ASHRAE Journal Natural Ventilation

Natural Ventilation and

Collaborative Design
By Jim Jones, Ph.D., and Aaron W. West for refuge from the heat was the Queens
Member ASHRAE Student Member ASHRAE Building.1

T
Finally, the World Trade Center in
Amsterdam, Netherlands, is an example
he application of natural ventilation has become fairly common in
of an office and convention center project
Europe and interest seems to be growing in the United States. The with a large naturally ventilated atrium.
potential benefits of natural ventilation include lower energy costs, The waveform roof has outlets along a
central spine and inlet openings located
improved indoor environmental quality and greater occupant satisfaction. above the doors. Wind tunnel analyses
While these benefits may be achievable, the implementation of natural ven- demonstrated that the design of the roof
and placement of the openings induce
tilation strategies also presents certain challenges. adequate airflow at wind speeds of only
a few miles per hour. The functional vari-
These challenges include an increased domestic buildings with natural ventila- ety of all of these projects suggests that
need for a high-level of systems integra- tion can be found. These buildings rep- natural ventilation is appropriate for many
tion, new evaluation techniques and resent a variety of functions. For example, non-residential building types.
greater cooperation between the architect the RWE AG building in Essen, Germany Natural ventilation has at least two
and mechanical engineer. A misconcep- is a large multistory office with a cylindri- potential benefits. First, energy consump-
tion about naturally ventilated buildings cal building form and circular plan derived tion can be reduced. Chandra shows in
is that a mechanical engineer is not specifically to allow for natural ventila- Figure 2 that as much as a 25% reduc-
needed. In fact, for non-residential build- tion. tion in cooling energy is possible for light-
ings a mechanical engineer who is highly The Bluewater Shopping Center in weight residential structures.3 Similarly,
skilled and willing to take on the chal- Dartford, England, is an example of a large- Lechner divided the U.S. climate into 17
lenges of a non-conventional ventilation scale shopping mall designed with large regions and found that 12 of these could
approach should be included in the de- wind scoops to provide natural ventila- benefit from natural ventilation.4 Further-
sign team. This article introduces some tion. The building is designed to elimi- more, according to a 1993 survey the en-
issues associated with the application of nate the standard air-conditioned mall ergy cost of air-conditioned buildings are
natural ventilation to U.S. buildings. solution and develop a natural ventila- 40% more than for non-air-conditioned
In the United States, the reliance on tion system that will introduce a fresh buildings. Together, these studies sug-
mechanical ventilation is reinforced by natural breeze along the concourse. This gest that the direct savings from natural
standards such as ANSI/ASHRAE Stan- not only provides cost and environmen- ventilation could be significant.
dard 62-1989, Ventilation for Acceptable tal advantages, but it is also physiologi- In addition to direct energy savings,
Indoor Air Quality. This standard is on cally beneficial, avoiding the sense of thermally massive buildings may benefit
continuous maintenance. However, the enclosure of a sealed, environmentally from indirect savings. For example, night-
language in the commonly used 1989 ver- air-conditioned box.1 time ventilation is an operating strategy
sion is biased toward mechanical ventila- The Queens Building at De Montfort that flushes a building with cool night air,
tion and the prescriptive specification of University in Leicester, United Kingdom,
minimum outdoor air ventilation rates per is a naturally vented laboratory building. About the Authors
person. While natural ventilation strate- This facility uses cross ventilation and Jim Jones, Ph.D., is assistant pro-
gies might be developed and implemented wind towers to allow for functional com- fessor at the College of Architecture
using the indoor air quality procedure of partmentalization with unrestricted airflow and Urban Studies, Virginia Tech,
this standard, few system designers are (Figure 1). The building is so well-de- Blacksburg, Va. He is a member of
willing to take on this challenge or risk. signed that during the very hot summer ASHRAE Technical Committee 4.12,
Partly as a consequence, few U.S. build- of 1995, of all of the De Montforts 250,000 Integrated Building Design.
ings are designed for natural ventilation. m2 (2.6 million ft2) of building stock, the Aaron W. West is a graduate research
Recently constructed large-scale, non- chief engineer stated that his first choice assistant at Virginia Tech.
46 ASHRAE Journal w w w. a s h r a e j o u r n a l . o r g November 2001

Figure 1: Queens Building De Montfort University section
showing compartmental natural ventilation.2
thus removing heat and lowering the mass temperature. Pre-
cooling non-residential buildings in this way can lower both
total and peak electric demand. Research by Ruud et al., found
through experimental investigation of the 37-story Indepen-
dent Life Insurance building in Jacksonville, Fla., that an 18%
reduction in cooling energy was achieved by pre-cooling the
building mass.5 Together, the direct and indirect energy-cost
savings may make natural ventilation cost beneficial.
A second important benefit from natural ventilation is im-
proved indoor environmental quality and occupant satisfac-
tion. William Bordass, et al., in the paper, User and Occupant
Controls in Office Buildings, reported that occupants in natu-
rally ventilated buildings had a higher level of perceived con-
trol over the environment when compared to occupants in
buildings with only mechanical ventilation.6 A recent study of
480 offices by the chartered surveyors Richard Ellis found that
89% of occupants preferred buildings that were not air-condi-
tioned, the most important factors being the provision of good
daylight and ventilation via operable windows.1 When it is
considered that the average cost of worker wages and salaries
is more than $140 per square foot ($1500/m2) while energy costs
are about $2 per square foot ($43/m2), the benefits to employers
are potentially large.
In their October 2000 ASHRAE Journal article, A Standard
for Natural Ventilation, Gail Schiller Brager and Richard de
Dear suggest that occupants of naturally ventilated buildings
appear tolerant ofand, in fact, prefera wider range of tem-
peratures, when compared to occupants in mechanically con-
ditioned buildings. 7 The temperature range for naturally
ventilated buildings may extend well beyond the comfort zones
published in ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, and may more
closely reflect the local patterns of outdoor climate change.
This may suggest that the application of natural ventilation to
U.S. climate zones may be more feasible than perceived.
Using natural ventilation requires an appropriate understand-
ing of principles of building pressurization. Two pressure-driv-
ing mechanisms must be understood if the natural ventilation is
to perform properly. First, there is wind-induced pressurization.
November 2001
Natural Ventilation
Figure 2: Percentage of cooling energy reduction in low-
mass residential buildings with natural ventilation, as com-
pared to unvented buildings.3
For this, two important effects occur. The Bernoulli effect is
similar to the aerodynamic lift of an airplane wing. As a result of
this airflow pattern, zones of decelerated and accelerated air-
flow develop, thus inducing positive pressure below, and nega-
tive pressure above, the wing. A common example of the impact
of the Bernoulli effect on buildings is the large suction (lift) that
develops on the windward side of a sloped roof. Anticipating
this can lead to proper placement of openings.
The second important wind-induced pressure effect is the
venturi effect. The venturi effect causes acceleration when lami-
nar airflow is smoothly constricted to pass through an open-
ing. As a result of this flow pattern, a negative pressure zone
develops at the point of constriction. The venturi effect is most
useful for the design of wind towers as exhaust outlets, as the
restricted air induces negative pressurization relative to the
surroundings, thus drawing air out of the building. Through
the proper design of a convex disc on the top of a vertical
central shaft in the RWE AG building, negative pressure is cre-
ated by a venturi that draws stale air from the buildings occu-
pied zones.
In addition to wind-induced pressurization, the stack effect
is an important mechanism. The stack effect results when air in
the building warms, becomes more buoyant than outside air
and rises to escape out of openings. Airflow due to the stack
effect depends on the area of the inlet and outlet openings, the
difference in height between the inlets and outlets, and the
temperature difference between the incoming and exhaust air.
Pressurization due to the stack effect typically results in airflow
into the building at lower levels and outward flow from upper
levels (Figure 3). Neutral zone height or neutral pressure level
is the height above grade at which internal and external pres-
sures are equal. Understanding these pressure conditions is
important to maintain good indoor air quality throughout the
building.
For example, in multistory buildings with a ventilated central
atrium or ventilation shaft, due to the stack effect, air will flow
into the shaft or atrium at lower levels and out of the shaft at
upper floors. This could result in stale air being transferred
ASHRAE Journal 47
ASHRAE Journal
Figure 3: Schematic neutral zone height.2
from lower occupied zones to upper zones. Manipulation of the
neutral pressure level can help control this undesirable situa-
tion. The previously mentioned disc on the top of the central
ventilating shaft in the RWE AG building induces a Venturi
effect that creates a negative pressure zone that raises the neu-
tral pressure level above the upper occupied level, thus insur-
ing inward flow of air into the shaft over the full height of the
building (Figure 4). Proper ventilation requires understanding
of both wind and stack-driven pressurization.
The ventilation efficiency of naturally ventilated buildings is
dependent on:
Wind direction,
Building geometry,
Interior obstructions and flow paths,
Inner and outer temperature (buoyancy), and
Type and degree of envelope permeability.
The pressure coefficient (wind-induced pressure) Cp can be
used to approximate the ventilation efficiency. The pressure
coefficient is derived as follows:
p p ref
C pi =
p outdoor conditions (temperature, relative humidity, diurnal tem-
wref 2
2 perature variation, wind speed and direction) fall in, or near, the
where,
Cpi = local pressure coefficient
p = local static pressure
wref = reference wind velocity
pref = reference air pressure (e.g., barometric air pressure)
Air movement either into or out of the building depends on
the difference in local inner pressure and outside pressure. As
previously suggested, wind and buoyancy effects create the
pressure differential. The pressure differential with regard to
infiltration or exfiltration, assuming a constant inner tempera-
ture can be calculated by:
T
( )
d pi = c pou c pi wref 2 poi g (z z o ) i 1
p two-and-a-half times the height of the space. Cross ventilation
2 Te
48 ASHRAE Journal w w w. a s h r a e j o u r n a l . o r g
Figure 4: Neutral zone height upward shift due to Venturi
effect in RWE AG building.8
where,
cpou = pressure coefficient outside
cpi = pressure coefficient inside
poi = air density inside (neutral zone)
zo = height of neutral zone above ground
z = height of observation point above grade
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 [314 ft/s2])
T = temperature (exterior/interior) in K
Again, understanding of these pressure relationships is es-
sential for achieving effective natural ventilation and good in-
door air quality.
The application of natural ventilation has several important
issues. These include:
Site and climate opportunities and restrictions,
Building form and design parameters,
Building enclosure system, and
HVAC layout and operation.
Site opportunities exist when the site is open, or nearby land-
forms, vegetation or buildings funnel breezes to properly pres-
surize the building. Climate opportunities exist when average
thermal comfort zone for a large number of hours throughout
the cooling season. Software tools can quickly provide this
information to assess the applicability of natural ventilation.
Restrictions to natural ventilation occur when site conditions
reduce wind speeds or divert breezes in such a way as to lower
their usefulness for pressurization.
Natural ventilation requires a highly cooperative effort from
the architect and indoor environmental engineer. When trying
to use natural ventilation, the building form is an important
consideration. For example, according to CIBSE, single-sided
ventilation can be effective to a room depth of about two to
is effective to a depth of about five times the height of the
space, suggesting the need for a spatial arrangement and build-
November 2001
 ASHRAE Journal

Advertisement in the print edition formerly in this space.

Figure 5: Alternative mixed-mode ventilation strategies.1

ing plan depth consistent with these dimensions.

For larger, deeper plan buildings, formal elements such as a
central shaft or an atrium and/or wind towers might be used to
allow air to flow through the building unobstructed. Further-
more, design parameters such as spatial decompart-
mentalization and open flow partitions should be used to
minimize resistance to airflow.
The cooperative relationship between the architect and me-
chanical engineer is also important for the design of the build-
ing enclosure systems. The need for openings as inlets and
outlets suggest the need for proper design, sizing and place-
ment of operable windows or roof openings. Operable windows,
however, raise concerns for building security and noise as well
as daylight use and glare. In Europe, the current trend toward
the use of double-glass ventilated walls results in maximum use
of daylight while permitting natural ventilation. The carefully
designed openings in the walls are small, thus avoiding secu-
rity problems and noise transmission.
Finally, the layout and operation of the HVAC system is im-
portant for natural ventilation. The layout should allow for natu-
rally vented zones to be conditioned separately from internal
zones or spaces with functions requiring tight thermal control
and mechanical ventilation. This design requirement suggests
a spatial layout designed for natural ventilation while consider-
ing the use and function of the space.
Natural ventilation can be either completely natural or mixed-
mode operation. Mixed-mode ventilation combines passive in-
lets or outlets with active pressurization or suction from fans
(Figure 5). If natural ventilation alone cannot ensure that an
acceptable level of comfort is maintained then the mixed-mode
approach may be necessary. In either case, proper layout and
operation are required.
The operation of the HVAC system is also important when
49 ASHRAE Journal November 2001

trying to conserve energy with natural
ventilation. During periods when outdoor
air is allowed to flow through the building,
the HVAC system should switch to an al-
ternative-operating mode. For example, if
70F (21C) outdoor air is introduced while
the thermostat is set for heating below say
72F (22C), the HVAC system will operate
by trying to add heat to the space until the
setpoint is achieved. This defeats the sav-
ings from the natural ventilation. New sys-
tem design and control approaches are
needed to take full advantage of the natu-
ral ventilation strategy.
The proper design of natural ventila-
tion requires careful analysis. The two
most common analysis methods are scale
models in wind tunnel and computational
fluid dynamics (CFD). Use of wind tun-
nels requires significant space and cost
investment, which are prohibitive for most
architectural/engineering firms. This is-
sue might suggest a new cooperative re-
lationship between practitioners
designing for natural ventilation and labo-
ratories or universities that currently have
these facilities. CFD can be more economi-
cal than wind tunnel testing but its accu-
racy is uncertain and the technique
requires validation.
Also, at least three competing math-
ematical modeling approaches used for
CFD exist. These include Reynolds Aver-
aged Navier Stokes equations, large eddy
simulations (LES) and direct numerical
simulations (DNS). Further investigation
is needed to determine which modeling
technique is most appropriate for natural
ventilation and validate the selected ap-
proach.
In conclusion, natural ventilation is an
operating strategy that deserves consid-
eration in non-residential buildings. Natu-
ral ventilation offers potential energy
savings and improved indoor environ-
mental quality with relatively little invest-
ment. However, the design of natural
ventilation systems requires a high level
of systems integration and cooperation
by the architect and mechanical engineer.
Before natural ventilation can be widely
adopted, proper design and analysis ap-
proaches are needed and the analysis
tools validated.
Much work needs to be done before
natural ventilation becomes common-
place in the United States. However, the
November 2001
Natural Ventilation
potential benefits from natural ventilation
suggest we should move forward in this
effort to reduce our reliance on mechani-
cal ventilation.
References
1. Battle McCarthy Consulting Engineers.
1999. Wind Towers Detail in Building Acad-
emy Editions. New York: John Wiley and Sons
Ltd.
2. CIBSE. 1997. Natural Ventilation in Non-
Domestic Buildings Applications Manual
AM10:1997. The Chartered Institution of
Building Services Engineers, London. Avail-
able through ASHRAE.
3. Chandra, S., P.W. Fairey III and M. Hous-
ton. 1986. Cooling with Ventilation. A design
handbook published by the Solar Energy Re-
search Institute for the U.S. Department of
Energy and distributed by the Superintendent
of Documents SERI/SP-273-2966,
DE86010701, December. P. 28.
4. Lechner, N. 1992. Heating, Cooling,
Lighting: Design Methods for Architects. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
5. Ruud, M.D., J.W. Mitchell and S.A. Klein.
1990. Use of building thermal mass to offset Advertisement in the print
cooling loads. ASHRAE Transactions 96(2). edition formerly in this space.
6. Bordass, W.T., A.K.R. Bromley and A.J.
Leaman. 1993. User and occupant controls
in office buildings. ASHRAE Conference Pro-
ceedings Building Design, Technology, and
Occupant Well-Being in Temperate Climate.
Brussels, Belgium, Feb. 1719. pp. 1217.
7. Brager, G.S. and R. de Dear. 2000. A
standard for natural ventilation. ASHRAE
Journal 42(10):2128.
8. Daniels, K. 1997. The Technology of Eco-
logical Building. Boston: Birkhauser Verlag
Publishing.
Bibliography
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Launder, B.E. and D.B. Spalding. 1974.
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Launder, B.E. 1989. Second-moment clo-
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ASHRAE Journal 50