DEFINE AND DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING:

1) Biology

Biology, also referred to as the biological sciences, is the study of living

organisms utilizing the scientific method. Biology examines the structure,
function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living things. It
classifies and describes organisms, their functions, how species come
into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with
the natural environment. Four unifying principles form the foundation of
modern biology: cell theory, evolution, genetics and homeostasis. Biology
as a separate science was developed in the nineteenth century, as
scientists discovered that organisms shared fundamental characteristics.
Biology is now a standard subject of instruction at schools and
universities around the world, and over a million papers are published
annually in a wide array of biology and medicine journals. There are
generally considered to be at least nine umbrella fields of biology, each
of which consists of multiple subfields.

Biochemistry: the study of the material substances that make up living

things
Botany: the study of plants, including agriculture
Cellular biology: the study of the basic cellular units of living things
Ecology: the study of how organisms interact with their environment
Evolutionary biology: the study of the origins and changes in the diversity
of life over time
Genetics: the study of heredity
Molecular biology: the study of biological molecules
Physiology: the study of the functions of organisms and their part
Zoology: the study of animals, including animal behavior

2) BIOTIC EFFECTS
The living (or biotic) factors influence the life of an organism and includes
factors such as the availability of food, the presence of predators or
competitors and disease organisms. The relationship between organisms
is sometimes beneficial but at other times it is detrimental (damaging).
The effects that animals and plants have on each other and on the
habitat itself will be explored in segment.

Living things all have an effect on one another but they also affect the
non-living environment in some ways, such as the climate and soil. In
a rainforest, for example, the trees affect the soil by removing water and
nutrients and they affect the climate inside the forest by preventing
extremes of temperature. The trees also provide shelter and they are a
source of food for insects, birds and mammals. When the plants, trees
and animals die, fungi and bacteria in the soil decompose the dead
material and return nutrients to the soil.

Competition

Competition is a biotic factor that influences where an organism can live. Animals and
plants living in the same area often compete with each other for space, food, shelter and
light. To survive in a habitat, organisms must either compete with each other for the
available resources or interact in ways that enable them to live in the same environment.

Interaction

The way organisms interact is important for the survival of a species. There are two types of
interaction: intraspecific interactions and interspecific interactions. Intraspecific
interactions are those that take place among organisms of the same species while
interspecific interactions are those which happen among individuals of different species.

Organisms of the same species may struggle over territory or may fight to be the dominant
individual. Sometimes the competition is harmful, for example where there is a struggle
between two males fighting for a female or fighting to be top of the hierarchy. At other times
the competition and interaction can be non-harmful and may include displays of colour,
sound and other exhibitions, usually in order to attract a mate.

Interspecific relations are usually described according to their beneficial, neutral or

detrimental or effect. One beneficial interaction is known as commensalism. This occurs
when an individual obtains a benefit from a different species without damaging
it. Mutualism is similar, but it is when both species obtain a benefit from interacting with
each other. Sometimes the interaction is obligatory and benefits both organisms. If one
individual dies however, it will lead to the death of the other. This is sometimes known as
a symbiotic relationship.

Other effects are neutral or detrimental. A neutral interaction is known ascompetence.

Competence occurs when two different species have the same needs but one species
possesses adaptations that help it to survive better. The struggle for survival is a selective,
non-violent one. Detrimental interactions include predation, parasitism, infectious disease
and competition for limited resources. These interactions are detrimental to one of the
species.

Predation

Predation is the act of one organism catching and eating another. Every organism in an
ecosystem needs nutrients and many will get them by consuming other organisms in the
habitat. The act of predation is one of the essential concepts in food chains. Grass, for
example, is consumed by herbivores which may be eaten by carnivores, which then may be
consumed by larger carnivores. Population decline occurs if there are more predators than
prey, such as when humans selectively hunt a species which leads to a decline in the
population of the species.

Parasitism and disease

Parasitism takes place when a species obtains a benefit from another species which
gradually damages the victim but does not cause immediate death. Disease, however, may
cause immediate death and is caused by microscopic organisms called microbes. Microbes
 can be classified into four main groups: viruses; bacteria; fungi (yeasts and moulds) and
protozoa. There are disease-causing microbes as well as beneficial ones.

Dispersal

Dispersal refers to how an organism is spread throughout an ecosystem. Animals are usually
able to move freely among all ecosystems but plants rely on insects, animals or the wind to
either pollinate them or disperse their seeds. Flowers and seeds have developed unique
characteristics that enable them to disperse effectively throughout their habitat by using
other living organisms or abiotic (non-living) factors.

3) ECOSYSTEMS

An ecosystem includes all of the living things (plants, animals and organisms) in a given
area, interacting with each other, and also with their non-living environments (weather, earth,
sun, soil, climate, atmosphere). In an ecosystem, each organism has its' own niche, or role to
play. An ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with each other and with their
environment such that energy is exchanged and system-level processes, such as the cycling
of elements, emerge.

The term "ecosystem" was first coined by Roy Clapham in 1930, but it was ecologist Arthur
Tansley who fully defined the ecosystem concept. In his classic article of 1935, Tansley
defined ecosystems as "The whole system, including not only the organism-complex, but also
the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment". While Eugene
Odum, a major figure in advancing the science of ecology, deployed the ecosystem concept
in a central role in his seminal textbook on ecology, defining ecosystems as: " Any unit that
includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the
physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic
diversity, and material cycles (ie: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts)
within the system is an ecosystem.
This very complex, wonderful interaction of living things and their environment, has been
the foundations of energy flow and recycle of carbon and nitrogen. Anytime a stranger
(living thing(s) or external factor such as rise in temperature) is introduced to an ecosystem,
it can be disastrous to that ecosystem. This is because the new organism (or factor) can
distort the natural balance of the interaction and potentially harm or destroy the ecosystem.