see, for land. Restoring landscapes using agro-
for instance, Chapters 4, 5 and 9). forestry systems can help manage trade-offs
8. To achieve a restored landscape that can between the two (see Chapter 40).
satisfy different stakeholders needs, negotia- 16. For restoration purposes, it is important
tion and trade-offs will be essential (see Chap- to understand the role of re presence in the
ters 8 and 18). landscape. In some cases re is an important
9. Incentives for maintaining and/or restor- element, while in others it is wholly unnatural
ing forests are limited by insecure ownership to (see Chapters 39 and 47).
forest land or unclear access to forest products 17. Restoration after storms has often not
(see Chapter 12). been well managed. As storms are predicted
10. Restoration is implemented to reverse to become more frequent because of climate
not only forest loss but also forest degradation. change, a challenge is to use the media atten-
In response, the improvement of forest quality tion they create to lobby for better policies and
requires addressing forest composition, improved enforcement (see Chapter 48).
pattern, functioning, the process of renewal, 18. Well-managed industrial plantations may
resilience, and continuity (see Chapter 26). have a role to play in the restoration of forest
11. Persistent challenges for forest landscape landscapes as one element in a landscape
restoration relate to planning at large scales, the mosaic that provides a mix of production and
integration of social and ecological dimensions, environmental functions (see Chapters 54 and
and monitoring within large areas (see, for 56).
instance, Chapters 9, 13, 20, and 21). 19. Three key lessons that have emerged
12. Restoration need not always be done in from a comprehensive study led by CIFOR of
the most direct or obvious manner; for instance, past afforestation/reforestation efforts in six
promoting alternative income generation prac- countries show that there is need to strengthen
tices may help relieve pressure on land and thus local organisation and participation; there is a
support natural regeneration (see Chapter 19). need to consider local socioeconomic needs in
13. Even with pure biodiversity conservation choices of approaches and options; and there is
aims, forest protection is no longer sufcient, a need to ensure clear and appropriate institu-
59. A Way Forward 417
tional support and arrangements (see Chapter 2. An adaptive management approach: Given
58). the long-term nature of restoration, and the
level of uncertainty involved as well as chang-
ing conditions, it is important to ensure that
3. An Emerging Framework there is leeway in the system for adaptive
for Forest Landscape management. It is also important to promote
an experimental approach or a learning by
Restoration doing approach. This will be effective only
with appropriate monitoring and tracking tools
As a result of compiling this book and the key
in place.
lessons identied, it appears that there is an
3. An integrated approach: It is important
urgent need for a comprehensive framework
to consider restoration not in isolation from
that will help managers make choices (provid-
other conservation and development projects,
ing options) based on state of degradation,
but rather as an integral part of joint efforts to
impact of forest loss/degradation, funding,
achieve a sustainable ecosystem or landscape.
available human resources, political and insti-
This implies better integration of restoration
tutional considerations, size of the area, aim of
within current planning approaches, including,
the restoration, etc.
for instance, those related to protected area
This section outlines such a framework for
selection or forest management, but also
restoring forests in landscapes and includes
development-oriented projects, species conser-
under each element the identied gaps in
vation, freshwater projects, etc. It is also
current knowledge, tools, and approaches.
important to approach forest protection,
Once rened and tested, this framework
management, and restoration as elements of a
could form a companion set of tools to existing
holistic approach to forests.
conservation frameworks, such as WWFs
ecoregional methodology, the Nature Conser-
vancys 5-S approach, or the systematic con- 3.1. The Elements of the Emerging
servation planning pioneered in New South Framework for Forest
Wales. Many of the elements drawn from this Landscape Restoration
book provide the basis for such a framework,
Thirteen elements are proposed for this frame-
although we are aware that much remains to be
work, each of which is explained in further
developed over the next few years.
detail below.
This framework would entail the following:
1. A systems approach, reecting the com- 1. Assessment of impacts of forest loss and of
plexity of the overall system (landscape) and restoration
the relationship between its partsboth 2. Addressing underlying causes of forest loss
ecological and social. A landscape needing res- and degradation
toration is a dysfunctional system where the 3. Supportive political environment
components are unable to full all their poten- 4. Negotiation and prioritisation
tial roles. Therefore, taking a systems approach 5. Setting multiple objectives for restoration
allows a better understanding of the whole and in the landscape
helps to ensure an integrated approach to the 6. Empowerment and engagement
restoration of functions of the different parts. 7. Multiple scales of implementation
For instance, many restoration initiatives cur- 8. Implementation through multidisciplinary
rently focus solely on reestablishing tree cover, teams
rather than on entire communities of plants 9. Modelling and decision-support tools
and animals, or fail to address issues such as 10. Sustainable nancing
environmental services or original landscape 11. Measuring changes in landscape values
patterns. (monitoring and evaluation)
418 S. Mansourian et al
ent needs and expectations from the landscape. Guidance on the evaluation of ecological and
For this reason it becomes essential to negoti- social aspects within the concept of high con-
ate restoration interventions and their out- servation value forests and on the role of
comes as they will impact on many people. restoration techniques in addressing them.
Questions to address include:
How do those initiating a restoration project
3.1.6. Empowerment and Engagement
agree with other stakeholders on priority
areas for restoration? A necessary element of the framework will be
More specically, how do they determine to ensure that the right people have a say in
core areas, minimum viable areas, the type decisions that will affect their future and the
of forest to be restored, etc., within the con- land they live on. Although there is a wealth
straints of those living in the landscape? of experience in participatory approaches to
How can stakeholders reach agreement on conservation and development, most of these
trade-offs between social, economic and are implemented on a relatively small scale
ecological priorities? (village or community) and much still needs
to be learned about effective participation
Outstanding needs include:
across a whole landscape.
Identifying how the restoration of forested Outstanding needs include:
landscapes can be achieved in areas of inten-
Tools to engage stakeholders in restoration
sive, competing land uses (see, for instance,
efforts effectively across a wider landscape
Chapters 40 and 45)
(see, for instance, Chapter 18)
Processes to negotiate and manage trade-offs
A better understanding of the role of forests
between multiple interests (including specif-
in both poverty prevention and poverty
ically agriculture and forest restoration) (see
reduction (see Chapter 4).
Chapters 8 and 40)
More practical experience in negotiating
trade-offs when looking at restoring forest 3.1.7. Multiple Scales of
functions in a landscape (see Chapters 8 and Implementation
18).
As it appears that many factors beyond simply
the technicalities of, for example, seed propa-
3.1.5. Setting Multiple Objectives for gation affect restoration, planning a restoration
Restoration in the Landscape effort needs to be done at large scales and at
The tendency has been to limit restoration proj- different levels, with many different people.
ects to one or two objectives, yet the reality is Nonetheless, ultimately that large-scale plan
that in complex landscapes with different stake- will need to translate into a series of site-based
holders, successful restoration will need to have efforts that contribute to the overall landscape
a number of objectives. In practically all cir- effort.
cumstances it will be particularly important Outstanding needs include:
to achieve both ecological and socioeconomic More experience about making the transition
goals for restoration. from planning to execution within large-scale
Outstanding needs include: restoration efforts (see, for instance, Chapter
Much better understanding of the likely 57)
process of forest restoration itself, along
with more accurate methods of measuring 3.1.8. Implementation Through
progress (see, for instance, Chapters 9 and
Multidisciplinary Teams
14)
Improved knowledge about how to manage To address social, economic, political, and in-
forests for multiple products and objectives stitutional aspects of restoring a landscape,
420 S. Mansourian et al
restoration efforts will need to involve more costs to landowners, payment for environ-
disciplines than they have to date. The estab- mental services, and the implementation of
lishment and systematic use of multidiscipli- tax incentives (see Chapters 36 and 40)
nary teams will be critical to successful New and innovative ways to fund forest
restoration in landscapes. restoration including more alternative
Outstanding needs include: options to make restoration nancially
attractive (see, for instance, Chapters 23, 24
Rened approaches for undertaking inte-
and 31)
grated and multidisciplinary analyses and
A better understanding of what mechanisms
project implementation
need to be in place for different payment for
Improved cooperation at local and interna-
environmental services (PES) systems to
tional levels between different agencies and
work; and also better understanding about
nongovernmental organisations (NGOs)
the impacts of PES schemes on poor people
(see, for instance, Chapters 13 and 58).
and how the poor can really benet from
PES (see Chapter 23)
3.1.9. Modelling and Decision-Support Information on regrouping or bundling
Tools different ecosystem services
Analyses of nancial and environmental
Improved modelling techniques can assist in costs and benets of restoration options and
the formulation of a concerted and shared plan their effects on forest productivity, species
for restoring a landscape. Whilst sophisticated recovery, biodiversity, and carbon sequestra-
modelling approaches have been developed for tion (see Chapter 52).
other aspects of conservation, such as protected
area selection, they remain poorly developed
for restoration decision making.
Outstanding needs include: 3.1.11. Measuring Changes in
Participatory GIS-based decision-support Landscape Values (Monitoring
tools to guide choices (of restoration inter- and Evaluation)
vention, of species mixes, of locations, etc.) A number of monitoring needs have been
related to restoration within landscapes (see repeatedly identied throughout this book.
Chapter 16). Despite expertise in survey methods, there is
still much to be learnt about accurate ways of
monitoring of both biodiversity and, more crit-
3.1.10. Sustainable Financing
ically, ecological integrity, but also the socioe-
To promote restoration, we need arguments conomic dimension of forest restoration in
that can, where possible, also be described in landscapes that will allow proper assessment of
economic terms. This can be achieved through restoration outcomes over time. Monitoring is
better valuation of the range of goods and also necessary to help guide the choice of the
services that forests provide. best restoration method under different condi-
Outstanding needs include: tions. Lessons learnt from many past restora-
tion efforts are still being gathered and these
The development of strategies for decreasing
are important to guide future interventions and
operating costs and increasing incentives for
reorientate current ones.
stimulating natural regeneration in applying
Outstanding needs include:
the restoration methods developed at the
experimental scale to the restoration of large Improvement in methodologies for monitor-
areas. For example, it is important to consider ing and evaluating human well-being in the
the increase in the production capacity of the context of restoration (see Chapters 20 and
restored area, compensation for opportunity 21)
59. A Way Forward 421
have more healthy forests that are able to look back in 20 or 30 years and agree that the
support people and biodiversity into an uncer- rst decades of the 21st century really did mark
tain future. the start of a global effort to successfully
If we do this, and learn and adapt from the restore the worlds damaged and degraded
lessons and experiences along the way, then we forest areas for future generations of biodiver-
can realise this vision, and we will be able to sity and people.
Appendix 1
Selection of Identied Ecological
Research Needs Relating to
Forest Restoration
424
Appendix 1 425
427
428 Index
future needs, 155, 420421 natural succession see succession, old-growth, denition, 112
indicator selection, 151152 natural open-cast mining reclamation,
as key to success, 403 naturalness 910, 264, 292, 370375
long-term, 96, 118 assessment, 210211 conceptual framework, 371
as management tool, 103 components, 185186 future needs, 375
of plantations, 397 Neem tree, 235 laws, 375
pressures, 288 negotiation planning, 371
tools, 154155 alternative to, 129 problems of mine soils, 372
vital attributes, 153 cultural considerations, 130 tools, 374375
monoculture plantations, 246, need for, 418 opportunity costs, 86, 104
292293 phases, 132 Oregon, USA, H.J. Andrews
monocultures, mosaics of, 246 principles, 128, 131 Experimental Forest,
Morocco, forest restoration, 318 process, 130132 110111
Mount Kenya national park, 299 skills, 131 organic matter addition, 195
mountain gorillas, 19 of trade-offs, 6162, 279 original forests, denitions, 112
Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Nepal, community forestry, 27 outgrower schemes, 162
India, 111 New Caledonia overland ow, 350
multicriteria evaluation (MCE), forest loss, 18 overlogged forests
62, 115, 117118 invasive species control, 347 denition, 361
multidisciplinary teams, 420 tropical dry forests restoration, 363367
multifunctionality, 6, 60, 216 programme, 6869, 9798, area protection, 365
promotion, 95 140, 287288 future needs, 367
multilateral donors, 139, 163 New York City, water supply, 230 logging practice
multipurpose tree, 275 New York State, salvage logging improvements, 363
mycorrhizae inoculation, 264, ban, 341 planning, 365366
289, 294 Nicaragua, biodiversity reasons, 363
conservation payments, silvicultural interventions,
N 169 366367
Nairobi, Kenya, water supply, 230 Niger, watershed restoration, 353 overseas development assistance
national level surveys, 1920 nontimber forest products (ODA), 162, 163
native forests (NTFPs) overstorey removal, 366
denition, 112 community-based income- ownership, forest see forest
restoration, 186, 190191, 195 generating systems based ownership
native species on, 220
endangered, saving, 263 denition, 215 P
issues related to use, 263264 environmental values, 216 PALNET system, 421
planting, 253 and forest certication, 220 Paluarco river, Ecuador,
silviculture, 293 impact of loss of, 26 162163
natural communities legal frameworks for, 221 Panama, reforestation in
representation, 4445 in national forestry curricula, catchments, 230
seral stages, 45 221 participatory appraisal, 132
natural regeneration stimulation, as response to poverty, participatory rural appraisal
250255, 367 216217 (PRA), 9091, 278
anthropogenic disturbance restoration guidelines, 219 PASOLAC, 27
control, 251252 socioeconomic benets, 215, 216 payment for environmental
diversity nuclei use, 252 valuing in rural development, services (PES), 162,
framework species method, 219 166170, 231
252253 Novo Paraso, Brazil, 409410 valuation tools, 170
future needs, 254255 nurseries people rst era, 225226
invasive species elimination, design, 141 Peru
253 seed availability in, 264 Croton restoration, 218219
limiting factors, 251 forest rehabilitation, 405, 406,
tools, 254 O 408409
vegetation as regeneration Oaxaca, Mexico, 358 pests, 346
facilitators, 253 obstructions, above-ground, 354 control, 396
434 Index
Philippines, forest rehabilitation, Prestige oil spill, 178 regeneration nuclei, 251
405, 406, 407408 primary woodland, denition, 112 rehabilitation
Plan Vivo system, 174 prioritisation, 418 denition, 9
plant ecology, 266 tools, future needs, 57 sustainable, 405413
Plantar project, 172173 priority landscapes, 42 future needs, 413
plantation companies, training, identication, 67 institutional arrangements,
396397, 421 implementing conservation in, 407, 410411
plantation trees, as nurse plants, 55 lessons from past projects,
259 problem trees, 132 406407
plantations process management, 128, 129 local participation, 406,
best practice guide, 394397 PROCYMAF project, 28 407409, 411412
commercial, in forest property socioeconomic needs,
landscape restoration, denition, 8485 406407, 409410, 412
379382 rights, problems, 79 tools, 411412
even-aged see even-aged types, 85 relics, 366
plantations protectmanagerestore representation, natural
locating, 393 approach, 44, 5253, 55 community, 4445
managing, 393397 stages, 5657 resilience-building, and forest
mixed species, 247, 266267, 389 protected areas restoration and
monoculture, 246, 292293 categories, 211 protection, 33
monospecic, 384 restoration in, 208212 restoration databases, 155
research needs, 424 threats, 208 restoration planning
rubber, 379 zoning, 211 framework, 6668
sustainability elements, Puerto Rico future needs, 70
392393 restoration via natural goals and targets, 9495,
tree species selection, 262267 succession, 292 101105, 109, 419
future needs, 267 substrate stability, 193194 multiple scales, 419
goals, 263 tree plantations, 259, 386 need for, 6566
issues related to native tools, 6970
species use, 263264 Q restoration trajectories
tools, 265267 quality, forest see forest quality identication, 68
Poland, Bialowieza forest, 204 Quintana Roo, Mexico, pilot reappraisal, 68
policy changes, 402, 403 forest plan, 220 Rhone River, 309
policy incentives Quito, Ecuador, water supply, rills, 350
perverse, 7881 229 Rinjani National Park,
redirection of, 81 Indonesia, 303305
policy interventions, 121125 R Rio Cumbaza Basin, Peru,
tools, 124 racks, installation of, 254 408409
political environment, Rainforest Alliance, Smartwood RISEMP, 169
supportive, 418419 Programme, 221 risk, sources of, 26
pollen analysis, 113 range maps, 117 river basin management,
polyacrylamides (PAMs), 355 Rapid Ecological Assessment integrated, 310311
population viability analysis methodology, 20 rubber, 276
(PVA), 4546 rapid rural appraisal (RRA), plantations, 379
Portugal, restoration after res, 9091, 278 runoff control, 375
335336 rattan, 218 Rural Development Regulation
poverty REACTION programme, 154, 319 (RDR), 82
avoidance/mitigation, 26 reclamation see open-cast mining RUSLE model, 375
degrees of, 24 reclamation Russia, woodland certication,
elimination, 26 reduced-impact logging (RIL), 122
and forest dependence, 22, 26 363
mapping and assessment, 104 reference forests/landscapes, 55, S
NTFPs as response to, 216217 103, 109113, 258 Sabah, Malaysia
predatorprey dynamics, 47 tools, 112113 forest regeneration, 137, 187,
pressures, monitoring, 288 reforestation, denition, 10 310
Index 435