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Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136
Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct
Review article
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This paper discusses some of the algorithms available for the automatic adaptive selection of time step
Received 10 November 2013 size, applied to the step-by-step direct time integration methods of structural dynamics problems. Three
Revised 7 August 2014 adaptive strategies based on different concepts are explored and compared: the algorithm of Bergan and
Accepted 8 August 2014
Mollestad (1985), which is based on the current characteristic frequency; the strategy of Hulbert and
Jang (1995), which uses a local error estimator; and the method of Lages et al. (2013), which is based
on the geometric indicator of displacements history curvature. The reviewed strategies are applied to
Keywords:
the Newmark integration scheme to solve various numerical examples of linear dynamic systems, which
Dynamic structural analysis
Automatic time stepping
are presented to compare the performance between the three algorithms that are tested. To conclude, a
Direct time integration methods brief analysis about the considerations of the computational cost is made.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2. Basic structural dynamics concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.1. Dynamic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.2. Newmark formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3. Automatic time-stepping strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.1. Strategy of Bergan and Mollestad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.2. Strategy of Hulbert and Jang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.2.1. Normalised error and error tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.2.2. Algorithm for automatic time step size control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.2.3. Application to problems with quiescent start conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3. Strategy of Lages et al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3.1. Indicator of curvature and time step strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.3.2. Curvature regularisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4. Numerical examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.1. Single-degree-of-freedom systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.2. Shear building with three floors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.3. Simply supported beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.4. A three-bar plane frame structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5. Computational cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Corresponding author. Address: Av. Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, 29075-910 Vitria, ES, Brazil. Tel.: +55 27 40092666, cell: +55 27 99699645.
E-mail addresses: rossi.diogo@gmail.com (D.F. Rossi), walnorio@gmail.com (W.G. Ferreira), webe@coc.ufrj.br (W.J. Mansur), afcalenzani@gmail.com (A.F.G. Calenzani).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2014.08.016
0141-0296/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136 119
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
thus changing the matrix K. In this paper, only linear cases are step length does not change unless a major change in the response
compared in numerical examples. The three strategies described has taken place. Outside this plateau, the function f ni is simply
ni ,
in the following sections have procedures to avoid frequent which makes the setting of the time step in accordance with Eq.
changes in the time step size when it is not necessary. (13) except that a maximum increase has been set at nm . Bergan
and Mollestad reported that np should be specied as an input
3.1. Strategy of Bergan and Mollestad parameter (as well as the step-length parameter, k, and the rst
time step size, Dt1) and that typical values of np would be 1.3 or
The strategy of Bergan and Mollestad [6] proposes the use of an 1.4. The maximum increase in the time step, nm , can be kept xed
expression that is similar to the Rayleigh quotient, which is dened (not an input parameter), and its value would be 2.0.
as a current characteristic angular frequency, given by the rst of Finally, it is worth noting that, in some steps, the values of DDi
the following equations for step i: could become very small or vanish, such as when passing through
maximum amplitudes. In these situations, it was proposed that x 2i
DDTi Ki DDi 2p could be assigned to its value in the previous step:
2i
x T i 1=2 12
DDTi MDDi x
2 2i x
2i1 when kDDi k < ekDDi1 k
i x 15
Based on this frequency, a corresponding measure of the cur- where e is a xed small number, which is specied to be 0.1. Other
rent characteristic period is calculated by the second of the previ- comments were made in the original work about various aspects of
ous equations. The absolute value of x 2i was taken because it might
the algorithm, but the description given here is necessary for
be negative and T i must be real. The dened frequency x 2i is not
implementation.
any specic natural eigenfrequency, but it reects the incremental
response for all eigenmodes, being an estimate for the dominant
3.2. Strategy of Hulbert and Jang
frequency of the response. The period T i expresses a dominant
increment response period for the total system, and it is tied to
The adaptive strategy of Hulbert and Jang [12] proposes to use
the current stiffness and response, but it is not generally a measure
an algorithm based on the local error estimate approach. The local
of the time elapsed between zero amplitudes. Using this character-
error ei is a measure of the error in the numerical solution for each
istic period, a preliminary estimate of the time increment for the
time step. This error is obtained by the difference: ei Di Dti ,
next time step is calculated by
where Dt is the solution of the local problem, i.e., it is an analyt-
Dt i1 kT i 13 ical function that satises the following equations:
Ci Dt
MDt _ Ki Dt Pt 16
where the asterisk indicates that this equation is only an estimate
and not the actual new time step size. Here, k is an input constant
that is denoted as the step-length parameter, which is selected Dti1 Di1 _ i1 D_ i1
Dt i1 D
Dt i1 17
according to the desired accuracy and could lie between 0.001 (high Using Taylor series expansions, Hulbert and Jang developed a
accuracy) and 0.1 (low accuracy). A typical value of k would be 0.05, simple expression to dene the local error, which is applied to
which corresponds to 20 time steps for one characteristic period. the generalised-a method integration process. This time integra-
This number is the xed value used in the computing software tion algorithm uses the same Eqs. (5) and (6) of the Newmark
ANSYS 11.0 [23], in which this method is applied. Using the esti- method combined with a modied balance equation, in which
mate Dti1 , the current time-step ratio,
ni , is dened by the rst two additional parameters are introduced: am and af. When
of the following Eq. (14), and the actual new time increment of am = af = 0, the algorithm reduces to the original Newmark method.
the next time step is calculated by the second of these equations. Therefore, by making these two parameters equal to zero, the local
error expression developed by Hulbert and Jang, applied to the
ni Dt i1 Dt i1 f ni Dti 14
Dt i Newmark integration process, is given by
where f ni is a tuning function of
ni that determines the sensitiv-
1 i
ei Dt 2i b DD 18
ity of the time-stepping algorithm. Bergan and Mollestad discussed 6
some examples of tuning functions in their work and concluded which is identical to the expression presented by Zienkiewicz and
that the best type of such functions has the form of the function Xie [8] and Zeng et al. [9]. This equation is invalid only if b = 1/6
shown in Fig. 1. (ei is equal to zero). However, for this case, an error estimate can
This type of tuning function has a plateau around ni 1, which be found by using high-order terms in the Taylor series expansion
is dened by a value np and serves as a protection against making [10]. In this paper, only Eq. (18) will be used to dene the local error
unnecessary adjustments of the time step, what means that the of this strategy.
parameter (Dt/T)target, the corresponding tolerance for this norma- Finally, it is important to expose that the user-specied value
lised error can be computed by (Dt/T)target can be used to determine the number lcount. Hulbert
2 and Jang applied a criterion where this number is dened as the
Dt 1
tol C d C d 2p2 b 20 reciprocal of (Dt/T)target, which can be stated as follows:
T 6 !
1
Common practice dictates that there should be a minimum of lcount int 24
10 time steps per period of the maximum frequency of interest Dt=Ttarget
in the response [12], which suggests that typical values for
(Dt/T)target would be 0.1. 3.2.3. Application to problems with quiescent start conditions
The original work of Hulbert and Jang also suggests another The time-step control strategy described previously cannot be
scheme for the normalised error RLi. However, the expression of used to compute the step size for the rst time increment when
the tolerance in this case was derived numerically by curve tting, the initial conditions and load are zero (quiescent conditions).
and the resulting equation is a function of the high-frequency The normalised error for the rst time step would be independent
dissipation parameter of the generalised-a method, q1, which of Dt for a quiescent start. It can be shown that under such
has no relationship to the Newmark method. For this reason, only conditions, the normalised error is given by
the normalisation scheme of Eq. (19) will be used in this paper.
b 16
RL1 25
3.2.2. Algorithm for automatic time step size control b
After calculating the error tolerance by Eq. (20) and the norma- Since b is an algorithm parameter, the time-step control strategy
lised error RLi for the current interval, the rst procedure of the may not be utilised. Thus, the rst step increment, Dt1, is not
time step control algorithm is to request, at each step, that changed in a quiescent start problem, and this time step size should
lb tol 6 RLi 6 tol 21 be given as an input parameter.
For the second time step, Dt1 should be used as initial trial step
where lb is a multiplication factor for the lower-bound tolerance, size. Then, if RL2 > tol, the step size is decreased. However, due to
for which a typical xed value would be 0.75. Three situations quiescent start, the value ||DD2||, obtained with the decreased time
can occur from this point: (1) if the condition (21) is satised, then step, may not be large enough to be used as a normalisation factor.
the solution is accepted and the integration process proceeds to the For this reason, the normalisation factor is kept constant in the sec-
next time increment without changing the step size; (2) if ond time step with the value kD02 D1 k, where D02 is the displace-
RLi < lb tol, then the time step size can increase because the error ment computed for time t2 using the initial step size estimate Dt1.
is considered to be too small. However, this increase in step size
shall occur only for the next time increment, and the solution for 3.3. Strategy of Lages et al.
the current step is taken to be acceptable. Due to the periodic
nature of the local error, the time step length would also be peri- The automatic adaptive strategy proposed by Lages et al. [17] is
odic, and because it is not desirable to change the time step too fre- based on a geometric indicator dened as the curvature of the dis-
quently, a counter cont was introduced to register the number of placement history. Using the denitions of elementary vector cal-
steps in which the situation RLi < lb tol occurs consecutively. If culus, the parametric representation of a curve in space,
this counter exceeds a specied value, lcount, only then the step described by a given parameter t, can be expressed as a vector
size is increased for the next time increment, in accordance with function rt (Fig. 2). The vector v t a dr=dtjtta 0 is the geo-
the following equations: metric velocity vector of the curve r at time ta, and it is tangent
1=pinc to the curve at the point r(ta). The corresponding unit tangent vec-
tol
Dti1 f inc Dt i f inc 22 tor is dened by Tt v t=kv tk, and the arc length function
RLmax
i
s(t) is the integral of the norm ||v(t)|| taken from a specied instant
where pinc is an input parameter that is related to the rate of conver- point t0 to a generic instant t. Based on these concepts, the curva-
gence of the local error and RLmaxi is the maximum value of RL that ture of a curve at time t, which is denoted by j(t), is dened by
has occurred since the counter was reset to zero. The counter is
dT
reset every time that a step size change occurs (an increase or jt
t
26
ds
Dt i1 Dtmax expcp ji 30
0.012 2.5
Constant t Constant t
Hulbert & Jang Hulbert & Jang
0.010 Lages et al. Lages et al.
2
Time step size history (t)
0.008
1.5
Error (er)
0.006
1
0.004
0.5
0.002
0.000 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
Time (t) Time (t)
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Absolute error and time step size history for the rst set of parameters.
D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136 125
0.900
Norm of the local error history (|| e ||)
Non-Regularized Curvature
0.700
0.0008 0.012
Curvature ()
0.600
0.400
0.0004 0.006
0.300
0.200
0.0002 0.003
0.100
0 0 0.000
0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
Time (t) Time (t)
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. Normalised local error history and curvature history for the rst set of parameters.
0.06 3.0
Non-Regularized Curvature
Constant t Regularized Curvature
Hulbert & Jang
0.05 2.5
Lages et al.
Time step size history ( t)
0.04 2.0
Curvature ()
0.03 1.5
0.02 1.0
0.01 0.5
0 0.0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (t) Time (t)
(a) (b)
Fig. 8. Time step size history and curvature history for the second set of parameters.
-4 0.007
-5
1x10 1.8x10 Constant t
|| e ||
Normalized local error history (RL)
0.004
-6 -5
6x10 9.0x10
0.003
-6 -5
4x10 6.0x10
0.002
-6 -5
2x10 3.0x10 0.001
0 0
0x10 0.0x10 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (t) Time (t)
(a) (b)
Fig. 9. Normalised local error and absolute error for the second set of parameters.
in accordance with the variation in the time steps. As shown in before it is increased again, searching for stabilisation at a target
Fig. 6(b), for the strategy of Hulbert and Jang, the time steps start value given by the input (Dt/T)target, which is approximately
at close to half of the initial value (Dt1) and tend to increase as Dt = 0.628 s. In many steps, the normalised error RL lies below
the analysis advances, which is in accordance with the behaviour the lower tolerance limit lb tol = 0.0123 in condition (21), as
of the normalised local error. For a short interval of time, the value shown in Fig. 7(a). This observation explains why the time step
of Dt has been set to be equal to the initial estimate (Dt = 0.5 s) increases with time. Fig. 7(a) also illustrates that the error RL never
126 D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136
Table 2 Table 3
Summary of results of single-degree-of-freedom systems. Set of parameters.
pt 0 0 p3 t T and pt p1 t 0 0 T 32
0.015 0.025
First Floor Bergan & Mollestad
Second Floor Hulbert & Jang
Lages et al.
0.015
0.005
0.01
0
0.005
-0.005 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 12. Dynamic response history and variation of Dt for the rst case of the shear building.
Table 4
procedures discussed earlier, for which the rst time step was cho-
Parameters of the adaptive strategies used in the shear building examples.
sen as Dt1 = 0.01 s in the three strategies. All of the algorithms pre-
Case Bergan and Mollestad Hulbert and Jang Lages et al. dicted an increase in the time step size value during the rst 0.35 s,
k
np (Dt/T)target cp ct a sharply reducing it near time t = 0.4 s and increasing it again in the
(1) 0.05 1.4 1/10 2 1.0 0.6
subsequent moments. Because the value of RL1 is greater than the
(2) 0.05 1.3 1/20 25 2.0 0.5 bound tol, the strategy of Hulbert and Jang initiates the integration
process by adjusting the initial time step, and the same is done in
2 3 2 3 2 3 the strategy of Lages et al. The algorithm of Bergan and Mollestad
150 0 0 1 1 0 16:65 uses the given value Dt1 in the rst step integration and reduces it
6 7 6 7 6 7
m4 0 150 0 5 k 1 105 4 1 3 2 5 x 4 39:11 5 immediately afterward. We observed a slight tendency of the time
0 0 150 0 2 5 64:76 step to reach the value Dt = 0.015 s at the end of all of the analyses.
The strategy of Lages et al. provided the lowest values of Dt,
33
whereas the other strategies provided values that were closer to
The damping matrix c can then be formed with Rayleighs each other. Fig. 13(a) presents the curvature sequences used in
damping using the damping ratios, eigenfrequencies, and matrices the strategy of Lages et al.
m and k. The displacement responses for the three oors, obtained Fig. 13(b) presents the variations of the characteristic period T
from the dynamic analysis using a constant time step Dt = 0.001 s, calculated with the strategy of Bergan and Mollestad, as well as
are shown in Fig. 12(a). The parameters of the numerical integra- the ratio Dt=k, which has plateaus of constant values. The three
tion procedure were set equal to c = 1/2 and b = 1/8, and the horizontal traced lines represent the values of the natural modal
parameters for the different adaptive strategies are provided in periods of vibration of the structure, which are equal to
Table 4. T1 = 0.377 s, T2 = 0.161 s, and T3 = 0.097 s. The values of T vary
The value Dtmax of the method of Lages et al. was set equal to between the values of the fundamental period T1 and the mode
the critical time step, Dtcr, in both of the p cases period of the highest frequency, T3, passing through the value T2.
on the shear build-
ing. In the rst case, this value is Dtcr T J 2=p. Fig. 12(b) presents To conrm that the algorithms are independent of the initial
the variation in the time step sizes with all of the adaptive step size Dt1, the same analysis is conducted with a different value
15.0 0.4
Non-Regularized Curvature
Regularized Curvature
(s) T
12.0
Current characteristic period -
0.3
(1/m)
9.0
0.2
Curvature -
6.0
0.1
3.0
T
t /
0.0 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 13. Curvatures and characteristic periods for the rst case of the shear building.
128 D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136
0.02
0.015
0.015
0.01 0.01
0.005 0.005
0 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 14. Variation in the time step size using different values of Dt1.
0.035
Bergan & Mollestad
Hulbert & Jang 8x10
-7
4.00x10-3
0.03
Lages et al. || e ||
Time step size history - t (s)
RL
0.025
6x10
-7
3.00x10-3
0.02
-7 -3
0.015 4x10 2.00x10
0.01
-7 -3
2x10 10
0.005
0 0x10
0
0.00x100
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2. 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 15. Time step size history and normalised error for the second case of the shear building.
1.8 0.5
Non-Regularized Curvature
1.6
Regularized Curvature
Current characteristic period - T (s)
0.4
1.4
Curvature - (1/m)
1.2
0.3
1.0
0.8
0.2
0.6
0.4
0.1
T
0.2
t /
0.0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 16. Curvatures and characteristic periods for the second case of the shear building.
Dt1 = 0.001 s using the strategies of Bergan and Mollestad and Hul- Lages et al. was not compared because it does not employ the value
bert and Jang. The compared results are shown in Fig. 14. The Dt1 unless the initial start conditions are quiescent.
behaviour of the values of Dt are generally insensitive toward Fig. 14 indicates that the initial optimised time step would be
selection of the initial time step in both methods. The strategy of between 0.005 s and 0.01 s in both strategies. This optimal time
D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136 129
0.07
0.02
0.06
0.00 0.05
0.04
-0.02
0.03
-0.04 Constant t
Ansys 0.02
Bergan & Mollestad
-0.06
Hulbert & Jang 0.01
Lages et al.
-0.08 0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 18. Results of the beam analysis for the rst case of loading.
130 D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136
5.00 5.00
Curvature - (1/m)
Curvature - (1/m)
4.00 4.00
3.00 3.00
2.00 2.00
1.00 1.00
0.00 0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 19. Variation in the curvature for different values of a.
0.08 0.08
Time step size history - t (s)
0.07
0.06 0.06
0.05
0.04 0.04
0.03
0.02 0.02
0.01
0.00 0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 20. Time step size history for different values of the input data.
0.11
0.10
0.04
0.09
0.08
0.03 0.07
0.06
0.05
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.00 0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 21. Time step size history for different values of the input data.
D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136 131
0.049
Constant t 0.040
0.042 Ansys Constant t
Bergan & Mollestad Ansys
0.035 0.035
Hulbert & Jang
Bergan & Mollestad
Lages et al.
0.021
0.014 0.025
0.007 0.020
0.000
0.015
-0.007
-0.014 0.010
-0.021
0.005
-0.028
-0.035 0.000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 22. Results of the beam analysis for the second loading case.
illustrates that for this strategy, the time step increases rapidly step is less oscillatory and decreases in constant plateaus. In gen-
from the initial low value of 0.001 s up to nearly 0.05 s and has a eral, the value a = 1.0 should be chosen in problems where the
brief fall that is close to the time t = 0.5 s before a new increase peak values of the curvature grow over time, such as in the last
to an unchanged value close to the ideal value. In the strategy of example. An alternative choice to this procedure would be to take
Hulbert and Jang, the target value given by (Dt/T)target is the same a value of ct that makes the regularisation interval Dtreg close to the
as the method of Bergan and Mollestad, which was almost reached oscillation period of the curvature, which is difcult to predict.
after some intermediary plateaus and remained stable. The time The same analysis of this loading case was conducted with the
step history obtained with ANSYS 11.0 is close the history given strategies of Bergan and Mollestad and Hulbert and Jang, taking
by the method of Bergan and Mollestad. The same behaviour different values for the initial value Dt1 equal to 0.1 s and
shown in the previous example with the strategy of Lages et al. 0.05 s, respectively. The comparison results for variations in the
in quiescent start conditions can be observed in this case: the size time step are shown in Figs. 20(b) and 21(a). In the strategy of
of the second time step (Dt2) is close to the maximum value Bergan and Mollestad, the time step decreases rapidly from the
Dtmax = 0.1 s due to an initial curvature that is close to zero; how- high initial value to the same value as in Fig. 18(b), assuming a
ever, the nal sizes of the time increment oscillated in values that similar behaviour. In the strategy of Hulbert and Jang, the initial
were much smaller than those obtained with the other strategies. step size decreased after the rst step due to a quiescent start,
Fig. 19(a) illustrates the variation in the curvature for this analysis, and the time steps reached the target value after some interme-
with and without regularisation, illustrating that the result of jreg diary plateaus, remaining stable. This result proves that both
is very oscillatory between local peak values. This behaviour leads strategies are not dependent on the choice of the initial time step.
to an undesirable oscillation in the time step sizes, which is The variation in the time step was also analysed in the program
eliminated by taking a = 1.0 in the adaptive procedure, leading to ANSYS 11.0, with different initial values Dt1 = 0.01 s and
the curvature history of Fig. 19(b). Dt1 = 0.1 s, for which the results are shown in Fig. 21(b). How-
Fig. 20(a) presents a comparison between the time step size ever, in this case, the time step behaviour changed with the
histories obtained with this adaptive strategy while choosing the choice of the initial step size, and the software made no changes
different values a = 0.9 and a = 1.0. In the second case, the time in the value Dt1 = 0.1 s.
70.00 70.00
Curvature - (1/m)
Curvature - (1/m)
60.00 60.00
50.00 50.00
40.00 40.00
30.00 30.00
20.00 20.00
10.00 10.00
0.00 0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 23. Variations in the curvature for different values of a.
132 D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136
The results for the third mode forcing frequency case are shown nearly constant value of 0.0015 s. This behaviour can be xed by
in Fig. 22. Fig. 22(a) shows the response history at the midpoint of taking a = 1.0, which leads to the variation shown in Fig. 23(b).
the beams length. The transient part of the vibration is gradually In the same manner, the last example illustrates that the value
damped out and the particular part of the solution dominates the a = 1.0 should be chosen when the average behaviour of the peak
response. The characteristic period calculated by Bergan and Mol- curvatures are increasing. As noted before, this procedure is useful
lestad would become nearly equal to the period of the loading in linear analyses, where an oscillating time step can increase the
function, which is 1/9 = 0.111. . .s. In both strategies of Bergan computational cost.
and Mollestad and Hulbert and Jang the ideal time step size would
assume nearly 5% of this period, what is successfully obtained in 4.4. A three-bar plane frame structure
the second strategy, as shown in Fig. 22(b). The result using algo-
rithm of Bergan and Mollestad is very oscillatory, but it remained The following example illustrates the application of the
close to the ideal plateau in most part of the analysis. The time reviewed time adaptive techniques to a problem of a plane frame
steps obtained with ANSYS 11.0 stayed nearly close to 0.01 s, but steel structure, with the geometric and physical properties shown
assumed so high values in some moments, that may have caused in Fig. 24.
a loss of precision in the response seen in Fig. 22(a), compared with The objective is to nd the lateral displacement history Dx(t) of
the others methods. the top-right beamcolumn joint node, as illustrated in the last
In the strategy of Lages et al., the curvature increases and oscil- gure. Some cases of loading were considered. In the rst case, a
lates considerably, as shown in Fig. 23(a). The regularised curva- lateral transient load F1(t) is applied at the same target node, with
ture with a = 0.9 yields an oscillating time step that is close to a the loading function illustrated in Fig. 25(a). To compare the results
Ansys Ansys
0.004 0.004
0.003 0.003
0.002 0.002
0.001 0.001
0.000 0.000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 26. Time step size histories.
D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136 133
3000 300000
Curvature - (1/m)
Curvature - (1/m)
2000 200000
1000 100000
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 27. Curvature history for both models of the frame structure.
3000
Non subdivided Model
Subdivided Model
Curvature - (1/m)
2000
1000
0
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
Time (s)
Fig. 28. Curvatures for the frame structures from time t = 0.05 s.
Fig. 30. First multiple-loading case.
obtained with different nite-element beam meshes, the analysis
is conducted on two different models, which are illustrated in
Fig. 25(b) and (c). In the rst model, there is no internal element
division over the bars, which are described only by the initial
and nal nodes, yielding only four nodes and three bars in the
entire structure. In the second model, the nite element mesh
was rened in 24 equal beam elements of length equal to 0.5 m,
yielding a total of 25 nodes.
Because the support nodes of the structure are completely
restrained, the model of Fig. 25(b) has six degrees of freedom
Fig. 31. Second multiple-loading case.
and the model of Fig. 25(c) has 69 degrees of freedom. The Rayleigh
proportional damping is introduced with damping ratios that are
set to 5% of the critical amount in the rst and third natural modes displacement Dx appear to be identical in all of the analyses and are
of vibration in both models. not shown.
The rst initial step in the dynamic analysis was chosen as The dominant period T calculated by Bergan and Mollestad
Dt1 = 0.001 s. np and k were set equal to 1.4 and 0.05, respectively. stayed close to the fundamental period T1, yielding an ideal time
(Dt/T)target was set equal to 0.1. The parameters ct and a were set step size for this strategy that is equal to 1/20 of T1, which is close
equal to 1.0 and 0.7, respectively, and the value Dtmax in the to 0.00175 s. The target time step of Hulbert and Jang was close to
algorithm of Lages et al. was chosen as 0.03 s, which is close to twice that value because (Dt/T)target is twice k. ANSYS 11.0 yielded
the fundamental period T1 0.0346 s. The parameter cp was set time step size values that are between the two plateaus.
equal to 0.1 and 0.001 in the rst and second models, respectively. When applying the strategy of Lages et al., a characteristic
The Newmark integration process was applied with c = 1/2 and situation of multi-degree-of-freedom systems has occurred, as
b = 1/4, and in the method of Lages et al., the expression cited in Section 3.3.1: the curvature takes such high values that
Dtreg = ctDtmax was used again because there is no Dtcr in this case. the time step would be very small if the parameter cp did not
The step size history results obtained for the divided and non- reduce the value of j. The curvature value at the initial time step
divided models are shown in Fig. 26. The responses for the lateral increases with an increasing number of degrees of freedom, which
134 D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136
justies the choice of cp = 0.1 in the non-divided bars case and considered, which are given by F2 and F3, as illustrated in Figs. 30
cp = 0.001 in the divided case because the magnitude of the initial and 31, respectively.
curvature in the second model is approximately 100 times greater The variations in the time steps for both loading combinations
than in the rst model, as shown in Fig. 27. are shown in Fig. 32. The same parameter values applied in the
However, this fact occurs only in the initial time steps because previous example were used, changing only the values of a and
in the next instants, the curvatures in both models are approxi- Dtmax from the strategy of Lages et al., to 0.8 and 0.05 s, respec-
mately the same magnitude, as shown in the interval plotted in tively. The previous values of cp, 0.1 and 0.001 were used on the
Fig. 28, which could explain why the time step in the method of cases of F2 and F3, respectively.
Lages et al. starts with close to the same value in both models In the same way as in the last example, the time step sizes
and reaches much higher values at the end of the second model, calculated by Bergan and Mollestad remained close to 1/20 of the
which results from the reduced cp. However, in the rst model, fundamental period in both cases of loading. ANSYS yielded results
the time step size ends with values that are much greater than in with similar behaviour, but with values that were slightly greater,
the other strategies (Fig. 26(a)) because the initial curvature staying closer in the second case. From using the strategy of
already has a value that is much greater than in the subsequent Hulbert and Jang, the time step was rather oscillatory in the nal
instants, which leads to a small initial assumed value for cp in instants in both cases because the normalised error RL stays lower
the nal step calculations. than and greater than the tolerance limits, sequentially.
This phenomenon occurs because when the initial velocity vec- From using the algorithm of Lages et al., the time step was
tor (D_ 0 ) is equal to 0, the curvature at time t = 0 is given by the increased due to the continuous curvature reduction, staying in
norm of the acceleration vector (kD 0 k), which will have a greater the same range of values that was obtained with the other strate-
value when there are more degrees of freedom in the structure. gies. The results were almost the same in both loading cases, even
Even if this behaviour does not occur in the subsequent moments, with very different values of cp, because the rst case has quiescent
the curvature regularisation algorithm continues to use a high per- start conditions, which lead to zero initial curvature, and the sec-
centage of the values that were originally calculated. This phenom- ond case is similar to the previous example, with a very large initial
enon does not occur in quiescent start condition problems because curvature.
the initial acceleration is zero in this case.
To explore the results of the automatic time-stepping proce-
dures for multiple transient loadings, the same plane frame steel 5. Computational cost
structure was analysed with two acting loads, Fa(t) and Fb(t), which
are applied on the nodes shown in Fig. 29. In this case, only the Similarly to Table 2, the following Table 5 summarizes the
subdivided model was considered. results of analyzes of the previous multi-degree-of-freedom sys-
The proportional damping is introduced with a damping ratio of tems, in an attempt to compare the computational cost of the algo-
10% for the rst and third modes. Two groups of loading were rithms. The maximum and minimum time increments found with
Ansys Ansys
0.0025
0.0020
0.0020
0.0015
0.0015
0.0010
0.0010
0.0005
0.0005
0.0000 0.0000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 32. Time step size history results for the two cases of applied loads in the frame structure.
Table 5
Summary of results of multi-degree-of-freedom systems.
Example Bergan and Mollestad Hulbert and Jang Lages et al. Dt multip. factors
Dtmin Dt max NTOT Dtmin Dt max NTOT Dtmin Dtmax NTOT
Shear build. (1) 5.4994 18.3063 103 4.4521 18.4874 93 1.5787 18.2792 247 103 seg.
Shear build. (2) 1.0000 21.8786 131 0.3445 14.0845 258 1.0000 33.3247 306
Beam (1) 1.0000 48.5011 120 0.3546 44.8030 227 1.0000 98.0206 249
Beam (2) 1.0000 19.8014 801 0.3549 5.5313 1035 1.0000 35.5056 3234
Frame, load F1 1.9931 16.2555 376 0.0017 33.3489 284 0.9327 211.381 1093 104 seg.
Frame, load F2 2.8048 17.2158 403 1.8334 30.7454 948 2.9520 26.6504 812
Frame, load F3 0.3907 17.2371 451 0.0009 13.3440 1712 3.0195 19.2714 831
D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136 135
adaptive strategies are presented, as well as the total number of The global analysis that would be made to compare the compu-
points (NTOT) plotted with the different algorithms. The higher tational cost of the automatic time-stepping strategies, and to give
the number NTOT, the more expensive is the strategy and the more a nal conclusion about the less expensive technique, must con-
detailed is the dynamic response. sider these three criteria together: the total number of steps taken
For the simply supported beam systems, only results of the (NTOT, or the number of plotted points), the cost of individual time
analysis with the same data input for all strategies are shown, step size selection routine (which could be given not only by the
and for the three-bar plane frame systems, the results obtained asymptotic behaviour of efciency, but by the explicit complexity
only with the subdivided models are presented. The last column function f(n), to be more specic) and the frequency of chances
of Table 5 brings the multiplication factors of the values of Dt pre- in the value of Dt (which leads to changes in the matrix K). The
sented in the table. global comparison depends on these aspects, which are affected
Observing the summary results, it can be noted that the strat- by various parameters and become very complex.
egy of Bergan and Mollestad lead to the smallest values of NTOT The accuracy obtained with the numerical analyses by different
in almost all analyses (with higher values of Dt), except in two automatic time-stepping strategies should also be considered for
cases, where the strategy of Hulbert and Jang reached smaller val- completeness, what could be made only by extensive simulation
ues. The strategy of Lages et al., on the other hand, gave bigger val- of various systems and comparison with analytical or more accu-
ues of NTOT in many of the numerical examples, or a value near to rate responses, in the same way it was done in some numerical
the higher one, except for the last case, where the strategy of examples in the previous section. The strategy of Bergan and
Hulbert and Jang gave a value of NTOT greater than twice the value Mollestad is very similar to that used by the software ANSYS,
obtained with Lages et al. By only this comparison, one would con- which has been used and which reached accurate results in
clude that the strategy of Bergan and Mollestad leads to a less practical analyses. The strategy of Hulbert and Jang has itself an
expensive analysis, and that an analysis using the strategy of Lages error estimate that intends to control the accuracy results. The
et al. has a higher computational cost. However, the cost of opera- strategy of Lages et al. should be more applied in future simulations
tion in each time step size selection should be also considered to evaluate accuracy, because it was developed recently.
(which should be small, as it was noted in the statement 5 in the
beginning of Section 3), as well as the accuracy obtained with 6. Conclusions
the numerical analyses.
The computational cost of the strategies in the time step size Observing the formulation and numerical example results, one
selection can be compared by counting the number of numeric can draw some conclusions about the automatic adaptive time-
operations performed by each algorithm. A common technique stepping procedures.
for estimating the efciency of an algorithm is to analyse it accord- The strategy of Bergan and Mollestad [6], which is based on the
ing to the size of the problem, given by the number of processed current characteristic frequency, can easily be implemented in any
elements n. By calculating the number of operations performed numerical integration procedure, facilitating programming. This
on the n elements, a complexity function f(n) can be found for approach is the oldest method among the three studied approaches
the algorithm, and the asymptotic behaviour of the efciency can and has been successfully applied in commercial nite element
be estimate by taking big values of n. For a structural analysis prob- software. However, it was observed that the oscillations of the time
lem, n would be the number of degrees of freedom of the system. increments were too large in some examples when using this
To compare the three automatic time-stepping strategies with strategy (Fig. 22b) despite remaining close to a constant plateau
this approach of complexity function, it should be considered value. This pattern occurs because the frequency x is close to zero
only the routine of time step size selection in each problem, when the response passes through maximum amplitudes, as the
because the numerical integration process is the same for all norm ||DD|| becomes relatively small in these situations (a fact
algorithms. that has been observed in other research). Even if verifying the
The most expensive operation executed in the routine of Bergan condition (15) for discarding some frequency x i , the technique
and Mollestad is a matrixvector multiplication that appears on was not very effective, even when using values for e that were dif-
the terms of Eq. (12), which has complexity of n2. The second most ferent from 0.1. In some cases, this fact leads to a very frequent
expensive operation of this strategy is the norm-vector calculation oscillation in the time step sizes. This method also yields no addi-
of Eq. (15) (which has the cost of n) followed by minor xed simple tional gain in the analysis of single-degree-of-freedom systems,
arithmetic operations in each step. Thus, it is found that the strat- which have only one characteristic period. The suggested values
egy of Bergan and Mollestad has complexity of n2 , because its com- of the parameters k, np ;
nm , and e were used, but how to dene
plexity function has the form f(n) = An2 + Bn + C. Both strategies of these values remains unclear.
Hulbert and Jang and Lages et al., in the other hand, has complexity The strategy of Hulbert and Jang [12] is very intuitive when
of n, since their complexity function has the form f(n) = Bn + C, using integration errors, which is a concept that has been sug-
because the most expensive operations in the routines of these gested in various other studies (e.g., [7,10]) and appears to be a
algorithms are the norm-vector calculations of Eqs. (19) and (29), more suitable technique for future research, perhaps using more
followed by minor xed operations. recent error estimators [16]. The algorithm was very effective in
It is concluded that the strategy of Bergan and Mollestad is the the solution of single-degree-of-freedom systems and also led to
most expensive when only the additional step size selection compu- time step sizes that were more regular when solving multi-
tational cost is considered. However, it should be noted that the degree-of-freedom systems. However, the last example of a frame
expensive operation of factorising and solving the matrix Eq. (8) is structure in Section 4.4 displayed values of Dt that were very
always performed in the numerical analysis, because it is part of oscillatory and that were calculated by this strategy. Moreover,
the numerical integration process. This operation may have a com- the formulation of the local error presented by Hulbert and Jang
putational cost of complexity greater than n2 in some cases, which is attached to the integration algorithm of the generalised-a
leads the whole algorithm analysis to this order of asymptotic com- method and must be adapted to any other numerical procedure,
plexity anyway. Moreover, the gain in not make unnecessary which is not necessary in the other strategies. Even with the intu-
changes the value of Dt could be better than decrease the cost of itive use of Eq. (21) for tolerance intervals, the time step changing
the individual time step size selection, because it avoid a new factor- Eqs. (22) and (23) are not very intuitive and should be studied
ization of the effective stiffness matrix in Eq. (9) to solve the system. in more depth. Again, the suggested values of the parameters
136 D.F. Rossi et al. / Engineering Structures 80 (2014) 118136
(Dt/T)target, lb, pinc, and pdec were used, but how they are dened [3] Felippa CA, Park KC. Direct time integration methods in nonlinear structural
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[4] Park KC, Underwood PG. A variable-step central difference method for
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