Industrial Crops and Products 62 (2014) 235241

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Industrial Crops and Products

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop

Extraction of oil from Jatropha curcas seeds by subcritical uid

extraction
Jing Liu a,b,1 , Pan Chen a,1 , Jing He a , Lihong Deng a , Luying Wang a ,
Jiandu Lei a,b, , Long Rong c
a
MOE Key Laboratory of Wooden Material Science and Application, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China
b
Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China
c
Key Laboratory for Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Ministry of Education, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, a method for the extraction of oil from Jatropha curcas seeds using subcritical uid extrac-
Received 16 June 2014 tion was developed. Extraction conditions, optimized by response surface methodology, were as follows:
Received in revised form 21 August 2014 ethanol/hexane, 7:1 mL/mL; solvent/solid ratio, 30 mL/g; time, 45 min. The yield of the oil extracted from
Accepted 25 August 2014
the J. curcas seeds by this method was then compared to different extraction methods (reux extrac-
Available online 16 September 2014
tion, microwave extraction, ultrasonic extraction and subcritical uid extraction). The oil samples were
analyzed using gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GCMS) and Fourier transform infrared spec-
Keywords:
trometer (FTIR). Results showed the maximal yield of Jatropha seed oil under the conditions tested of
Jatropha seed oil
Subcritical uid extraction
subcritical uid extraction reached 40.28 g oil/100 g dry seeds at a temperature of 90 C, a pressure of
Response surface methodology 0.5 MPa. Based on the comparison between different extraction methods, the oil extracted by subcritical
Modeling uid extraction had a good appearance and a high yield. In addition to subcritical uid extraction, the
GCMS extraction processes of maceration extraction, reux extraction, and ultrasonic extraction were modeled
and discussed. The subcritical uid extraction method was found to compare adequately to the other
methods, and provided a good amount of correlating data.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and petroleum ether (Martinez-Herrera et al., 2006; Sayyar et al.,

Jatropha curcas Linnaeus is a multi-purpose plant belonging to
the Euphorbiaceae family (Openshaw, 2000). It has a wide range of
uses, promising a wealth of benets to individuals and industry. The
Jatropha seed contains a kernel and a shell. The kernel has higher
crude protein (2228%) and oil contents (5458%) compared to the
shell (46% crude protein and 0.81.4% oil) (Devappa et al., 2010).
Jatropha seed oil is non-edible, but its other benets are numerous:
it can be used as a diesel substitute, or in the manufacturing of
medicines, soap and cosmetics, as is already common in various
tropical countries (Martinez-Herrera et al., 2006).
Several methods for extracting Jatropha seed oil have already
been studied and implemented. Soxhlet extraction is currently the
primary method, which uses organic solvents such as n-hexane
Corresponding author at: MOE Key Laboratory of Wooden Material Science and
Application, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China.
Tel.: +86 10 6233 7251.
E-mail address: ljd2012@bjfu.edu.cn (J. Lei).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.
2009). In another method used recently, oil was extracted from
Jatropha seed kernels by a supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2 )
extraction technique (Min et al., 2010). Another method for the
extraction of Jatropha oil from seed is a combination of ultrasoni-
cation and aqueous enzymatic oil extraction (Shah et al., 2005).
Although the SC-CO2 technique reduced the use of organic sol-
vents for the extraction of oil, the high pressure conditions and high
costs of the process would limit its application. On the other hand,
when the enzyme assisted aqueous oil extraction was used in lieu
of organic solvents, enzyme takes a long time to incubate, driving
up the cost during its lengthy production cycle. Therefore, a more
efcient, safer, and cheaper technique for extracting Jatropha seed
oil is in demand.
Subcritical uid extraction is an emerging technique based on
the use of a certain extraction solvent at a temperature between its
boiling point and critical temperature and at a pressure sufcient
to keep the solvent in a liquid state (Lu et al., 2014). Subcritical
uid extraction is performed at lower temperature and pressure
than those employed in supercritical uid extraction. The process
is safe and efcient, and does not damage the heat-sensitive com-
ponents of the materials (Miao et al., 2013). In this study, Jatropha

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.039
0926-6690/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
236 J. Liu et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 62 (2014) 235241
oil was extracted by subcritical uid extraction with a tempera-
ture of 90 C, a pressure of 0.5 MPa. To perform the subcritical uid
extraction, the mixed solvent (ethanol and hexane) used in the
extraction process was raised over boiling temperature (68.7 C),
and its saturated vapor pressure (0.16 MPa). The purpose of the
present study was to determine the maximum yield of Jatropha seed
oil obtained from subcritical uid extraction under the conditions
tested. The study employed an experimental design in response
surface methodology, and the extracted oil was analyzed by gas
chromatographymass spectroscopy (GCMS) and infrared spec-
trum (IR). Moreover, in order to allow for these lab techniques to
be applied in the industry, the process of extraction was modeled
and analyzed.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials and chemicals
J. curcas seeds were purchased from Jiangsu Donghu Bioenergy
Co. Ltd. After picking and drying, the seed samples were stored
inside polythene bags, in dry and ventilated places until extraction.
The subcritical uid extractor was a custom model from Tianhong
vertical extension (Beijing) Technology Co. Ltd. Ethanol, n-hexane
and all other chemicals were analytical reagent grade.
2.2. Subcritical uid extraction
A reaction vessel made of stainless steel tube was used for the
subcritical uid extraction. The J. curcas seeds were shattered by
a grinder, creating powder with a particle diameter smaller than
0.9 mm (20-mesh). The seed powder (2.4 g) and 48 mL of a mixed
solvent (38.4 mL ethanol and 9.6 mL hexane) were then placed into
the vessel. After being tightly closed with a stainless steel cap, the
vessel was placed in a mufe furnace (Tianjin Zhonghuan Experi-
mental Furnace Co. Ltd., China). The subcritical uid extraction was
carried out at 90 C, 0.5 MPa for 15 min. At the end of the reac-
tion, the reactor was immediately removed from the furnace and
cooled to room temperature. The mixture was then centrifuged
at 5000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was evaporated under
reduced pressure (rotary evaporation) at 55 C, and the extracted
oil was gathered. In this work, a subcritical uid extractor with an
inner volume of 100 mL was used to perform the subcritical uid
extraction. There is also a larger extractor, with a volume of 3000 L,
currently available for mass production.
2.3. GCMS and IR systems
Gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GCMS) was used for
analyzing compositions of the product. An Agilent 7890A/5975C
GCMS was carried out using a HP-5MS column (30 m 0.25 mm
i.d. 0.25 m lm thickness) with He as the carrier gas. The oven
temperature of GC was held at its initial temperature of 100 C
for 0 min, then raised to a nal temperature of 240 C at a rate of
3 C/min, then held for 1 min, with a total run time of 47.66 min. The
inlet temp was maintained at 250 C, and the split ratio was 20:1.
Analysis with a mass detector was carried out under the following
conditions: helium as the carrier gas, an electron energy of 70 eV,
and a mass range from 35 to 450.
Before GCMS analysis, the fatty acids of the extracted J. curcas
seed oil were derivatized into methyl esters (Sim cek et al., 2009).
100 L of J. curcas seed oil was added into a stoppered test tube, and
dissolved in 4 mL isooctane. 200 L of 2 mol/L potassium hydrox-
ide methanol solution was then added to the test tube, stirred, and
held at room temperature for 30 min. Finally, 1 g of sodium bisulfate
was added and stirred, then the ltrate was injected into a GCMS
system for analysis. Qualitative analysis was performed using the
standard peak retention times of fatty acids, and the mass spec-
tra library. Quantitative analysis of fatty acids was determined by
measuring peak area.
In order to further examine the J. curcas seed oil, the infrared
spectrum (IR) of the extracted oil was compared to the IR of the oil
samples extracted by different methods (reux extraction, ultra-
sonic extraction and microwave extraction). IR was obtained using
a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR-650) from a thin
liquid lm over a KBr window. The FTIR spectra corresponded to
the sum of 32 scans at a 1.5 cm1 spectral resolution.
2.4. Experiment design
The experimental conditions for the subcritical uid extraction
of oil from J. curcas seeds were optimized by the BoxBehnken
design of response surface methodology (Wang et al., 2011). Three
parameters, X1 (ethanol/hexane, mL/mL), X2 (solvent/solid ratio,
mL/g) and X3 (time, min), were selected for the extraction experi-
ments at three variation levels, as shown in Table 1. The response
surface methodology data was analyzed by Design Expert software
(Version 7.1.6).
2.5. Modeling of the extraction process
Solid liquid extraction involves the transformation of a soluble
fraction (the solute or leachant) from a solid material to a liquid
solvent, by diffusing the solute from the solid into the surrounding
solvent (Sayyar et al., 2009). This extraction process was modeled
using a thin lm which provided resistance to the transfer. The
theory and model has been elaborated in our previous paper (Liu
et al., 2012), and its simplied model is expressed by the equation:
 Y 
m
ln = kt + b (1)
Ym Y
where Y (%) is the yield of extracted compounds from natural prod-
ucts, Ym (%) is the maximum yield of the given experiments, k is the
kinetic extraction rate constant, t (min) is time and b is the intercept
of the linear equation.
In this work, a series of experiments were performed to reect
various sets of conditions. The milled J. curcas seeds (particle
sizes < 0.9 mm) were suspended in a mixed solvent of ethanol and
hexane (4:1) to obtain a solvent/solid ratio of 1:20, and then the
mixture was extracted as follows.
(1) For the maceration extraction, the mixture was put in a
beaker and sealed with paralm. The temperature of the solution
was kept at 50 C using a water bath under atmospheric pres-
sure. Eight mixtures were leached for 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180
and 240 min, respectively. (2) For the reux extraction, the mix-
ture was put into a Soxhlet apparatus and the temperature of the
solution was kept at 75 C using a water bath under atmospheric
pressure. Eight mixtures were extracted for 15, 30, 60, 90, 120,
150, 180 and 240 min, respectively. (3) For the ultrasonic extrac-
tion, the mixture was put in an Ultrasonic Extractor (SY-1000E,
Beijing Hongxianglong Biotechnology Developing Co. Ltd., China).
The ultrasonic probe was xed at a dened position, and then the
mixture was extracted under 20 kHz at 50 C under atmospheric
pressure. Eight mixtures were extracted for 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150,
180 and 240 min, respectively. (4) For the subcritical uid extrac-
tion, the mixture was placed in the vessel that was placed in a mufe
furnace at 90 C, 0.5 MPa. Eight mixtures were extracted for 15, 30,
60, 90, 120, 150, 180 and 240 min, respectively.
After extracting, each mixture was centrifuged and the
supernatant was evaporated under reduced pressure (rotary evap-
oration) at 55 C, then the extracted oil was acquired and stored for
analysis.
 J. Liu et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 62 (2014) 235241 237

Table 1
BoxBehnken design of three variables with Jatropha oil yields.

Run Parameters and levels Jatropha oil yield (g/100 g)

X1 : Ethanol/hexane (mL/mL) X2 : Solvent/solid ratio (mL/g) X3 : Time (min)

1 4:1 (0) 10 (1) 5 (1) 29.79

2 4:1 (0) 30 (+1) 5 (1) 28.75
3 4:1 (0) 20 (0) 25 (0) 31.67
4 1:1 (1) 20 (0) 5 (1) 29.17
5 4:1 (0) 20 (0) 25(0) 31.25
6 4:1 (0) 20 (0) 25 (0) 32.08
7 1:1 (1) 20 (0) 45 (+1) 36.25
8 7:1 (+1) 20 (0) 5 (1) 32.92
9 1:1 (1) 30 (+1) 25 (0) 32.50
10 7:1 (+1) 10 (1) 25 (0) 28.13
11 4:1 (0) 30 (+1) 45 (+1) 37.13
12 4:1 (0) 10 (1) 45 (+1) 31.67
13 7:1 (+1) 20 (0) 45 (+1) 32.92
14 1:1 (1) 10 (1) 25 (0) 32.71
15 7:1 (+1) 30 (+1) 25 (0) 35.00

3. Results and discussion
3.1. Optimization of subcritical uid extraction conditions
The BoxBehnken design of the response surface methodology
is an independent quadratic design that is an efcient and creative
three-level composite model for tting second-order response
surfaces (Kaiser et al., 2013; Prakash Maran et al., 2013). The mathe-
matical relationship between the three independent variables and
the response surface is described by the following second-order
polynomial equation:
Y = C 0 + C 1 X 1 + C 2 X 2 + C 3 X 3 + C 12 X 1 X 2
+ C 13 X 1 X 3 + C 23 X 2 X 3 + C 11 X 1 2 + C 22 X 2 2 + C 33 X 3 2
where Y is the predicted yield, and X1 , X2 and X3 are three signi-
cant independent variables. In Eq. (2), C0 is the model constant, C1 ,
C2 , and C3 are linear coefcients, C12 , C13 , and C23 are cross prod-
uct coefcients and C11 , C22 , and C33 are quadratic coefcients. The
selected experimental parameters for the extraction of J. curcas seed
oil by subcritical uid extraction, which were ethanol/hexane, sol-
vent/solid ratio and time, were optimized using the BoxBehnken
design. Table 1 shows the experimental design and the Jatropha oil
yield (Y) obtained in 15 experiments. The extraction yields of the
seed oil, which varied widely depending on the extraction condi-
tions, were between 28.13 and 37.13 g oil/100 g dry seeds.
The models adequacy was veried by an F-test and the deter-
mination coefcient R2 (Dong et al., 2009). The analysis of variance
(ANOVA) showed that this regression model was highly signicant
(P < 0.01) with F-value of 20.11. The value of 5.37 for lack of t
implies that compared to pure error, the value is insignicant. The
tness of the model was further conrmed by a satisfactory value
of a determination coefcient, which was calculated to be 0.9378,
indicating that 93.78% of the variability in the response could be
predicted by the model. In conclusion, the ANOVA of the response
surface quadratic model for the extracted oil yield showed that the
model is highly signicant and that the experiments are accurate
and reliable.
The polynomial model for Jatropha oil yield (Y) was regressed
by utilizing only the signicant terms, as shown below:
Y = 32.13 0.21X 1 + 1.38X 2 + 2.17X 3
+ 1.77X 1 X 2 1.77X 1 X 3 + 1.63X 2 X 3
where Y is the yield of Jatropha seed oil, and X1 , X2 , and X3 are the
ethanol/hexane, solvent/solid ratio and time, respectively. The pri-
mary functions of X1 , X2 , and X3 represent the average result of
altering one variable at a time, from its low level to its high level.
The interaction terms (X1 X2 , X1 X3 and X2 X3 ) show how the oil yield
changes when two variables are simultaneously changed. The neg-
ative coefcients indicate an unfavorable effect on the oil yield,
while the positive coefcients indicate a favorable effect on the
oil yield (Solanki et al., 2007). Thus, Eq. (3) demonstrates that the
yield of extracted oil depended most on the time, followed by the
solvent/solid ratio and ethanol/hexane.
The three-dimensional (3D) response surface showed the effects
of the ethanol/hexane, solvent/solid ratio and time on the yield of
Jatropha seed oil. As shown in Fig. 1, generally speaking, increas-
ing the solvent/solid ratio or time within the ranges tested in this
study led to an increase in oil yield. Therefore, a higher solvent/solid
ratio and longer extraction time are advantageous to the extrac-
(2) tion of Jatropha seed oil. The higher solubility and the increased
extraction time could be the primary factors responsible for these
changes (Kim et al., 2010). At the same time, the ethanol/hexane
variable produced the least amount of impact among the three fac-
tors, implying that the polarity of the solvent solution is similar to
the extracted oil and the ethanol, while adding small amounts of
hexane could ensure an effective extraction of Jatropha seed oil.
The maximum predicted yield of Jatropha seed oil obtained
from the response surface methodology was 38.95 g/100 g under
the conditions tested (ethanol/hexane level of 7:1 mL/mL, a sol-
vent/solid ratio of 30 mL/g, and a time span of 45 min). The
validation experiment was performed under these optimized
extraction conditions, and the yield of Jatropha seed oil was
40.28 g/100 g. The above results indicate that the BoxBehnken
design was suitable for the extraction of Jatropha seed oil in this
work.
As shown in Table 2, by comparing the appearance and yield
from Jatropha seed oil with reux extraction, ultrasonic extrac-
tion, and microwave extraction, the maximum yield of Jatropha
seed oil can be obtained by subcritical uid extraction under the
reported conditions. The oils appearance during reux extraction
and microwave extraction changed from clear yellow to murky
yellow, probably because the oil was partly decomposed under
the lengthy reux extraction time, and high-intensity radiation of
microwave extraction.
3.2. Extraction with different methods
As shown in Fig. 2, the yield of Jatropha seed oil increased
(3)
substantially in the range of time from 15 to 180 min for macer-
ation extraction, from 15 to 120 min for reux extraction, from
15 to 60 min for ultrasonic extraction, and from 15 to 150 min for
subcritical uid extraction, respectively. There were no signicant
changes in yield after 180, 120, 60 and 150 min for any method,
238 J. Liu et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 62 (2014) 235241

Fig. 1. Response surface for the effect of ethanol/hexane and solvent/solid ratio on the oil yield at a xed time of 25 min (A), effect of ethanol/hexane and time at a xed
solvent/solid ratio of 20 mL/g (B), effect of solvent/solid ratio and time on the oil yield at a xed ethanol/hexane of 4:1 mL/mL (C) on the oil yield at 90 C, 0.5 MPa.
 J. Liu et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 62 (2014) 235241
Table 2
Comparison of colour and yield from Jatropha seed oil with different extraction methods.
Extraction method Oil appearance
Reux extraction Deep yellow
Microwave extraction Murky yellow
Ultrasonic extraction Clear yellow
Subcritical uid extraction Clear yellow
a
Predicted value from the response surface methodology.
Fig. 2. Time-dependent yield data of seeds oil from Jatropha curcas.
probably due to the fact that dynamic equilibrium between
internal and external particles has been attained by that time.
Leaching rates for subcritical uid extraction were higher than
reux extraction and ultrasonic extraction, but for maceration
extraction, it was difcult to extract a sufcient amount of oil.
Fig. 3 shows the plot for Eq. (1) and Table 3 provides the
experimental estimate of the kinetic parameters k-value, which
was highest for subcritical uid extraction, followed by ultrasonic
extraction and reux extraction. Maceration extraction had the
lowest yield. Although the seed oil yields for reux extraction were
approximately the same as for ultrasonic extraction, the extrac-
tion time for ultrasonic extraction was dramatically lower. As a
result, the subcritical uid extraction for Jatropha seed oil (yield
44.58 g/100 g) was more efcient. This is likely due to the effects of
temperature, which was kept under the solvents saturated vapor
Fig. 3. ln(Ym /Ym Y) T data of seeds oil from Jatropha curcas at different conditions.
239
Jatropha oil yield (g/100 g) Reference
36.33 Sayyar et al. (2009)
35.67 HongYan et al. (2005)
37.42 HongYan et al. (2005)
40.28 (38.95a ) This study
pressure, promoting movement of the solvent molecules, minimiz-
ing the mass transfer resistance boundary layer, and increasing the
yield by a high mass transfer of solute in the matrix and/or from the
matrix to the solvent (Yi et al., 2009), then letting the seed oil dis-
solve into the solvent. Shown in Table 3, the R2 value demonstrates
that the model provided a good correlation of the experimental
data of each extraction method. Thereby, this model can be used to
analyze the process of extraction of plant oil from natural products.
3.3. GCMS and IR analysis
The Jatropha seed oil obtained from subcritical uid extrac-
tion was made into derivatives of methyl esters, and analyzed by
GCMS. The content of each fatty acid methyl ester was calcu-
lated by using a normalization of the peak areas, which is shown
in Table 4. Clearly, the oil mainly contained ve fatty acid methyl
esters. The GCMS analysis indicated that the oil was mainly com-
posed of unsaturated fatty acids, further, it contained large amounts
of palmitic acid (C16:0) and linoleic acid (C18:2). The most preva-
lent fatty acid in Jatropha seed oil was oleic acid (C18:1).
Fig. 4 shows the total ion current chromatogram of the Jatropha
seed oil (after methyl esterifying) obtained from different meth-
ods. The composition of the oil obtained from ultrasonic extraction
is similar to subcritical uid extraction. However, there are two
more compounds in the oil obtained from reux extraction and
microwave extraction. The retention time of 15.506 and 22.482 min
for reux extraction is pentadecane (1.467%) and heptadecane
(0.735%), respectively. The enlarged gure (Fig. S1) was showed in
the Supplementary Data. These results suggested that the lengthy
time period for reux extraction, or the high-intensity radiation
of microwave extraction, caused a deoxygenation reaction in the
oil. This is because hydrocarbons with one carbon atom less than
the original fatty acid chain, i.e. pentadecane and heptadecane, are
the products of oxygen removal from triglyceride by decarboxyla-
tion + decarbonylation (Tiwari et al., 2011).
Fig. 4. Total ion current chromatogram of Jatropha seed oil (after methyl esterifying)
obtained from different methods.
240 J. Liu et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 62 (2014) 235241
Table 3
The values of k and R2 for different extraction methods.
Extraction methods Maceration extraction
k (1/min) 0.0097
R2 0.9535
Table 4
Identication of the compositions of Jatropha seed oil (after methyl esterifying) obtained from subcritical uid extraction by GCMS analysis.
Detected compound name
9-Hexadecenoic acid methyl ester
Hexadecanoic acid methyl ester
9,12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester
9-Octadecenoic acid methyl ester
Octadecanoic acid methyl ester
Others
a
Cx:y, where x is the number of carbon atoms and y is the number of C C double bonds.
Fig. 5. IR of Jatropha seed oil obtained from different methods.
The Jatropha seed oil extracted by different methods was fur-
ther analyzed by FT-IR spectroscopy. As shown in Fig. 5, all IR
spectra of Jatropha oil showed absorbance bands characteristic of
triglyceride at 10001300 cm1 and 17301750 cm1 attributed to
C O (antisymmetric axial stretching and asymmetric axial stretch-
ing) and C O (carbonyl) stretching vibrations, respectively (Tariq
et al., 2011). It was observed that characteristic bands of fatty acid
(around 1735 cm1 ) were less intense for oil extracted by ultra-
sonic extraction, reux extraction and microwave extraction than
that from subcritical uid extraction. This is evidenced by the fact
that parts of fatty acid were decomposed, and the peak intensities
of C O and C O were decreased. This result is in accordance with
the results of GCMS, which showed that pentadecane and hep-
tadecane in the oil extracted by reux extraction and microwave
extraction are the products of the deoxygenation reactions of
triglyceride. Additionally, all IR spectra exhibited the bands asso-
ciated with saturated C H stretching vibration (CH, CH2 and CH3 )
at 27003000 cm1 and hydroxyl peak at 3368 cm1 , potentially
residual ethanol.
4. Conclusion
A simple and efcient extraction method (subcritical uid
extraction) was investigated for the extraction of J. curcas seed
oil. The extraction conditions were optimized by response sur-
face methodology at an ethanol/hexane level of 7:1 mL/mL, a
solvent/solid ratio of 30 mL/g, and a time period of 45 min. The oil
was extracted by reux extraction, microwave extraction, ultra-
sonic extraction and subcritical uid extraction, and the oil yields
Reux extraction Ultrasonic extraction Subcritical uid extraction
0.0124 0.0132 0.0210
0.9188 0.9612 0.9736
Structurea Retention time (min) Content (%)
C16:1 28.654 0.573
C16:0 29.416 12.034
C18:2 34.696 33.685
C18:1 34.944 45.408
C18:0 35.603 8.142
0.158
and oil appearance for each sample was analyzed. The maximum
yield of oil (40.28 g oil/100 g dry seeds) was obtained by subcrit-
ical uid extraction. GCMS and FTIR results suggested that the
long time period of reux extraction and the high-intensity radi-
ation of microwave extraction could cause the oil to decompose.
On account of the high yield and ne quality of the oil, subcriti-
cal uid extraction would be an effective and efcient method for
the extraction of plant oil from natural products. Additionally, this
study examined the extraction processes for maceration extraction,
reux extraction, ultrasonic extraction and subcritical uid extrac-
tion, respectively. This model could be appropriate for practical
extraction processes.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds
for the Central Universities (No. BLX2013006), the 948 Project from
State Forestry Administration of China (No. 2014-4-35) and Beijing
Natural Science Foundation (2142024).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be
found, in the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.
2014.08.039.
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