DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Laboratory Techniques
Agenda:

Scale laws and scale effects

Wave generation

Reflections and laboratory difficulties (model effects)

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Model Tests
There remain a large number of problems that rely on experimentally obtained data for their
solution. The solutions to many problems is achieved through the use of a combination of
analysis and experimental data (low costs compared to investment and possible cost savings).

A model is a representation of a physical system that may be used to predict the behavior of
the system in some desired respect.

The physical system for which the predictions are to be made is called the prototype.

Usually a model is smaller than the prototype.

Models of different sizes might be used to check the impact of model scaling.

An obvious goal of any experiment is to make the results as widely applicable as possible.

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Similarity Requirements for Model Tests

Required similarities for ability to scale results to prototype (full scale) values:
Geometrical similarity (dimensions). The ratio of all corresponding linear dimension in
the model and prototype are equal. In some cases it is not practical to use the same scale
horizontally as vertically. In that case distorted model might be used.

Kinematic similarity (velocity and acceleration field). Means the similarity of motion
between model and prototype. Thus kinematic similarity is said to exist between the model
and the prototype if the ratios of the velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in
the model and prototype are the same in magnitude and direction;

Dynamic similarity (forces). Means the similarity of forces between model and prototype.
Thus dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype if the ratios of
the forces acting at the corresponding points in the model and prototype are the same in
magnitude and direction.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Dynamic Similarity Types of Forces in Fluids

Force type Description
Is equal to the product of mass and
Convective inertial
convective acceleration of the moving = 3 2 / = 2 2
forces
fluid
Is equal to the product of mass and
Temporal (local)
temporal acceleration of the moving = 3 /
inertial forces
fluid
Product of mass and gravity
Gravity forces = 3
acceleration.
Turbulent and viscous Product of turbulent and viscous shear
= / 2 =
shear forces stresses and surface areas.
Product of surface tension and the
Surface tension forces length of the surface of the flowing =
fluid.
Elastic/compressibility Product of elastic modulus
= 2
forces (compressibility) and area
Pressure forces Product of pressure and area = 2
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Dynamic Similarity - Dimensionless Numbers

The inertial forces are always present
in flow problems so we can define
the ratio of this force to the other
types.

For most flows the Froude number

and Reynolds number are the most
important ones.

It is usually impossible in the model

to have correct values for all
dimensional numbers as we cannot
normally scale gravity acceleration
and viscosity.

In most cases it is only possible that

one or two dimensional numbers can
be correct.
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Froude Number
Model tests with ships has been performed for more than 300 years.

However, many found that results did not match prototype

experiences/measurements.

First with Froude's paper in 1868 this difference was understood.

Froude used 3, 6 and 12 foot ship scale models to measure the
resistance of each model.

Contradictory to the previous studies he considered that the model

would only give proper results if the model test was performed with
a ship velocity that gives similarity of the generated waves.

He also found that the resistance consist of several very

components: Wave resistance, skinfriction and pressure drag which
cannot be scaled with the same factor.

Towing tanks are today used in large extent to test ships.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Froude Number
Waves propagate with the ship velocity (stationary seen from the ship).

Deep water waves propagate with the speed: 0 =
2
Shallow water waves propagate with the speed: = > 0 for a given

Similarity thus requires: =


L being a characteristic length (for example ship length or water depth). In an undistorted Froude
model both will be in similarity.
The depth based Froude number:

=

Gives the velocity compared to the wave propagation velocity in shallow water (the largest
possible). We divide in subcritical (Fr<1), critical (Fr =1) and supercritical (Fr>1).

These domains are very important for flow problems in general.

A ship traveling with the critical speed leads to very large waves in front of the ship.
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Reynolds Number
Flow characteristics depend on the Reynolds number
(laminar or turbulent flow).

=

It is impossible to fulfil simultaneously Froude
and Reynolds number in a model as a fluid with
significantly lower viscosity than water do not exist.
For cases where viscous forces are dominating over
gravity forces we can use the Reynolds model law.

=

For identical fluids the Reynolds law requires higher Circular cylinder

velocities in the model (opposite to Froude that

Circular disc
require smaller).
Sphere
If fully turbulent flow exists in a Froude model then
Reynolds scale effects are insignificant.
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Keulegan-Carpeter Number
In oscillatory flows the Reynolds number is not sufficient
to sescribe the flow pattern and the forces on objects.

The same particle velocity can exist for an oscilation with:

1. large amplitude and low frequency
2. small amplitude and high frequency
However, the two flow situations can lead to completely
different vortex shedding and forces on structures.
In the first case the flow is close to a steady flow (Vortex
shedding goverened by Re)
In the second case the movement of the particles is not
large enough to cause vortex shedding.
Keulegan carpenter
Keulegan-Carpenter suggested to a number being the ratio
number is correctly
of the particle motions to the characteristic width of the
structure (KC<4 means no vortex shedding). represented in a
Froude model
=
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Strouhal Number
Vortex induced vibrations (VIV) can be
very critical for slender structures.

The Strouhal number gives the vortex

shedding frequency (f) in a fixed body in
a steady flow.

The Strouhal number is partly dependent

on the Reynolds number and is thus not
correctly represented in a Froude model.

In waves the vortex shedding is governed

by the Keulegan-Carpenter number and
not the Strouhal number.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Cauchy Number
Relevant to have the correct
flexibility of structures.

For a Froude model with identical

fluids the model becomes too stiff if
using same material elasticity and
geometrical scaling of a prototype.

640 m
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Mach number
The Mach number is the ratio of the velocity and the speed of
sound:

It is the Cauchy number with elasticity equal to fluid

compressibility. Ma = 1 has similar consequences as Fr = 1, but
respect to sound waves instead of gravity waves.

Only relevant when the velocities or pressure is so high that the

fluid compressibility is important.

Very relevant for models in aviation and rocket technologies, but

less relevant in most other models.

Air entrainment or air pockets reduce the compressibility very

significantly of water and in these cases the Mach number
becomes somewhat relevant in hydraulic models.

One example of a case when the Mach number could be relevant

is for impulsive slamming loads on structures (air pockets).
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Example of Scale Laws

For all models dealing with free
surface flows the Froude model
law is important.

For correct reproduction of the

waves (gravity waves) Froude
model law is essential.

The consequence is that in

model tests with waves the
Reynolds, Weber and Cauchy
model laws cannot be fulfilled
(scale effects if these numbers
are important for the response).

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Model and Scale Effects Example of Possible Factors

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Laboratory Techniques
Agenda:

Scale laws and scale effects

Wave generation

Reflections and laboratory difficulties (model effects)

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 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Repetition of Linear Wave Theory (1st order)

- 0) Irrotational flow (Laplace equation) with the boundary conditions:
- 1) Particle at the surface remains at the surface
- 2) Pressure at the surface equals the atmospheric pressure
- 3) No flow through bottom
- 4) Constant form (periodicity)
Linearization yields:
(,,) (,) (,) (,,)
1) = + (H/L<<1 & H/h<<1)

1 ,, 2 ,, 2 ,, 2 (,0,) (,0,)
2) , = 2
+
+
=0 1+2) + g =0
2

2 (,,) 2 (,,) 4) , , = 0, ,
(0, , ) 0) + =0 2 (,,) 2 (,,)
4) , , = 0, ,
2 2 0, , + = 0, , (0, , ) 0) 2
+ 2
=0 0, , + = 0, ,

(,,) (,,)
3) =0 3) =0
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 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Bisel Transfer Function Mathematical Problem (1st order)

Using this method the paddle displacement is obtained from the wave amplitude.
The transfer function is derived from the following partial differential equation and boundary
conditions.

0) Laplace equation which is the governing equation

for potential flow (continuity equation).
1) All water particles at the free surface remain
at the free surface (kinematic B.C.).
Free surface is at constant pressure (dynamic B.C.).
2) The water accompanies the wave paddle, which is 2 (,0,) (,0,)
1) + g =0
displaced as a sine: e , = e sin . 2

Linearisation yields: BC at x = 0 instead of x = e(z,t).

3) The bottom is impermeable, i.e. = 0 for z = .

4) Far away from the wave maker the propagating wave 2)
(0,,)
= 2 (,,) 2 (,,) (,,)
0) + =0 4) =0
is of constant form. e cos() 2 2

(,,)
3) =0
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Bisel Transfer Function Piston Wave Maker

After many lengthy calculations we get for example for a piston-type paddle:

2sinh2 ()
0,2 = =
0 sinh cosh +

2sin2
,2 = for > 0
sin cos +

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Laboratory Techniques
Agenda:

Scale laws and scale effects

Wave generation

Reflections and laboratory difficulties (model effects)

www.civil.aau.dk
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Reflections and Laboratory Difficulties

Reflections gives rise to the following difficulties:

- Reflected waves and incident waves interact and cause standing or partially standing waves

- Reflected waves travel towards the wave maker and is reflected and become incident waves.
Control of the waves require active absorption in case of high reflection.

- The standing waves have a tendency to become unstable and cause cross-modes.

- Difficult to measure the waves - how to determine the incident waves?

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Standing Waves
Regular waves reflected at wall at x = 0 (I = R):
, = cos = cos cos + sin sin
, = cos + = cos cos sin sin

100% reflection (aR = aI):

, = 2 cos cos
Vertical
wall
Nodes (a = 0): = + 0.5
Anti-nodes (a = 2aI): =

With only one gauge you might measure no waves

up to 2 times the incident.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Active Absorption
Reflections from the tested structures travel back to the generator. If no modification of the
control signal is made the waves are reflected and the control of the incident waves is lost.

Example with vertical wall

( 100% reflection)

Active absorption will be the topic of several of the following lectures.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Measurement of Waves
We can only measure the total wave elevations.
Often we are mainly interested in the incident waves (the waves attacking our structures) or the
reflection characteristics of the structure.
There are three possibilities:
- Use a narrow model compared to the width of the flume with guiding walls and do not care
about reflections
- Measurement of the waves without structure in place (Wallingford method). This method
relies on a 100% perfect absorption of waves reflected from the structure. Even in that case
the structure will change the waves for example by different wave breaking. The method is
not very accurate and very costly (doubles the testing duration in the facility).
- Reflection Analyses methods: Measurement of the waves with the structure in place using a
multi-point array (minimum two points). Usually is measured surface elevations but could
also be velocities or pressures or combinations hereof.

In the present lecture we go through the methods for linear long-crested waves (flume
application). Other methods are applicable to short-crested waves (later lecture).
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Reflection Analysis Methods

To estimate the incident waves we need:

A mathematical model of the sea state

A mathematical solver

All methods give identical results if waves are at constant depth, ergodic, linear, noise free, two
dimensional (no-cross modes) and no current. The difference between the methods lies in if
which of these this are included in the mathematical model or not.

There more things you include that are not relevant for the test case the worse is the mathematical
solver (number of equations vs. number of unknowns).

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Reflection Analysis Methods for 2-D Irregular Waves

Linear methods
- Goda and Suzuki (1977), 2-gauges frequency domain solution
- Mansard and Funke (1981), 3-gauges least squares frequency domain fit
- Zelt and Skjelbreia (1993), N-gauge least squares frequency domain fit
- Frigaard and Brorsen (1993,1995), SIRW, 2-gauges time domain method (digital filter)
- Baldock and Simons (1999), Extension of SIRW method to sloping bottoms (can be applied to
other methods also).
- Grnbech et. al (1996), RefCross, Reflection analysis with cross-mode separation (minimum 3
gauges).

Non-linear methods:
- Mansard et al. (1985), 3-gauges, Regular waves with bound and free 2nd order super harmonics.
- Medina (2001), Figueres and Medina (2004), LASA-II, LASA-V, LASA-N, local
approximation using 2nd order, 5th order and Nth order.
- Lin and Huang (2004), 4-gauges, bound 2nd order super harmonics

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 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Goda and Suzuki Method

Mathematical model include only at each frequency () only incident and reflected waves :
, = cos = cos cos + + sin sin +
, = cos + + = cos cos + sin sin +

Surface elevations at x1 and x2 = x1+x1,2 :

1 = 1 , + 1 , = 1 cos + 1 sin
2 = 2 , + 2 , = 2 cos + 2 sin
where
1 = cos 1 + + cos 1 +
1 = sin 1 + sin 1 +
2 = cos 2 + + cos 2 +
2 = sin 2 + sin 2 +

By Fourier transformation of the two signals (1,2) are A1,B1,A2,B2 known. Unknowns are aI, aR, I, R. We thus have four
equations with four unknowns to get the solution:
1 = 2 1 cos 1,2 1 sin 1,2
12 + 2 2 + 2
= ; = 2 = 2 + 1 sin 1,2 1 cos 1,2
2 sin 1,2 2 sin 1,2 3 = 2 1 cos 1,2 + 1 sin 1,2
1 3 4 = 2 1 sin 1,2 1 cos 1,2
tan 1 = ; tan 1 + =
2 4

NOTE: Singularities for sin 1,2 = 0, corresponding to 1,2 = 1,2 / = /2 (n being an integer)

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Mansard and Funke Method

The Goda and Suzuki method is very sensitive to errors contaminating the measurements. Noise
will for example be placed as incident and reflected energy.

Mansard and Funke uses 3 gauges to arrive at an over-determined system. They introduced a
noise term for each probe (p) which includes all kinds of errors (6 equations, 5 unknowns).
The noise term is minimized in the fitting process (mathematical solver). This leads to a much
more robust method compared to Goda and Suzuki.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Gauge Spacing
All methods have singularities at: Goda-Suzuki:
,
= 12 + 2
2
Goda and Suzuki method though much more sensitive to singularities =
2 sin 1,2
than the methods with higher number of gauges.
1,2
= 0.05 sin 1,2 = 0.3
Goda and Suzuki recommend:
1,2 1,2
0.05 < < 0.45 = 0.45 sin 1,2 = 0.3

For a wide spectrum this is impossible to fulfill for all frequencies.

Mansard and Funke recommend:

1,2 1
=
10
1 1,3 1 1,3 1 1,3 3
< < with
6 3 5 10

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Distance to Structures
Close to reflective structures:

- Very close to structures local disturbances exists (evanescent waves). Which influences the
reflection separation.
Klopman and Van der Meer (1999) recommended based on physical tests:

> 0.4

where x is the distance to the structure.

- Strong phase locking occur causing strong variations in the total wave height and less reliable
reflection separation. In narrow banded irregular waves the total energy needs approximately
two wave lengths to stabilize. Goda and Suzuki recommended to calculate:
,
, =
1+2
where Cr is based on the separation algorithms. If that method is applied the probes should
thus be placed two wave length from reflective structures. Otherwise the recommendation by
Klopman and Van der Meer (1999) should be followed.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Cross-Modes
The standing waves are quite unstable and cross-modes (transverse standing waves) are easily
generated due to a small disturbance. The disturbance can for example be a non-uniform
structure, a non-uniform wave breaking etc.
To limit cross-modes dampening is needed. In flumes this will typical be porous sheets (most
effective when placed in the nodes where velocity vector is horizontal). In basins effective side
wall absorbers will limit cross-mode activities.

l
2
= ( is flume width, is wave length for eigen mode )
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Reflection Analysis with Cross-Mode Separation (Ref-Cross)

Wave field at frequency :
, = , + , +
where
, = cos
, = cos + +
= cos +

Unknowns are aI, aR, ac, I, R , C (6 unknowns).

3 gauges: 6 Fourier coefficients (leads to singularity problems as in Goda and Suzuki)

More than 3 gauges: Least squares solution as Mansard and Funke (1981) and Zelt and
skjelbreia (1992)

Good method to quantify cross-modes which should be avoided as much as possible in 2-D
experiments.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AALBORG UNIVERSITY, DENMARK

Cross-Modes
Example from a 10m wide flume (like a basin but without any side wall absorption). In reflective
conditions the large width gives problems with many of the lowest eigen modes being activated:

L1 = 20m, L2 = 10m, L3 = 6.7m, L4 = 5 m, L5 = 4m, L6 = 3.3m, .

First part of a test with irregular waves (Lp = 3.3 m) Last part of same test (several cross-modes activated)

RefCross can be used to quantify the cross-mode energy. If cross-modes too high the test results are not
useful. If cross-mode energy is small then standard procedures can be used.
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