FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Q. Why does the gain of a common emitter amplifier fall off at low frequencies? Why
does it fall off at high frequencies?

A. The gain falls off at low frequencies because of the amplifier's coupling and bypass
capacitors. It falls off at high frequencies because of the transistor's internal
capacitances.

Q. Define the bandwidth of a common emitter amplifier.

A. The frequency response of a common emitter amplifier has a low frequency f L and a
high frequency fH where the magnitude of the response is 3 db lower than the
maximum gain at the midband frequency region of the response. The bandwidth is
defined as being fH - fL.

Q. Define the bandwidth of a single-pole amplifier.

A. The bandwidth of a single-pole amplifier is equal to a high frequency f H where the

magnitude of the frequency response is 3 db lower than the maximum gain of the
response.

Q. What is the unity-gain bandwidth of an amplifier?

A. The unity-gain bandwidth is the frequency (in Hertz) at which the gain of the
amplifier is one (0 dB).

Q. How does the Miller effect affect the frequency response of a common emitter
amplifier?

A. The Miller effect causes the BJT in the CE amplifier to have a high input
capacitance, which lowers the frequency that the response falls off and enters the
high-frequency band.

Q. For a common emitter amplifier, is it the bypass/coupling capacitors or the BJT

internal capacitances that dominate its low frequency response?

A. It is the bypass/coupling capacitors that dominate its low frequency response.

Q. What is the purpose of the bypass capacitor in a common emitter amplifier?

A. The purpose of the bypass capacitor in a common emitter amplifier is to bypass the
emitter resistance to increase the AC gain.

Q. Which of these three amplifiers - the common emitter, the common collector, the
common base - has the best high frequency response and why?
A. The common base amplifier has the best high frequency response because it is not
affected by the Miller effect.

Q. Draw the high frequency hybrid- model of a BJT and label the model components.

A. See notes or Sedra and Smith.

Q. Is the hfe (or ) value of a BJT independent of frequency? If yes, then explain why?
If no, then explain why and state what determines the 3 dB frequency.

A. A BJT's hfe value is independent of frequency for low and medium frequencies as its
internal capacitances are open and do not influence the BJT's characteristics. Since
this is the case, there is no element in the BJT's model that changes with frequency.
At very high frequencies, the internal capacitances have an effect on hfe and it
decreases as frequency is increased. The 3 dB frequency is determined by C, C and
r .

ZENER DIODES AND VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Q. When designing a linear voltage regulator for a load that varies within a limited
range, which is the better approach to use, series or shunt? Briefly explain why.

A. The shunt voltage regulator is better. For small variations, the shunt regulator BJT
only needs to conduct a small amount of current so that it has little current stress.

Q. Define foldback.

A. Foldback is a current limiting feature in a power supply that limits current to a

certain maximum while making the output voltage go to zero when the power supply
output is short-circuited.

Q. Give two applications where linear regulators are used.

A. (i) For very low on-board power (i.e. 7812). (ii) For bench power supplies in labs.

Q. What are the two main advantages of op-amp type voltage regulators?

A. The main advantages are: (i) their output-to-input voltage gain can be set to any
desired value, (ii) their output-to-input voltage gain can be set to a value that is
greater than one.

Q. Why do the two inputs of an op-amp in non-inverting amplier circuit have the same
voltage?

A. They have the same voltage because of feedback.

Q. List three uses for a zener diode.

A. (i) clamping (ii) as the main part of a voltage regulator with regulated output voltage
(iii) to set up a reference voltage is a power supply.

Q. What limits the use of voltage regulators?

A. The use of voltage regulators are limited to very low power levels because of their
poor efficiency.

POWER AMPLIFIERS

Q. What is the main difference between a Class A amplifier and a Class B amplifier?

A. A Class A amplifier has a significant dc bias current, but a Class B amplifier requires
no such current.

Q. What is the main advantage that a Class A amplifier has over a Class B amplifier?

A. The bias current in a Class A amplifier allows the amplifier to have an output that is
less distorted that a Class B amplifier.

Q. What is the main advantage that a Class B amplifier has over a Class A amplifier?
Why?

A. A Class B amplifier is more efficient than a Class A amplifier. This is because it

operates with no bias current, which creates significant losses in a Class A amplifier.

Q. What is the main difference between a Class B amplifier and a Class AB amplifier
and why does this difference exist?

A. The main difference between a Class B amplifier and a Class AB amplifier is that the
output of a Class B amplifier has distortion and the output of a Class AB amplifier
does not. A Class AB amplifier has some small DC bias current and it is this bias
current that keeps the output from becoming distorted.

Q. When designing the base circuitry of a Class AB amplifier, what must be done to
ensure that the amplifier operates without output distortion?

A. The base circuitry must be designed so that the DC voltage at the base of the NPN
transistor is high enough to overcome the transistor's BE drop and the DC voltage at
the base of the PNP transistor must be low enough to overcome the transistor's EB
drop.
Q. Given that appropriate DC base voltages can be achieved just by using resistors in a
Class AB amplifier, why are diodes typically included in the base circuitry?

A. The diodes help prevent thermal runaway in Class AB amplifiers.

Q. If a Class AB amplifier operating with transistors with = 100 is replaced with

Darlington transistors, should the base circuitry be changed in any way? Briefly
explain why or why not.

A. The base circuitry should be changed to increase the DC voltage at the base of the
NPN transistor and reduce the DC voltage at the base of the PNP transistor. This is
because Darlington transistors have higher BE and EB drops than regular transistors.

Q. Comment on the AC current in a Class A amplifier when the amplifier is operating at

its Q-pt.

A. There is no AC current when the amplifier is operating at its Q-pt as the Q-pt is
defined as the DC operating point.

Q. Can a Class A amplifier's AC load line be different than its DC load line? Can it be
the same? Briefly explain.

A. The two load lines can be the same if there is no transformer on the collector side
and no bypass capacitor on the emitter side of the amplifier's main transistor.

Q. If the AC load line and the DC load of a transistor are different, then where do the
two lines intersect?

A. They intersect at the Q-point.

Q. When designing a Class A power amplifier with DC and AC load lines, where should
the Q-pt be placed and why?

A. The Q-pt should be placed at the middle of the AC load line at I C,max to ensure
maximum symmetrical AC voltage swing.

Q. What is the maximum efficiency of a Class A amplifier?

A. The maximum efficiency of a Class A amplifier is 25%.

Q. What is the maximum efficiency of a Class B amplifier?

A. The maximum efficiency of a Class B amplifier is 78.5%.

Q. What is the basic principle behind a transistor heat sink?

A. A heat sink allows a transistor to operate with less heat as it is spread along the heat
sink.

Q. What is the ambient temperature of a transistor?

A. The ambient temperature of a transistor is the temperature of its surrounding

environment.
OR
A. It is the temperature of a transistor when it is not dissipating power.

Q. How are transistor power dissipation, temperature and heat sinks modeled?

A. Power dissipation is modeled as a current source, temperature as voltage and heat

sinks as resistances.