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Exergy. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097089-9.00009-7
2013 Ibrahim Dincer and Marc A. Rosen. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved 133
134 Exergy
temperature to efficiency is highlighted, and thermal strati- the entering and exiting streams, and the durations of the
fication, cold TES, and aquifer TES are considered. charging, storing, and discharging periods. Increasing
stratification improves TES efficiency relative to a ther-
mally mixed storage tank. Four primary factors degrade
9.2 PRINCIPAL THERMODYNAMIC stored energy by reducing stratification as given below:
CONSIDERATIONS IN TES l Heat leakages to or from the environment
l Heat conduction and convection from the hot portions
Several of the principal thermodynamic considerations in
of the storage fluid to the colder portions
TES evaluation and comparison are discussed in this section.
l Vertical conduction in the tank wall
Energy and exergy. Energy and exergy are significant l Mixing during charging and discharging periods (often
quantities in evaluating TES systems. Exergy analysis the main cause of loss of stratification)
complements energy analysis and circumvents many of
the difficulties associated with conventional energy- The effects of stratification are more clearly assessed
based TES methods by providing a more rational with exergy than energy. Through carefully managing
evaluation and comparison basis. the injection, recovery, and holding of heat (or cold) so
Temperature. Exergy reflects the temperature of a heat that temperature degradation is minimized, better
transfer and the degradation of heat quality through storage-cycle performance can be achieved (as
temperature loss. Exergy analysis applies equally well to measured by better thermal energy recovery and
systems for storing thermal energy at temperatures above temperature retention, i.e., increased exergy efficiency).
and below the temperature of the environment because Storage duration. Rational evaluation and comparison
the exergy associated with such energy is always greater of TESs must account for storage duration. The length
than or equal to zero. Energy analysis is more difficult to of time thermal energy is retained in a TES does not
apply to such storage systems because efficiency defi- enter into expressions for efficiency, although it is
nitions have to be carefully modified when cooling clearly a dominant consideration in overall TES effec-
capacity, instead of heating capacity, is stored, or when tiveness. By examining the relation between storage
both warm and cool reservoirs are included. Thus, exergy duration and effectiveness, the authors developed an
analysis provides for more rational evaluation of TES approach for comparing TESs using a time parameter.
systems for cooling or heating capacity. Reference-environment temperature. Since TES
Efficiencies. The evaluation of a TES system requires evaluations based on energy and exergy are affected by
a measure of performance, which is rational, mean- the value of the reference environment temperature To,
ingful, and practical. A more perceptive basis than temporal and spatial variations of To must be considered
energy efficiency is needed if the true usefulness of (especially for TESs with storage periods of several
thermal storages is to be assessed, and so permit months). The value of To(t) can often be assumed to be
maximization of their economic benefit. Exergy effi- the same as the ambient temperature variation with time,
ciencies provide rational measures since they assess the Tamb(t), approximated on an annual basis as follows:
approach to ideal TES performance. 2pt
Losses. With energy analysis, all losses are attributable Tamb t T amb DTamb sin phase shift
period
to energy releases across system boundaries. With
(9.1)
exergy analysis, losses are divided into two types: (1)
exergy releases from the system and (2) internal exergy where T amb is the mean annual ambient temperature and
consumptions. The latter include reductions in avail- DTamb is the maximum temperature deviation from the
ability of the stored heat through mixing of warm and annual mean. The values of the parameters in Equation 9.1
cool fluids. The division of exergy losses allows the vary spatially and the period is one year. For most short-
causes of inefficiencies to be accurately identified and term storages, a constant value of To can be assumed. Some
improvement effort to be effectively allocated. possible values for To are the annual or seasonal mean value
Stratification. Thermal stratification within a TES of the temperature of the atmosphere, or the constant
reduces temperature degradation. In many practical temperature of soil far below the surface.
cases, a vertical cylindrical tank with a hot water inlet
(outlet) at the top and a cold water inlet (outlet) at the 9.3 EXERGY EVALUATION OF A CLOSED
bottom is used. The hot and cold water in the tank
TES SYSTEM
usually are initially stratified into two layers, with
a mixing layer in between. The degree of stratification is An exergy analysis of a closed tank storage with heat
affected by the volume and configuration of the tank, the transfers by heat exchanger is described in this section. A
design of the inlets and outlets, the flow rates of complete storing cycle, as well as the charging, storing,
136 Exergy
a d
Q l, 1 Ql, 2 Q l, 3
b c
FIGURE 9.1 The three stages in a simple heat storage process: (1) charging period (left), (2) storing period (center), and (3) discharging period (right).
9.3.1 Analysis of the Overall Processes Here, Exa, Exb, Exc, and Exd are the exergies of the flows at
For the cases considered (Figure 9.1), energy and exergy states a, b, c, and d, respectively; and Xl denotes the exergy
balances and efficiencies are provided for the overall loss associated with Ql; I the exergy consumption; and DEx
process. the exergy accumulation. In Equation 9.7, (Exa Exb)
represents the net exergy input and (Exd Exc) represents
9.3.1.1 Overall Energy Balance the net exergy recovered. The quantity in square brackets
represents the net exergy output from the system. The terms
An energy balance for the overall storage process can be I, Xl, and DEx are given, respectively, by the following:
written as follows:
Energy input Energy recovered Energy loss X
3
I Ij (9.8)
Energy accumulation (9.2) j1
Chapter | 9 Exergy Analysis of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 137
X
3 9.3.1.3 Overall Energy and Exergy Efficiencies
Xl Xl;j (9.9)
j1 The energy efficiency h can be expressed as follows:
DEx Exf Exi (9.10) Energy recovered from TES during discharging
h
Exergy input TES to during charging
Here, I1, I2, and I3 denote, respectively, the consumptions of Hd Hc Ql
1
exergy during charging, storing, and discharging; Xl,1, Xl,2. Ha Hb Ha Hb
and Xl,3 denote the corresponding exergy losses; and Exi (9.16)
and Exf denote the initial and final exergy contents of and the exergy efficiency j as follows:
the storage. When the initial and final states are identical,
Exergy recovered from TES during discharging
DEx 0. j
The exergy content of the flow at the states k a, b, c, Exergy input to TES during charging
d is evaluated as follows: Exd Exc Xl I
1
Exa Exb Exa Exb
Exk Hk Ho To Sk So (9.11) (9.17)
The efficiency expressions in Equations 9.16 and 9.17 do
where Exk, Hk, and Sk denote the exergy, enthalpy, and not depend on the initial energy and exergy contents of
entropy of state k, respectively, and Ho and So state the the TES.
enthalpy and the entropy at the temperature To and pressure If the TES is adiabatic, Qi,j Xi,j 0 for all j, and the
Po of the reference environment. The expression in Equa- energy efficiency is fixed at unity and the exergy efficiency
tion 9.11 only includes physical exergy, as potential and simplifies to the following:
kinetic exergy are assumed negligible. The chemical I
component of exergy is neglected because it does not j1 (9.18)
Exa Exb
contribute to the exergy flows for sensible TES systems.
Thus, the exergy differences between the inlet and outlet This result demonstrates that when TES boundaries are
for the charging and discharging periods are, respectively, adiabatic and there are no energy losses, the exergy effi-
as follows: ciency is less than unity due to internal irreversibilities.
the discharging temperature cannot exceed the charging 9.4.2 Efficiencies and Their Dependence
temperature, so the exergetic temperature factors are on Temperature
subject to the constraint 0 sd sc 1.
For a process involving only heat interactions in The energy efficiency can be written for the modeled
a closed system for which the state is the same at the system as follows:
beginning and end, balances of energy and exergy, Qd
respectively, can be written as follows: h (9.58)
Qc
X and the exergy efficiency as follows:
Qr 0 (9.53)
Xd Qd sd sd
r j h (9.59)
X Xc Qc sc sc
Xr I 0 (9.54)
r An illuminating parameter for comparing the efficiencies is
the energy-efficiency-to-exergy-efficiency ratio j/h. For the
where I denotes the exergy consumption and Xr the exergy present TES system, this ratio can be expressed as follows:
associated with Qr, the heat transferred into the system j sd
(9.60)
across region r at temperature Tr . The exergetic tempera- h sc
ture factor s and the temperature ratio T/To are compared
or
with the temperature T in Table 9.1 for above-environ-
mental temperatures (i.e., for T To), the temperature j Td To Tc
(9.61)
range of interest for most heat storages. h Tc To Td
Equations 9.53 and 9.54, respectively, can be written for
The variation of the ratio j/h with sd and sc is illustrated in
the modeled system as follows:
Figure 9.3. It is seen that j/h varies linearly with sd for
Qc Qd Ql (9.55) a given value of sc. Also, if the product heat is delivered at
the charging temperature (i.e., sd sc), j h, while the
and product heat is delivered at the temperature of the envi-
X c Xd Xl I (9.56) ronment (i.e., sd 0), j 0 regardless of the charging
temperature. In the first case, there is no loss of temperature
The exergy balance can be expressed as follows: during the entire storage process, while in the second there
is a complete loss of temperature. The largest deviation
Qc sc Qd sd Ql sl I (9.57) between values of j and h occurs in the second case.
The deviation between j and h is significant for many
practical TES systems, which operate between charging
temperatures as high as Tc 130 C and discharging
temperatures as low as Td 40 C, and with a difference of
TABLE 9.1 Relation between Several Temperature
Parameters for Above-Environment Temperatures*
1
Temperature Exergetic
ratio T/To Temperature T (K) temperature factor s
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.00 283 0.00 1.0
TABLE 9.2 Values of the Ratio j/h for a Range of Practical Values for Td and Tc*
Charging temperature, Tc ( C)
about 30 C between charging and discharging tempera- quantities, and quantitatively evaluates losses due to
tures (i.e., Tc Td 30 C). With To 10 C, the first degradation of storage temperature toward the environment
condition can be shown to imply for most present day temperature and mixing of fluids at different temperatures.
systems that 0.1 sd sc 0.3. Since it can be shown that These advantages of exergy over energy methods are
particularly important for stratified storages since they
Tc Td To
s c sd (9.62) exhibit internal spatial temperature variations. The inhibi-
Tc Td tion of mixing through appropriate temperature stratifica-
the difference in exergetic temperature factor varies approx- tion is advantageous. Through carefully managing the
imately between 0.06 and 0.08. Then the value of the exergy injection, recovery, and holding of heat (or cold) to avoid
efficiency is ~50%e80% of that of the energy efficiency. stratification degradation, better storage-cycle performance
The ratio j/h is illustrated in Table 9.2 for a simple TES can be achieved (as measured by better thermal energy
having charging and discharging temperatures ranging recovery and temperature retention and accounted for
between 40 C and 130 C, and a reference-environment explicitly through exergy efficiencies) (Hahne et al., 1989;
temperature of To 10 C. The energy and exergy effi- Krane and Krane, 1991).
ciencies differ (with the exergy efficiency always the lesser This section focuses on the energy and exergy contents of
of the two) when Td < Tc, and the difference becomes more stratified storages. In the first part, several models are pre-
significant as the difference between Tc and Td increases. sented for the temperature distributions in vertically stratified
The efficiencies are equal only when the charging and thermal storages, which are sufficiently accurate, realistic,
discharging temperatures are equal (i.e., Td Tc). and flexible for use in engineering design and analysis yet
Unlike the exergy efficiencies, the energy efficiencies simple enough to be convenient, and which provide useful
tend to appear overly optimistic in that they only account physical insights. One-dimensional gravitational tempera-
for losses attributable to heat leakages but ignore temper- ture stratification is considered, and temperature is expressed
ature degradation. Exergy efficiencies are more illumi- as a function of height for each model. Expressions are
nating because they weight heat flows appropriately, being derived for TES energy and exergy contents in accordance
sensitive to the temperature at which heat is recovered with the models. In the second part, the increase in exergy
relative to the temperature at which it is injected. TES storage capacity resulting from stratification is described.
energy efficiencies are good approximations to exergy
efficiencies when there is little temperature degradation, as
9.5.1 General Stratified TES Energy
thermal energy quantities then have similar qualities. In
most practical situations, however, thermal energy is and Exergy Expressions
injected and recovered at significantly different tempera- The energy E and exergy Ex in a TES can be found by
tures, making energy efficiencies poor approximations to integrating over the entire storage-fluid mass m within the
exergy efficiencies and misleading. TES as follows:
Z
E e dm (9.63)
9.5 EXERGY ANALYSIS OF THERMALLY m
STRATIFIED STORAGES Z
Exergy analysis recognizes differences in storage temper- Ex ex dm (9.64)
ature, even for TESs containing equivalent energy m
142 Exergy
where e denotes specific energy and ex specific exergy. For With Equation 9.69, the expression for Ex in Equation 9.71
an ideal liquid, e and ex are functions only of temperature T, can be written as follows:
and can be expressed as follows:
Ex E mcTo ln Te =To (9.76)
eT cT To (9.65)
where
exT cT To To ln T=To 2 3
ZH
1
eT cTo ln T=To (9.66) Te h exp 4 ln Th dh5 (9.77)
H
Both the storage-fluid specific heat c and reference-envi- 0
ronment temperature To are assumed constant.
Physically, Te represents the equivalent temperature of
For a TES of height H with one-dimensional vertical
a mixed TES that has the same exergy as the stratified TES.
stratification, that is, temperature varies only with height h,
In general, Te s Tm, since Te is dependent on the degree of
and a constant horizontal cross-sectional area, a horizontal
stratification present in the TES, while Tm is independent of
element of mass dm can then be approximated as follows:
degree of stratification. When the TES is fully mixed, Te
m Tm. This can be seen by noting (with Eqs. 9.64 and
dm dh (9.67)
H 9.74e9.76) that the exergy in the fully mixed TES is as
Since temperature is a function only of height (i.e., T follows:
T(h)), the expressions for e and ex in Equations 9.65 and
Exm Em mcTo ln Tm =To (9.78)
9.66, respectively, can be written as follows:
The difference in TES exergy between the stratified and
eh cTh To (9.68)
fully mixed (i.e., at a constant temperature Tm) cases can be
exh eh cTo ln Th=To (9.69) expressed with Equations 9.76 and 9.78 as follows:
With Equation 9.67, the expressions for E and Ex in Equa- Ex Exm mcTo ln Tm =Tc (9.79)
tions 9.63 and 9.64, respectively, can be written as follows:
The change given in Equation 9.79 can be shown to be
ZH
m always negative. That is, the exergy consumption associ-
E eh dh (9.70) ated with mixing fluids at different temperatures, or the
H
0 minimum work required for creating temperature differ-
ZH ences, is always positive.
m When the temperature distribution is symmetric about
Ex exh dh (9.71)
H the center of the TES such that
0
Th TH h
With Equation 9.68, the expression for E in Equation 9.70 TH=2 (9.80)
can be written as follows: 2
Tk
Height, h
0 T2
Tb Tt
Temperature, T
T1
FIGURE 9.4 A vertically stratified storage with a linear temperature
distribution.
FIGURE 9.5 A vertically stratified storage with a stepped temperature
distribution.
9.5.2.1 Linear Temperature-Distribution Model
The linear temperature-distribution model (see Figure 9.4) Since the TES-fluid density r and the horizontal TES cross-
varies linearly with height h from Tb, the temperature at the sectional area A are assumed constant, but the vertical
bottom of the TES (i.e., at h 0), to Tt, the temperature at thickness of zone j, hj hj1, can vary from zone to zone:
the top (i.e., at h H), and can be expressed as follows:
mj rVj rA hj hj1 (9.87)
Tt Tb and
h Tb
T L h (9.81)
H
m rV rAH (9.88)
By substituting Equation 9.81 into Equations 9.73 and 9.77,
it can be shown that where Vj and V denote the volumes of zone j and of the
entire TES, respectively. Substitution of Equations 9.87 and
Tt Tb 9.88 into Equation 9.86 yields the following:
TmL (9.82)
2
hj hj1
which is the mean of the temperatures at the top and bottom xj (9.89)
H
of the TES, and that
With Equations 9.73, 9.77, 9.84, and 9.89 it can be shown
Tt ln Tt 1 Tb ln Tb 1 that
TeL exp (9.83)
Tt Tb X
k
Tms xj Tj (9.90)
j1
9.5.2.2 Stepped Temperature-Distribution
Model which is the weighted mean of the zone temperatures,
where the weighting factor is the mass fraction of the zone,
The stepped temperature-distribution model (see and that
Figure 9.5) consists of k horizontal zones, each of which is " #
at a constant temperature, and can be expressed as follows: Xk Y k
x
Te exp
S
xj ln Tj Tj j (9.91)
8
>
> T1 ; h 0 h h1 j1 j1
<
T2 ; h 1 < h h2 Simplified forms of the expressions for Tm and Te can be
T h
2
(9.84)
>
> . written for the multizone temperature-distribution models
:
Tk ; hk1 < h hk when all zone vertical thicknesses are the same, since in
where the heights are constrained as follows: this special case, the mass fractions for each of the k zones
are the same (i.e., xj 1/k for all j).
0 h0 h1 h2 .. hk H (9.85)
It is convenient to introduce here xj, the mass fraction for 9.5.2.3 Continuous-Linear
zone j: Temperature-Distribution Model
mj The continuous-linear temperature distribution consists of k
xj h (9.86)
m horizontal zones, in each of which the temperature varies
144 Exergy
Height, h
: C h2
fk h; hk1 < h hk Zone 2
h1
where fCj (h) represents the linear temperature distribution
in zone j: Zone 1
The zone height constraints in Equation 9.85 apply here. FIGURE 9.6 General three-zone temperature-distribution model.
The temperature varies continuously between zones.
With Equations 9.73, 9.89, 9.92, and 9.93 it can be where fCj (h) represents the temperature distribution (linear)
shown that in zone j (see Eq. 9.93), and where the heights are con-
Xk strained as in Equation 9.85 with k 3.
TmC xj Tm j (9.94) Expressions for the temperatures Tm and Te can be
j1
obtained for the general three-zone model with the expres-
where (Tm)j is the mean temperature in zone j, that is, sions for Tm and Te for the continuous-linear model with k 3:
X
3
Tj Tj1 TmT xj TmC j (9.99)
Tm j (9.95)
2 j1
" #
and that X
3 3
Y xj
" #
X
k Y
k TeT exp xj ln TeC j TjC (9.100)
x j
TeC exp xj ln Te j Te j j (9.96) j1 j1
j1 j1
where
where (Te)j is the equivalent temperature in zone j, that is, C Tj Tj1
8
Tm j (9.101)
2
>
< exp Tj ln Tj 1 Tj1 ln Tj1 1 ; if Tj s Tj1
>
8
Te j Tj Tj1
>
>
>
: T; C < exp Tj ln Tj 1 Tj1 ln Tj1 1 ;
>
if Tj s Tj1
j if Tj Tj1 Te j Tj Tj1
>
>
: T; if Tj Tj1
j
(9.97)
(9.102)
9.5.2.4 General Three-Zone The linear temperature-distribution model is simple to
Temperature-Distribution Model utilize but not flexible enough to fit the wide range of actual
The general three-zone temperature-distribution model is temperature distributions possible, while the stepped and
a subset of the continuous-linear model in which there are continuous-linear distribution models are flexible and, if the
only three horizontal zones (i.e., k 3). The temperature zones are made small enough, can accurately fit any actual
varies linearly within each zone, and continuously across temperature distribution. The general three-zone tempera-
each zone. The temperature distribution for the general ture-distribution model strives for a balance between such
three-zone model is illustrated in Figure 9.6, and can be factors as accuracy, computational convenience, and phys-
expressed as follows: ical insight. The three-zone model simulates well the strat-
8 C ification distribution in many actual TES fluids, which
> f1 h; h0 h h1
>
> possess lower and upper zones of slightly varying or
>
>
< fC h; h1 < h h2 approximately constant temperature, and a middle zone (the
2
T h
T
(9.98) thermocline region) in which temperature varies substan-
>
> .:
>
> tially. The intermediate zone, which grows as thermal
>
: C
f3 h; h2 < h hk diffusion occurs in the tank being modeled, accounts for the
irreversible effects of thermal mixing.
Chapter | 9 Exergy Analysis of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 145
9.5.3 Increasing TES Exergy Storage Specifically, the following characterizing parameters are
Capacity Using Stratification varied to achieve the different temperature-distribution
cases considered:
The increase in exergy capacity of a thermal storage
through stratification is described. For a range of realistic l The mixed-storage temperature Tm is varied for a range
storage-fluid temperature profiles, the relative increase in of temperatures characteristic of storages for heating
exergy content of the stratified storage compared to the and cooling capacity.
same storage when it is fully mixed is evaluated. Temper- l The size of zone 2, which represents the thermocline
ature profiles are considered having various degrees of region, is allowed to vary from as little as zero to as
stratification, as represented by the magnitude and sharp- great as the size of the overall storage, that is, 0 x2
ness of the spatial temperature variations. 1. A wide range of temperature profiles can thereby
be accommodated, and two extreme cases exist: (1)
9.5.3.1 Analysis a single-zone situation with a linear temperature
distribution when x2 1, and (2) a two-zone distri-
Thermal storages for heating and cooling capacity, having bution when x2 0.
numerous temperature-distribution profiles, are considered. l The maximum and minimum temperatures in the
The general three-zone model is utilized to evaluate storage storage, which occur at the top and bottom of the storage,
energy and exergy contents. For each case, the ratio of the respectively, are permitted to vary about the mixed-
exergy of the stratified storage Ex to the exergy of the same storage temperature Tm by up to 15 C.
storage when fully mixed Exm is evaluated. Using Equa-
tions 9.72, 9.76, and 9.78 this ratio can be expressed, after Using the zone numbering system in Figure 9.6, and the
simplification, as follows: symmetry condition introduced earlier, the following
expressions can be written for the temperatures at the top
Ex Tm =To 1 lnTe =To and bottom of the storage, respectively, as follows:
(9.103)
Exm Tm =To 1 lnTm =To
T3 Tm DTst and T0 Tm DTst (9.104)
This ratio increases, from as low as unity when the storage
is not stratified, to a value greater than one as the degree of while the following equations can be written for the
stratification present increases. The ratio in Equation 9.103 temperatures at the top and bottom of zone 2, respectively,
is independent of the mass m and specific heat c of the as follows:
storage fluid. The ratio is also useful as an evaluation, T2 Tm DTth and T1 Tm DTth (9.105)
analysis, and design tool, as it permits the exergy of
a stratified storage to be conveniently evaluated by multi- where the subscripts th and st denote thermocline region
plying the exergy of the equivalent mixed storage (a (zone 2) and overall storage, respectively, and where
quantity straightforwardly evaluated) by the appropriate DT h jT Tm j (9.106)
exergy ratio determined here.
Several assumptions and approximations are utilized According to the last bullet above, 0 DTth DTst
throughout this subsection: 15 C. Also, DTth is the magnitude of the difference, on
either side of the thermocline region (zone 2), between the
l Storage horizontal cross-sectional area is fixed. temperature at the outer edge of zone 2 and Tm, while DTst
l The environmental temperature To is fixed at 20 C, is the magnitude of the difference, on either side of the
whether the case involves thermal storage for heating or overall storage, between the temperature at the outer edge
cooling capacity. of the storage and Tm. That is,
l One-dimensional gravitational (i.e., vertical) tempera- DTth DT1 DT2 and DTst DT0 DT3
ture stratification is considered.
(9.107)
For simplicity, only temperature distributions that are
rotationally symmetric about the center of the storage, where the DT parameters in the above equations are defined
according to Equation 9.80, are considered. This symmetry using Equation
9.106 as follows:
implies that zone 2 is centered about the central horizontal DTj h Tj Tm j; for j 0; 1; 2; 3 (9.108)
axis of the storage, and that zones 1 and 3 are of equal size,
that is, x1 x3 (1 x2)/2. In the analysis, two main
relevant parameters are varied realistically: 9.5.3.2 Effects of Varying Stratification
Parameters
l The principal temperatures (e.g., mean, maximum,
minimum), and Effect of varying Tm. The variation of thermal-storage
l Temperature-distribution profiles (including changes in exergy with storage temperature for a mixed storage is
zone thicknesses). illustrated in Figure 9.7. For a fixed storage total heat
146 Exergy
10
Exm/mc (K)
8
0
15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120
Tm (C)
capacity (mc), storage exergy increases, from zero when DTth increases) for all cases. Second, the percentage
the temperature Tm is equal to the environment increase in storage exergy, relative to the mixed-
temperature To, as the temperature increases or storage exergy at the same Tm, is greatest when Tm
decreases from To. This general trend, which is illus- To, and decreases both as Tm increases from To (see
trated here for a mixed storage, normally holds for Figure 9.8) and decreases from To (see Figure 9.8).
stratified storages since the effect on storage exergy of The main reason for the second observation relates to
temperature is usually more significant than the effect the fact that the absolute magnitude of the mixed
of stratification. exergy for a thermal storage is small when Tm is near
Effect of varying minimum and maximum temper- To, and larger when Tm deviates significantly from To
atures for a linear profile. A linear temperature profile (see Figure 9.7). In the limiting case where Tm To,
across the entire storage occurs with the three-zone the ratio Ex/Exm takes on the value of unity when DTth
model when x2 1. Then, the upper and lower 0 and infinity for all other values of DTth. Hence,
boundaries of zone 2 shift to the top and bottom of the the relative benefits of stratification as a tool to
storage, respectively, and correspondingly the temper- increase the exergy-storage capacity of a thermal
ature deviation DTth occurs at those positions. For storage are greatest at near-environment temperatures
a linear temperature profile, the ratio Ex/Exm is illus- and less for other cases.
trated in Figure 9.8 for three temperature regimes, Effect of varying thermocline-size parameter x2.
respectively: The variation of the ratio Ex/Exm with the zone 2
size parameter and the temperature deviation at the
l High-temperature thermal storage for heating
zone 2 boundaries, DTth, is illustrated in Figure 9.9
capacity, that is, Tm 60 C
for a series of values of the mixed-storage temper-
l Low-temperature thermal storage for heating
ature Tm. For a fixed value of DTth at a fixed value
capacity, that is, 20 C Tm 60 C
of Tm, the ratio Ex/Exm increases as the zone 2 size
l Thermal storage for cooling capacity, that is, Tm
parameter x2 decreases. This observation occurs
20 C
because the stratification becomes less smoothly
The temperature range considered is above the envi- varying and more sharp and pronounced as x2
ronment temperature To 20 C for the first two decreases.
cases, and below it for the third. Two key points are Effect of varying temperature-distribution profile.
demonstrated in Figure 9.8. First, for a fixed mixed- The temperature-distribution profile shape is varied, for
storage temperature Tm, storage exergy content a fixed value of Tm, primarily by varying values of the
increases as level of stratification increases (i.e., as parameters x2 and DTth simultaneously. The behavior of
Chapter | 9 Exergy Analysis of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 147
Tm 60 C
(a) 1.040 Tm 60 C
1.035
1.030
1.025
Ex/Exm 1.020 75 C
1.015
90 C
1.010
105 C
1.005 120 C
1.000
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
(b) 1.8
20 C Tm 60 C
Tm 30 C
1.7
1.6
1.5
Ex/Exm 1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1 45 C
60 C
1.0
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
(c) 4.5
Tm 20 C
Tm 15 C
4.0
3.5
3.0
Ex/Exm
2.5
2.0
1.5
0C
15 C
1.0
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
Tth ( C)
FIGURE 9.8 Illustration of the variation of the ratio of the exergy values for stratified and fully mixed storages, Ex/Exm, for three ranges of values of the
mixed-storage temperature Tm (each corresponding to a different graph).
Ex/Exm as x2 and DTth are varied for several Tm values is of unity at x2 1 and DTth 0, as x2 decreases and DTth
shown in Figure 9.9. For all cases considered by varying increases. Physically, these observations imply that, for
these parameters at a fixed value of Tm (except for Tm a fixed value of Tm, storage exergy increases as strati-
To), the ratio Ex/Exm increases, from a minimum value fication becomes more pronounced, both through
148 Exergy
11
1.016 X2 0.0 Tm 15 C X2 0.0
Tm 120 C
1.014 0.1 Tst 15 C 0.1
Tst 15 C 0.2 9 0.2
1.012 0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
1.010 0.5 7 0.5
Ex/Exm
Ex/Exm
0.6 0.6
1.008 0.7 0.7
0.8 0.8
5
1.006 0.9 0.9
1.0 1.0
1.004
3
1.002
1.000 1
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
Tth ( C) Tth ( C)
Ex/Exm
Ex/Exm
1.4
0.7 0.6
1.06
0.8 0.7
0.9 1.3 0.8
1.04 1.0 0.9
1.2 1.0
1.02 1.1
1.00 1.0
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
Tth ( C) Tth ( C)
3.5 1.25
Tm 30 C Tm 15 C
X2 0.0 X2
Tst 15 C Tst 15 C 0.0
3.0 0.1 1.20 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
2.5 1.15
Ex/Exm
0.5
Ex/Exm
0.5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
2.0 0.8 1.10 0.8
0.9 0.9
1.0 1.0
1.5 1.05
1.0 1.00
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
Tth ( C) Tth ( C)
FIGURE 9.9 Illustration for a series of values of the mixed-storage temperature Tm (each corresponding to a different graph) of the variation of the ratio
of the exergy values for stratified and fully mixed storages, Ex/Exm, with temperature deviation from Tm at the upper and lower boundaries of the
thermocline zone (zone 2), DTth, and with the zone-2 mass fraction x2. The magnitude of the temperature deviation from Tm at the top and bottom of the
storage, DTst, is 15 C for all cases.
increasing the maximum temperature deviation from a quantitative measure of the advantage provided by
the mean storage temperature, and increasing the stratification. Also, the exergy content (or capacity) of
sharpness of temperature profile differences between a TES increases as the degree of stratification increases,
storage zones. even if the energy remains fixed. The use of stratification
can therefore aid in TES analysis, design, and optimi-
The results clearly show that TES exergy values, unlike zation as it increases the exergy storage capacity of
energy values, change due to stratification, giving a thermal storage.
Chapter | 9 Exergy Analysis of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 149
where Tt and Tb are the storage fluid temperatures at the The change in TES exergy content can expressed as in
top and bottom of the linearly stratified storage tank, Equation 9.10.
respectively.
The change in CTES energy content from the initial (i)
to the final state ( f ) of a process can be expressed as in 9.6.3 Efficiencies
Equation 9.4.
For a general CTES undergoing a cyclic operation the
overall energy efficiency h can be evaluated as in Equation
9.6.2 Exergy Balances 9.16, with the word energy replaced by cold for under-
standing. Then, following Figure 9.10, the charging-period
An exergy balance for a CTES undergoing a complete cycle
energy efficiencies can be expressed as in Equation 9.22.
of charging, storing, and discharging can be written as in
Energy efficiencies for the storing and discharging
Equations 9.6 and 9.7. The exergy content of a flow of heat
subprocesses can be written respectively as follows:
transfer fluid at state k (where k a, b, c, or d in Figure 9.10)
can be expressed as in Equation 9.11. The exergy transfers DE1 Ql
h2 (9.120)
associated with the charging and discharging of the storage DE1
by the heat-transfer fluid can be expressed by Equations 9.12 Hc Hd
and 9.13, respectively. h3 (9.121)
DE3
The exergy loss associated with heat infiltration during
the three storage periods can be expressed as in Equation where DE1 and DE3 are the changes in CTES energy
9.15. The thermal exergy terms are negative for sub- contents during charging and discharging, respectively.
environment temperatures, as is the case here for CTESs, The exergy efficiency for the overall process can be
indicating that the heat transfer and the accompanying expressed as in Equation 9.17, and for the charging, storing,
exergy transfer are oppositely directed. That is, the losses and discharging processes, respectively, as in Equations
associated with heat transfer are due to heat infiltration into 9.26, 9.35, and 9.45.
the storage when expressed in energy terms, but due to Exergy analysis provides more meaningful and useful
a cold loss out of the storage when expressed in exergy information than energy analysis about efficiencies, losses,
terms. and performance for CTES systems. The loss of low
The exergy content of a homogeneous storage can be temperature is accounted for in exergy-based, but not in
expressed as follows: energy-based, measures. Furthermore, the exergy-based
information is presented in a more direct and logical
Ex mu uo To s so (9.116) manner, as exergy methods provide intuitive advantages
where s is the specific entropy of the storage fluid and so is s when CTES systems are considered. Consequently, exergy
evaluated at the environmental conditions. If only sensible analysis can assist in efforts to optimize the design of CTES
heat interactions occur, Equation 9.116 can be written with systems and their components, and to identify appropriate
Equation 9.66 as the following: applications and optimal configurations for CTES in
general engineering systems. The application of exergy
Ex mcT To To ln T=To (9.117) analysis to CTES systems permits mismatches in the
quality of the thermal energy supply and demand to be
For a mixture of solid and liquid, the exergy content can be
quantified, and measures to reduce or eliminate reasonably
written as follows:
avoidable mismatches to be identified and considered. The
advantages of the exergy approach are more significant for
Ex m1 Fus uo To ss so
CTES compared to heat storage due to the manner in which
(9.118)
cold is treated as a resource.
Fut uo To st so
where ss and st are the specific entropies of the solid and 9.7 EXERGY ANALYSIS OF AQUIFER TES
liquid portions of the storage fluid, respectively. SYSTEMS
The exergy content of a storage that is linearly
Underground aquifers are sometimes used for TES (Jenne,
stratified can be shown with Equations 9.76 and 9.83 as
1992). The storage medium in many aquifer TES (ATES)
follows:
systems remains in a single phase during the storing cycle,
so that temperature changes are exhibited in the store as
Tt ln Tt 1 Tb ln Tb 1
Ex E mcTo ln To thermal energy is added or removed.
Tt Tb In this section, the application of exergy analysis to the
(9.119) ATES systems is described. For an elementary ATES
Chapter | 9 Exergy Analysis of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 151
model, expressions are presented for the injected and Charging Discharging
Temperature, T
recovered quantities of energy and exergy and for effi- Tc
ciencies. The impact of introducing a threshold tempera- Td(0)
ture below which residual heat remaining in the aquifer
water is not considered worth recovering is examined. To
ATES exergy efficiencies are demonstrated to be more 0 tc 0 tf
useful and meaningful than energy efficiencies because Time, t Time, t
the former account for the temperatures associated with
FIGURE 9.11 Temperature-time profiles assumed for the charging and
thermal energy transfers and, consequently, assess how
discharging periods in the ATES model are considered.
closely ATES systems approach ideal thermodynamic
performance. ATES energy efficiencies do not provide main types of thermodynamic losses that occur in ATES
a measure of approach to ideal performance and, in fact, systems are accounted for in the model:
are often misleadingly high because some of the thermal
l Energy losses. Energy injected into an ATES that is not
energy can be recovered at temperatures too low for useful
recovered is considered lost. Thus, energy losses
purposes.
include energy remaining in the ATES and energy
injected into the ATES that is convected in a water flow
or is transferred by conduction far enough from the
9.7.1 ATES Model discharge point that it is unrecoverable.
Charging of the ATES occurs over a finite time period tc l Mixing losses. As heated water is pumped into an ATES,
and after a holding interval discharging occurs over it mixes with the water already present (which is usually
a period td. The working fluid is water, having a constant cooler), resulting in the recovered water being at a lower
specific heat c, and assumed incompressible. The temper- temperature than the injected water. In the present
ature of the aquifer and its surroundings prior to heat model, this loss results in the discharge temperature Td
injection is To, the reference-environment temperature. being at all times less than or equal to the charging
Only heat stored at temperatures above To is considered, temperature Tc, but not below the reference-environment
and pump work is neglected. temperature To (i.e., To Td(t) Tc for 0 t N).
During charging, heated water at a constant temperature 9.7.2 Energy and Exergy Analyses
Tc is injected at a constant mass flow rate m_ c into the ATES.
After a storing period, discharging occurs, during which The energy and exergy injected into the ATES during
water is extracted from the ATES at a constant mass flow charging and recovered during discharging are evaluated.
rate m_ d . The fluid discharge temperature is taken to be The energy flow associated with a flow of liquid at
a function of time, that is, Td Td(t). The discharge a constant mass flow rate m;_ for an arbitrary period of time
temperature after an infinite time is taken to be the with T a function of t, is written as follows:
temperature of the reference-environment, that is, Td(N) Z
To, and the initial discharge temperature is taken to be E E_ t dt (9.123)
between the charging and reference-environment temper- t
atures, that is, To Td(0) Tc. where the integration is performed over the time period,
Many discharge temperature-time profiles are possible. and the energy flow rate at time t is expressed as follows:
Here, the discharge temperature is taken to decrease line-
arly with time from an initial value Td(0) to a final value To. _ mc
Et _ Tt To (9.124)
The final temperature is reached at a time tf and remains
Here, c denotes the specific heat of the liquid. Combining
fixed at To for all subsequent times, that is,
Equations 9.123 and 9.124 for constant m; _ c; and To,
Z
Td 0 Td 0 To t tf ; 0 t tf _
E mc Tt To dt (9.125)
Td t
To ; tf t N t
discharge time period is given by [Ec Ed(td)], while the temperatures too low to be useful. The use of an appropriate
corresponding exergy loss is given by [Exc Exd(td)]. threshold recovery temperature can partially avoid the most
Energy losses do not reflect the temperature degradation misleading characteristics of ATES energy efficiencies.
associated with mixing, while exergy losses do.
The energy efficiency h for an ATES, as a function of
9.8 EXAMPLES AND CASE STUDIES
the discharge time period, is given by the following:
9.8.1 Inappropriateness of Energy Efficiency
Ed td m_ d Td 0 To q 2tf q
htd (9.141) for TES Evaluation
Ec m_ c Tc To 2tf tc
A simple example demonstrates that energy efficiency is an
and the corresponding exergy efficiency j by inappropriate measure of TES performance. Consider
a perfectly insulated TES containing 1000 kg of water,
jtd Exd td =Exc (9.142) initially at 40 C. The ambient temperature is 20 C.
A quantity of 4200 kJ of heat is transferred to the
The energy efficiency in Equation 9.141 simplifies when
storage through a heat exchanger from an external body of
the discharge period td exceeds tf, that is, h(td tf) f.
100 kg of water cooling from 100 C to 90 C [i.e., with
In practice, it is not economically feasible to continue
Equation 9.111, (100 kg)(4.2 kJ/kg K)(100 90) C
the discharge period until as much recoverable heat as
4200 kJ]. This heat addition raises the storage temperature
possible is recovered. As the discharge period increases,
from 1.0 C to 41 C [i.e., (4200 kJ)/((1000 kg)(4.2 kJ/kg
water is recovered from an ATES at ever-decreasing
K)) 1.0 C]. After a period of storage, 4200 kJ of heat is
temperatures (ultimately approaching the reference-envi-
recovered from the storage through a heat exchanger that
ronment temperature To), and the energy in the recovered
delivers it to an external body of 100 kg of water, raising the
water is of decreasing usefulness. Exergy analysis reflects
temperature of that water from 20 C to 30 C [i.e., with
this phenomenon, as the magnitude of the recovered exergy
Equation 9.111, DT (4200 kJ)/((100 kg)(4.2 kJ/kg K))
decreases as the recovery temperature decreases. To
10 C]. The storage is returned to its initial state at 40 C.
determine the appropriate discharge period, a threshold
The energy efficiency, the ratio of the heat recovered
temperature Tt is often introduced, below which the
from the storage to the heat injected, is 4200 kJ/4200 kJ
residual energy in the aquifer water is not considered worth
1, or 100%. Yet the recovered heat is at only 30 C, and of
recovering from an ATES. For the linear temperature-time
little use, having been degraded. With Equation 9.117, the
relation used here (see Equation 9.122), it is clear that no
exergy recovered is evaluated as (100 kg)(4.2 kJ/kg K)[(30
thermal energy could be recovered over a cycle if the
20) C (293 K) ln (303/293)] 70 kJ, and the exergy
threshold temperature exceeds the initial discharge
supplied as (100 kg)(4.2 kJ/kg K)[(100 90) C (293 K)
temperature, while the appropriate discharge period can be
ln (373/363)] 856 kJ. Thus, the exergy efficiency, the
evaluated using Equation 9.122 with Tt replacing Td(t) for
ratio of the thermal exergy recovered from storage to that
the case where To Tt Td(0). Thus,
injected, is 70/856 0.082, or 8.2%, a much more mean-
8 ingful expression of the achieved performance of the
< Td 0 Tt t ; To Tt T 0
> storage cycle.
f d
td Td 0 To (9.143)
>
:
0; Td 0 Tt
9.8.2 Comparing Thermal Storages
In practice, a threshold temperature places an upper limit Consider two different thermal storages, each of which
on the allowable discharge time period. Utilizing undergoes a similar charging process in which heat is
a threshold temperature usually has the effect of decreasing transferred to a closed thermal storage from a stream of 1000
the difference between the corresponding energy and kg of water that enters at 85 C and leaves at 25 C (see
exergy efficiencies. Figure 9.12). Consider Cases A and B, representing two
Nonetheless, ATES performance measures based on different modes of operation. For Case A, heat is recovered
exergy are more useful and meaningful than those based on from the storage after one day by a stream of 5000 kg of
energy. Exergy efficiencies account for the temperatures water entering at 25 C and leaving at 35 C. For Case B, heat
associated with heat transfers to and from an ATES, as well is recovered from the storage after 100 days by a stream of
as the quantities of heat transferred, and consequently 1000 kg of water entering at 25 C and leaving at 75 C. In
provide a measure of how closely ATES systems approach both cases the temperature of the surroundings remains
ideal performance. Energy efficiencies account only for constant at 20 C and the final state of the storage is the same
quantities of energy transferred, and can often be mislead- as the initial state. Water is taken to be an incompressible
ingly high, for example, in cases where heat is recovered at fluid having a specific heat at constant pressure of
154 Exergy
1000 kg
Tsurr 20 C 25 C Tsurr 20 C
35 C 75 C
83% 83%
5000 kg 1000 kg
27% 73%
25 C 25 C
Discharging after 1 day Discharging after 100 days
(Case A) (Case B)
FIGURE 9.12 An example in which two cases are considered. Shown are the charging process, which is identical for Cases A and B (top), the dis-
charging process for Case A (bottom left), and the discharging process for Case B (bottom right).
cp 4.18 kJ/kg K, and heat exchanges during charging and The energy efficiency of storage is (see Equation 9.16) as
discharging are assumed to occur at constant pressure. follows:
Several observations can be made from the data. First,
the inlet and outlet temperatures for the charging and dis- Heat recovered Hd Hc A 209; 000 kJ
hA
charging fluids imply that a stratified temperature profile Heat input Ha Hb 250; 800 kJ
exists in the TES after charging. Second, the higher dis- 0:833
charging fluid temperature for Case B implies that a greater
degree of stratification is maintained during the storing The heat lost to the surroundings during storage is (see
period for Case B (or that greater internal mixing occurs for Equation 9.3 with DE 0) as follows:
Case A). Third, the quantities of discharging fluid and the
QAl Ha Hb Hc Hd A
associated temperatures imply that the discharging fluid is
circulated through the TES at a greater rate for Case A than 250; 000 kJ 209; 000 kJ 41; 800 kJ
for Case B. For Case B, the heat recovered during discharging, the
Energy and exergy analyses of the overall processes are energy efficiency and the heat lost to the surroundings can
performed for both cases, using superscripts A and B to be evaluated similarly:
denote Cases A and B, respectively. This example is based
on the material in Section 9.3. Hd Hc B 1000 kg 4:18 kJ=kg K 75 25K
209; 000 kJ
9.8.2.1 Energy Analysis for the Overall Process
209; 000 kJ
The net heat input to the storage during the charging period hB 0:833
250; 800 kJ
for each case is as follows:
QBl 250; 800 kJ 209; 000 kJ 41; 800 kJ
Ha Hb m1 cp Ta Tb
1000 kg 4:18 kJ=kg K 85 25 K
9.8.2.2 Exergy Analysis for the Overall Process
250; 800 kJ
The net exergy input during the charging period (Exa
For Case A, the heat recovered during the discharging
Exb) can be evaluated with Equation 9.12. In that
period is as follows:
expression, the quantity (Ha Hb) represents the net
Hd Hc A 5000 kg 4:18 kJ=kg K 35 25K energy input to the store during charging, evaluated as
250,800 kJ in the previous subsection. Noting that the
209; 000 kJ difference in specific entropy can be written assuming
Chapter | 9 Exergy Analysis of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 155
incompressible substances having a constant specific heat and for Case B is as follows:
as follows:
Exd Exc B 19; 050 kJ
Ta kJ 358 K jB 0:728
sa sb cp ln 4:18 ln Exa Exb 26; 157 kJ
Tb kg K 298 K
kJ which is considerably higher than for Case A.
0:7667 The exergy losses (total) can be evaluated with Equa-
kgK
tion 9.7 (with DEx 0) as the sum of the exergy loss
the quantity To(Sa Sb), which represents the unavailable associated with heat loss to the surroundings and the exergy
part of the input heat, is as follows: loss due to internal exergy consumptions. That is,
To Sa Sb To m1 sa sb Xl IA Exa Exb Exd Exc A
293 K 1000 kg 0:7667 kJ=kg K 26; 157 kJ 6; 977 kJ 19; 180 kJ
224; 643 kJ
Xl IB Exa Exb Exd Exc B
where m1 denotes the mass of the transport fluid cooled
26; 157 kJ 19; 050 kJ 7; 107 kJ
during the charging period. Then, the net exergy input is as
follows: The individual values of the two exergy loss parameters can
Exa Exb 250; 800 kJ 224; 643 kJ 26;1517 kJ be determined if the temperature at which heat is lost from
the TES is known.
The net exergy output during the discharging period
(Exd Exc) can be evaluated using Equation 9.13 and,
denoting the mass of the transport fluid circulated during 9.8.2.3 Comparison
the discharging period as m3, in a similar three-step fashion The two cases are compared in Table 9.3. Although the
for Cases A and B. For Case A: same quantity of energy is discharged for Cases A and B,
TdA kJ 308K a greater quantity of exergy is discharged for Case B. In
sd sc A cp ln 4:18 ln addition, Case B stores the energy and exergy for a greater
TcA kg K 298K
duration of time.
kJ
0:1379
kg K
TABLE 9.3 Comparison of the Performance
To Sd Sc A To mA3 sd sc A of a TES for Two Cases
Thus, the exergy efficiency (see Equation 9.17) for Case A Exergy recovered (kJ) 6,977 19,050
is as follows: Exergy loss (kJ) 19,180 7,107
B
Exd Exc 6; 977 kJ Exergy efficiency (%) 26.7 72.8
jA 0:267
Exa Exb 26; 157 kJ
156 Exergy
Temperature (K)
313 323 333 343 353
4
Temperature-distribution model
General-linear
Linear
Continuous-linear
3 Stepped (20 zones)
Stepped (2 zones)
Height, h (m)
Actual temperature
distribution
0
40 50 60 70 80
Temperature ( C)
FIGURE 9.13 The realistic vertically stratified temperature distribution considered in the example and some of the temperature-distribution models
used to approximate it (linear, continuous-linear, general-linear, stepped with two zones, and stepped with 20 zones). The shown continuous-linear
distribution is equivalent to a general three-zone distribution.
Chapter | 9 Exergy Analysis of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 157
Temperature-distribution model
Stepped
Percentage errors
In values of Te 0.075 0.030 0.000 0.003 0.045 0.006 d
In values of X 4.900 2.000 0.000 0.200 2.900 0.400 d
In values of 55.600 22.500 0.000 2.500 33.100 4.400 d
X Xm
l Latent heat storage, with a fully mixed storage fluid of the heat transfer fluid, respectively. The subscripts 1, 2,
l Combined latent and sensible heat storage, with a fully and 3 indicate the temperature of the storage fluid at the
mixed storage fluid beginning of charging, storing, or discharging, respectively.
Also, t indicates the liquid state and s indicates the solid
state for the storage fluid at the phase change temperature.
9.8.4.1 Assumptions and Specified Data In addition, for all cases, the inlet temperatures are fixed
The following assumptions are made for each of the cases: for the charging-fluid flow at Ta 10 C and for the
discharging-fluid flow at Tc 20 C. For cases involving
l Storage boundaries are nonadiabatic.
latent heat changes (i.e., solidification), F 10%. The
l Heat gain from the environment during charging and
specific heat c is 4.18 kJ/kg K for both the storage and
discharging is negligibly small relative to heat gain
heat-transfer fluids. The phase-change temperature of the
during the storing period.
storage fluid is 0 C. The configuration of the storage tank
l The external surface of the storage tank wall is at
is cylindrical with an internal diameter of 2 m and internal
a temperature 2 C greater than the mean storage-fluid
height of 5 m. Environmental conditions are 20 C and
temperature.
1 atm.
l The mass flow rate of the heat transfer fluid is controlled
to produce constant inlet and outlet temperatures.
l Work interactions, and changes in kinetic and potential 9.8.4.2 Results and Discussion
energy terms, are negligibly small.
The results for the four cases are listed in Table 9.7 and
Specified data for the four cases are presented in Table 9.6 include overall and subprocess efficiencies, input, recov-
and relate to the diagram in Figure 9.10. In Table 9.6, Tb ered cold quantities, and energy and exergy losses. The
and Td are the charging and discharging outlet temperatures overall and subprocess energy efficiencies are identical for
158 Exergy
TABLE 9.7 Energy and Exergy Quantities for the Cases in the CTES Example
energy analysis. The concept that cold is a valuable kg/m3, m_ c 18.4 kg/s, and m_ d 18.1 kg/s. Also, the
commodity is both logical and in line with ones intuition reference-environment temperature is fixed at the ambient
when applied to CTES systems. temperature, that is, To 11 C 284 K.
During charging, it can be shown using Equations 9.129
and 9.130, with tc 5.24 days 453,000 s and Tc 89.4 C
9.8.5 Aquifer TES 362.4 K, so that
In this case study, which is based on the material in Section
9.7, energy and exergy analyses are performed on an ATES Ec 18:4 kg=s4:2 kJ=kg K453; 000 s
using experimental data from the first of four short-term 89:4 C 11 C
ATES test cycles for the Upper Cambrian Franconia- 2:74 109 kJ
Ironton-Galesville confined aquifer. The test cycles were
performed at the University of Minnesotas St. Paul campus and
from November 1982 to December 1983 (Hoyer et al.,
Exc 2:74 109 kJ 18:4 kg=s4:2 kJ=kgK
1985). During the test, water was pumped from the source
well, heated in a heat exchanger and returned to the aquifer 453; 000 s284K ln 362:4 K=284K
through the storage well. After storage, energy was 0:32 109 kJ
recovered by pumping the stored water through a heat
exchanger and returning it to the supply well. The storage During discharging, the value of the time tf is evaluated
and supply wells are located 255 m apart. using the linear temperatureetime relation of the present
For the test cycle considered here, the water temperature model and the observations that Td(t 5.24 days) 38 C
and volumetric flow rate vary with time during the injection and Td(0) 77 C 350 K. Then, using Equation 9.122
and recovery processes as shown in Figure 9.14. The storage with t 5.24 days,
period duration (13 days) is also shown. Charging occurred
38 C 77 C 77 C 11 C 5:24 d=tf
during 5.24 days over a 17 day period. The water tempera-
ture and volumetric flow rate were approximately which can be solved to show that tf 8.87 days. Thus, with
constant during charging, and had mean values of 89.4 C the present linear model, the discharge water temperature
and 18.4 L/s, respectively. Discharging also occurred over would reach To if the discharge period was lengthened to
5.24 days, approximately, with a constant volumetric flow almost 9 days. In reality, the rate of temperature decline
rate of water and linearly decreasing temperature with time. would likely decrease, and the discharge temperature
The mean volumetric flow rate during discharging was 18.1 would asymptotically approach To.
L/s, and the initial discharge temperature was 77 C, while The value of the fraction f can be evaluated with
the temperature after 5.24 days was 38 C. The ambient Equation 9.140 as follows:
temperature was reported to be 11 C.
8:87 d18:1 kg=s77 C 11 C
f 0:701
9.8.5.1 Simplifications, Analysis, and Results 25:24 d18:4 kg=s89:4 C 11 C
Thus, the maximum energy efficiency achievable is
In subsequent calculations, mean values for volumetric
approximately 70%. With these values and Equations 9.135
flow rates and charging temperature are used. Also, the
and 9.136, it can be shown that
specific heat and density of water are both taken to be fixed,
at 4.2 kJ/kg K and 1000 kg/m3, respectively. Since the a 11 C 77 C=284 K 8:87 d
volumetric flow rate (in liters/second) is equal to the mass
flow rate (in kilograms/second) when the density is 1000 0:0262 d1 and b 350 K=284 K 1:232
100 100
T ( C)
50 50
0 0
0 2 8 14 16 0 2 4 6 8
Time, t (days) Time, t (days)
160 Exergy
Consequently, expressions dependent on discharge time discharging fluid flows. As the discharging time increases,
period td can be written and plotted (see Figure 9.15) for Ed, the deviation between these two efficiencies increases
Exd, h and j using Equations 9.131e9.133, 9.141, and 9.142, (Figure 9.15) because the temperature of recovered heat
and for the energy loss (Ec Ed) and exergy loss (Exc Exd). decreases (Figure 9.14). In this case, the energy efficiency
reaches approximately 70% and the exergy efficiency of
40% by the completion of the discharge period, even
9.8.5.2 Discussion though the efficiencies are both 0% when discharging
Both energy and exergy efficiencies in Figure 9.15 increase commences.
from zero to maximum values as td increases. Further, the To further illustrate the importance of temperature,
difference between the two efficiencies increases with a hypothetical modification of the present case study is
increasing td. This latter point demonstrates that the exergy considered. In the modified case, all details are as in the
efficiency gives less weight than the energy efficiency to original case except that the temperature of the injection
the energy recovered at higher td values, since it is recov- flow during the charging period is increased from 89.4 to
ered at temperatures nearer to the reference-environment 200 C (473 K), while the duration of the charging period is
temperature. decreased from its initial value of 5.24 days (453,000 s) so
Several other points in Figure 9.15 are worth noting. that the energy injected does not change. By equating the
First, for the conditions specified, all parameters level off as energy injected during charging for the original and
td approaches tf, and remain constant for td tf. Second, as modified cases, the modified charging-period duration tc0
td increases toward tf, the energy recovered increases from can be evaluated as a function of the new injection flow
zero to a maximum value, while the energy loss decreases temperature T c0 as follows:
from a maximum of all the input energy to a minimum (but Tc To 89:4 C 11 C
non-zero) value. The exergy recovery and exergy loss tc0 tc 453; 000 s
0
Tc To 200 C 11 C
functions behave similarly qualitatively, but exhibit much
lower magnitudes. 188; 000 s
The difference between energy and exergy efficiencies The modified exergy input during charging can then be
is due to temperature differences between the charging and evaluated as follows:
td tf
188; 000 s284 K ln 473 K=284 K
2 0:64 109 kJ
Energy loss
This value is double the exergy input during charging for
the original case. So, since the discharging process remains
unchanged in the modified case, the exergy efficiency (for
1 any discharging time period) is half that for the original
Energy recovery, Ed case. The altered value of exergy efficiency is entirely
Exergy loss attributable to the new injection temperature, and occurs
Exergy recovery, Exd
despite the fact that the energy efficiency remains
0 unchanged.
100 If a threshold temperature is introduced and arbitrarily
set at 38 C (the actual temperature at the end of the
Energy efficiency,
Efficiencies (%)
3. The exergy efficiency (40%) has almost attained the 9.8.6.1 System Description
exergy efficiency attainable in infinite time (43.5%),
The campus considered in this exergy assessment is the
while the energy efficiency (58%) is still substantially
University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Ontario,
below the ultimate energy efficiency attainable (70%).
Canada. The campus includes seven buildings, most of
To gain confidence in the model and the results, some of the which are designed to be heated and cooled using GSHPs in
quantities calculated using the linear model can be conjunction with the BTES, with the aim of reducing energy
compared with the same quantities as reported in the resource use, environmental emissions, and financial costs.
experimental paper (Hoyer et al., 1985): However, the analyses in this case study consider only 10
buildings since the whole system was designed for that
1. The previously calculated value for the energy injection
many buildings. This university BTES field is the largest and
during charging of 2.74 109 kJ is 1.1% less than the
deepest in Canada, and the geothermal well field is one of
reported value of 2.77 109 kJ.
the largest in North America (Dincer and Rosen, 2011). The
2. The energy recovered at the end of the experimental
system in cooling mode is illustrated in Figure 9.16.
discharge period of td 5.24 days can be evaluated with
The total cooling load of the campus buildings is about
Equation 9.131 as follows:
7000 kW. Test drilling programs were carried out to
Ed 5:24 d 18:14:277 115:24 2 8:87 determine the feasibility of thermal storage in the over-
5:24=2 8:87 86; 400 s=d burden and bedrock formations at the site. Using the
thermal conductivity test results, it was determined that
1:60 109 kJ a field of 370 boreholes, each 200 m in depth, would be
which is 1.8% less than the reported value of 1.63 109 kJ. required to meet the energy demand. The Swedish practice
3. The energy efficiency at td 5.24 days can be evaluated of water-filled BHEs was utilized instead of the North
with Equation 9.141 as follows: American practice of grouted BHEs.
The universitys central plant provides a cooling and
h 5:24 d 1:60 109 kJ2:74 109 kJ 0:584 heating system for the campus, utilizing the BTES. Chillers
which is 1.0% less than the reported value of 0.59 are used to provide energy and pumps convey the working
(referred to as the energy recovery factor). fluid between the buildings and the BTES. Additional heat
pump modules assist in cooling. Chilled water is supplied
from two multistack chillers, each having seven modules,
and two sets of heat pumps each with seven modules.
9.8.6 Borehole TES Chillers are variable displacement centrifugal units with
Ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems have received magnetic bearings that allow for excellent part-load perfor-
increasing attention in recent years for residential and mance. The condenser water enters the borehole field, which
commercial heating and cooling applications due to their retains the heat from the condensers for use in the winter
ability to provide environmental advantages, to reduce (when the heat pumps reverse) and provides low-temperature
electricity demand and use, and to facilitate demand-side hot water for the campus (Dincer and Rosen, 2011).
management. GSHPs have been widely used in Europe, A glycol solution, encased in polyethylene tubing,
Asia, and North America. A GSHP with a borehole heat circulates through an interconnected, underground network.
exchanger (BHE) uses the ground as a heat source or sink A 15% glycol solution is the source that is circulated
or storage medium. The ground is a useful heat source and through the BHE mounted in the ground. Inlet and outlet
heat sink and energy storage medium since its temperature temperatures of solution to and from the ground are 29.4 C
is nearly constant throughout the year except for the upper and 35 C, respectively. The glycol solution concentration is
5 to 10 m. The space between borehole wall and the 30% and is circulated between the system and buildings to
ground can be filled with groundwater or grout. Over the transfer heat. Inlet and outlet temperatures of the solution to
decade, several exergy-based studies have been carried out and from the fan coils are 5.5 C and 14.4 C, respectively.
on borehole thermal energy storage (BTES) systems. For During the winter, fluid circulating through tubing extended
instance, Hepbasli (2005) found that for a GSHP system into the wells collects heat from the earth and carries it into
with a U-tube ground heat exchanger for district heating, the buildings. In the summer, the system reverses to extract
the heating coefficient of performance of the heat pump is heat from the buildings and transmits it to the ground.
2.85 and the exergy efficiencies for the heat pump and
overall system are 66.8% and 66.6%, respectively. In this
9.8.6.2 Analysis Assumptions
case study, an exergy assessment of a BTES system to
meet the cooling load of a university campus is carried out In the analysis, the refrigerant R507A is taken to be used
using actual cooling load data for the system. in the chiller system and R407C in the heat pump system.
162 Exergy
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10
21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48
20 22 23 25 26 28 29 31 32 34 35 3 38 40 41 43 44 46 47 49
5
1
13 14 15 16 17 18
1 4 5 8 9 12
Chillers Heat Pumps 1 Heat Pumps 2
7240 kW 7176 kW 7176 kW
2 3 6 7 10 11
52 51 54 53 56 55
62 68 74
60 61 66 67 72 73
58 59 64 65 70 71
FIGURE 9.16 Flow diagram of the GSHP/BTES system at the University of Ontario Institute of Technology, in the cooling mode. (Modified from
Kizilkan and Dincer, 2012).
Heat transfer to the system and work transfer from the 9.8.6.3 Exergy Balances and Efficiencies
system are positive, and the reference-environment
temperature and pressure are 24 C and 98.825 kPa, Exergy balances, which allow exergy destruction rates and
respectively. It is assumed that processes are at steady- exergy efficiencies to be determined, follow for the main
state and steady-flow conditions; the isentropic efficien- components of the GSHP/BTES system in Figure 9.16, that
cies of the chiller and heat pumps are 85% and 80%, is, the compressor (Comp), condenser (Con), expansion
respectively; the compressor is adiabatic and has valve (ExpV), evaporator (E), fan-coil (FanCoil), BHE, and
mechanical and electrical efficiencies of 80% and 84%, circulating pump (Pump), respectively:
respectively; the circulating pumps have mechanical and _ Comp;in Ex
_ dest;Comp Ex _ comp;out W_ Comp
Ex (9.144)
electrical efficiencies of 85% and 88%, respectively;
power inputs to the fan-coil fans and potential and kinetic
Ex _ Con;in Ex
_ dest;Con Ex _ BW;in
_ Con;out Ex
energy effects are negligible; and there are no chemical or
nuclear reactions. _ BW;out
Ex (9.145)
Chapter | 9 Exergy Analysis of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 163
_ dest;ExpV Ex
_ ExpV;in Ex
_ ExpV;out and exergy data for R507A, R407C, and the glycol solution
Ex (9.146)
are given for the state points in Figure 9.16.
The exergy destruction rate, the relative irreversibility,
Ex _ E;in Ex
_ dest;E Ex _ CW;in Ex
_ out Ex _ CW;out
and the exergy efficiency are listed for the overall system
(9.147) and each of its components in Table 9.8. The exergy effi-
ciency for the BTES system on a product/fuel basis is found
_ dest;FanCoil Ex
Ex _ CW;out Q_ FanCoil
_ CW;in Ex to be 62% and the overall exergy destruction rate is found to
be 1346 kW. The greatest exergy destruction rates in the
T0
1 (9.148) BTES system occur in the compressors of the chiller and
TFanCoil
heat pumps, followed by the condenser, the expansion
valve, and the evaporator.
T0
_ _ _ _
Exdest;BHE ExBW;in ExBW;out QBHE 1 The inlet glycol solution temperature is an important
TBHE
and representative parameter of the BTES system. The
(9.149) glycol solution temperature entering the refrigeration
system (i.e., condenser) is higher than the earth temperature
Ex _ pump;in Ex
_ dest;pump Ex _ pump;out W_ pump (9.150) in summer conditions because of heat rejection from the
circulating glycol solution to the ground. It is shown in
Corresponding exergy efficiencies of BTES system Figure 9.17 that exergy destruction rate increases as the
components are as follows: entering glycol solution temperature decreases.
The overall exergy destruction rate of the system is
_ Comp;out Ex
Ex _ Comp;in shown in Figure 9.18 as evaporator temperature varies and
jComp (9.151)
_
W Comp in Figure 9.19 as condenser temperature varies. The
overall exergy destruction rate decreases and the overall
_ BW;out Ex
Ex _ BW;in exergy efficiency increases with increasing of evaporator
jCon (9.152) temperature and decreasing of condenser temperature. The
_ Con;in Ex
Ex _ Con;out
variations are almost linear.
_ ExpV;out The results of GSHP/BTES exergy analysis are some-
Ex
jExV (9.153) what sensitive to variations in reference-environment
_ ExpV;in
Ex properties and in glycol solution concentration, as shown in
previous analyses (Kizilkan and Dincer, 2012).
_ CW;in Ex
Ex _ BW;out
jE (9.154)
_ _ Con;in
ExCon;out Ex
9.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS
_ CW;out Ex
Ex _ CW;in This chapter has demonstrated that the use of exergy
jFanCoil _
(9.155) analysis is important for developing a sound understanding
_ Q
Ex FanCoil of the thermodynamic behavior of TES systems, and for
rationally assessing, comparing, and improving their effi-
_ BW;in Ex
Ex _ BW;out
jBHE (9.156) ciencies. Exergy analysis suggests measures to improve
_ Q_
Ex TES systems such as:
BHE
_ pump;out Ex
Ex _ pump;in l Reducing thermal losses (heat leakage from hot TESs
jpump (9.157) and heat infiltration to cold TESs) by improving insu-
W_ pump
lation levels and distributions.
For the overall system, the exergy efficiency can be written l Avoiding temperature degradation by using smaller heat-
as follows: exchanger temperature differences, ensuring that heat
P Q_ flows of appropriate temperatures are used to heat cooler
_ out
Ex _ FanCoil
Ex
jsys P P (9.158) flows, and increasing heat-exchanger efficiencies.
_
Exin _
W Comp W_ pump l Avoiding mixing losses by retaining and taking advan-
tage of thermal stratification.
l Reducing pumping power by using more efficient
9.8.6.4 Performance Assessment pumps, reduced-friction heat-transfer fluids, and
appropriate heat-recovery threshold temperatures.
The performance of the BTES system is described here,
based on an earlier analysis (Kizilkan and Dincer, 2012). In The development of a standard TES evaluation method-
that work the university data, temperature, mass flow rate, ology accounting for the thermodynamic considerations
164 Exergy
TABLE 9.8 Exergy-Based Performance Parameters for the GSHP/BTES System and Its Components
Component Exergy destruction rate (kW) Relative irreversibility (%) Exergy Efficiency (%)
Compressor 1 78.28 5.816 86.62
Compressor 2 56.64 4.208 87.33
TABLE 9.8 Exergy-Based Performance Parameters for the GSHP/BTES System and Its Componentsdcontd
Component Exergy destruction rate (kW) Relative irreversibility (%) Exergy Efficiency (%)
Fan coil pump A10 0.627 0.046 6.97
BHE pump 1 0.034 0.002 3.25
BHE pump 2 0.030 0.002 3.25
BHE pump 3 0.030 0.002 3.25
Cooling tower pump 1 2.537 0.188 3.25
Cooling tower pump 2 1.092 0.081 3.25
0.68
1600
sys
0.64
sys
1400
Exdest,tot 0.6
1200
1000 0.56
800 0.52
28 29 30 31 32 33 34
TBW,in (C)
1300 0.66
Exdest,tot (kW)
sys
1200 0.65
1100 0.64
sys
1000 0.63
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
TE (C)
166 Exergy
Exdest,tot (kW)
2200
sys
0.62
1800
1000 0.58
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
TC(C)
discussed in this chapter would be worthwhile. The use of 9.3 What is the effect of storage temperature on the energy
exergy is important because it clearly takes into account the and exergy efficiencies of a TES system?
loss of availability and temperature of heat in storage 9.4 What is the effect of stratification on the energy and
operations, and hence more correctly reflects the thermo- exergy efficiencies of a TES system?
dynamic and economic value of the storage operation. The 9.5 Identify the operating parameters that have the greatest
development of better assessment methodologies will effects on the exergy performance of a TES system.
ensure effective use of energy resources by providing 9.6 For which TES system are the advantages of the
a basis for identifying the more productive directions for exergy approach more significant: cold storage or heat
development of TES technology, and identifying the better storage? Explain.
systems without the lengthy and inefficient process of 9.7 Is a solar water heating system using collectors a TES
waiting for them to be sorted out by competitive economic system? How can you express the energy and exergy
success in the marketplace. efficiency of such a system? What are the causes of
exergy destructions in solar water heating systems?
9.8 Obtain a published article on exergy analysis of TES
PROBLEMS
systems. Using the operating data provided in the
9.1 How are the energy and exergy efficiencies of article, perform a detailed exergy analysis of the system
a thermal storage system defined? and compare your results to those in the original article.
9.2 Identify the sources of exergy loss in TES systems and Also, investigate the effect of varying important oper-
propose methods for reducing or minimizing them. ating parameters on the system exergetic performance.