2/9/2017 RightsWikipedia

Rights
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Rightsarelegal,social,orethicalprinciplesoffreedomorentitlementthatis,rightsarethefundamental
normativerulesaboutwhatisallowedofpeopleorowedtopeople,accordingtosomelegalsystem,social
convention,orethicaltheory.[1]Rightsareofessentialimportanceinsuchdisciplinesaslawandethics,especially
theoriesofjusticeanddeontology.

Rightsareoftenconsideredfundamentaltocivilization,beingregardedasestablishedpillarsofsocietyand
culture,[2]andthehistoryofsocialconflictscanbefoundinthehistoryofeachrightanditsdevelopment.
AccordingtotheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,"rightsstructuretheformofgovernments,thecontentof
laws,andtheshapeofmoralityasitiscurrentlyperceived".[1]

Contents
1 Definitionalissues
1.1 Naturalversuslegal
1.2 Claimversusliberty
1.3 Positiveversusnegative
1.4 Individualversusgroup
1.5 Othersenses
2 Politics
3 Philosophy
3.1 Criticism
4 Etymology
5 History
6 Seealso
7 References
8 Externallinks

Definitionalissues
Thereisconsiderabledisagreementaboutwhatismeantpreciselybythetermrights.Ithasbeenusedbydifferent
groupsandthinkersfordifferentpurposes,withdifferentandsometimesopposingdefinitions,andtheprecise
definitionofthisprinciple,beyondhavingsomethingtodowithnormativerulesofsomesortoranother,is
controversial.

Onewaytogetanideaofthemultipleunderstandingsandsensesofthetermistoconsiderdifferentwaysitis
used.Manydiversethingsareclaimedasrights:

Arighttolife,arighttochoosearighttovote,towork,tostrikearighttoonephonecall,to
dissolveparliament,tooperateaforklift,toasylum,toequaltreatmentbeforethelaw,tofeelproud
ofwhatonehasdonearighttoexist,tosentenceanoffendertodeath,tolaunchanuclearfirst
strike,tocarryaconcealedweapon,toadistinctgeneticidentityarighttobelieveone'sowneyes,
topronouncethecouplehusbandandwife,tobeleftalone,togotohellinone'sownway.[1]
Therearelikewisediversepossiblewaystocategorizerights,suchas:

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Whoisallegedtohavetheright:Children'srights,animal
rights,workers'rights,states'rights,therightsofpeoples.
Whatactionsorstatesorobjectstheassertedrightpertains
to:Rightsoffreeexpression,topassjudgmentrightsof
privacy,toremainsilentpropertyrights,bodilyrights.Why
therightholder(allegedly)hastheright:Moralrightsspring
frommoralreasons,legalrightsderivefromthelawsofthe
society,customaryrightsareaspectsoflocalcustoms.How
theassertedrightcanbeaffectedbytherightholder's

actions:Theinalienablerighttolife,theforfeitablerightto
liberty,andthewaivablerightthatapromisebekept.[1] Rightsarewidelyregardedasthe
basisoflaw,butwhatiflawsare
Therehasbeenconsiderabledebateaboutwhatthistermmeanswithinthe bad?Sometheoristssuggestcivil
academiccommunity,particularlywithinfieldssuchasphilosophy,law, disobedienceis,itself,aright,andit
deontology,logic,politicalscience,andreligion. wasadvocatedbythinkerssuchas
HenryDavidThoreau,MartinLuther
King,Jr.,andMohandasKaramchand
Naturalversuslegal
Gandhi.
Naturalrightsarerightswhichare"natural"inthesenseof"not
artificial,notmanmade",asinrightsderivingfromdeonticlogic,
fromhumannature,orfromtheedictsofagod.Theyareuniversal
thatis,theyapplytoallpeople,anddonotderivefromthelawsof
anyspecificsociety.Theyexistnecessarily,inhereinevery
individual,andcan'tbetakenaway.Forexample,ithasbeenargued
thathumanshaveanaturalrighttolife.Thesearesometimescalled
moralrightsorinalienablerights.
Legalrights,incontrast,arebasedonasociety'scustoms,laws,
statutesoractionsbylegislatures.Anexampleofalegalrightisthe
righttovoteofcitizens.Citizenship,itself,isoftenconsideredasthe
basisforhavinglegalrights,andhasbeendefinedasthe"rightto Accordingtosomeviews,certain
haverights".Legalrightsaresometimescalledcivilrightsor rightsderivefromGodorNature
statutoryrightsandareculturallyandpoliticallyrelativesincethey
dependonaspecificsocietalcontexttohavemeaning.

Somethinkersseerightsinonlyonesensewhileothersacceptthatbothsenseshaveameasureofvalidity.There
hasbeenconsiderablephilosophicaldebateaboutthesesensesthroughouthistory.Forexample,JeremyBentham
believedthatlegalrightsweretheessenceofrights,andhedeniedtheexistenceofnaturalrightswhereasThomas
Aquinasheldthatrightspurportedbypositivelawbutnotgroundedinnaturallawwerenotproperlyrightsatall,
butonlyafacadeorpretenseofrights.

Claimversusliberty

Aclaimrightisarightwhichentailsthatanotherpersonhasadutytotherightholder.Somebodyelsemust
doorrefrainfromdoingsomethingtoorfortheclaimholder,suchasperformaserviceorsupplyaproduct
forhimorherthatis,heorshehasaclaimtothatserviceorproduct(anothertermisthinginaction).[3]In
logic,thisideacanbeexpressedas:"PersonAhasaclaimthatpersonBdosomethingifandonlyifBhasa
dutytoAtodothatsomething."Everyclaimrightentailsthatsomeotherdutybearermustdosomedutyfor
theclaimtobesatisfied.Thisdutycanbetoactortorefrainfromacting.Forexample,manyjurisdictions
recognizebroadclaimrightstothingslike"life,liberty,andproperty"theserightsimposeanobligation
uponothersnottoassaultorrestrainaperson,orusetheirproperty,withouttheclaimholder'spermission.
Likewise,injurisdictionswheresocialwelfareservicesareprovided,citizenshavelegalclaimrightstobe
providedwiththoseservices.

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Alibertyrightorprivilege,incontrast,issimplyafreedomor
permissionfortherightholdertodosomething,andthereareno
obligationsonotherpartiestodoornotdoanything.[3]Thiscanbe
expressedinlogicas:"PersonAhasaprivilegetodosomethingif
andonlyifAhasnodutynottodothatsomething."Forexample,ifa
personhasalegallibertyrighttofreespeech,thatmerelymeansthat
itisnotlegallyforbiddenforthemtospeakfreely:itdoesnotmean
thatanyonehastohelpenabletheirspeech,ortolistentotheir
speechoreven,perse,refrainfromstoppingthemfromspeaking,
thoughotherrights,suchastheclaimrighttobefreefromassault,
mayseverelylimitwhatotherscandotostopthem.

Libertyrightsandclaimrightsaretheinverseofoneanother:apersonhas
alibertyrightpermittinghimtodosomethingonlyifthereisnoother
personwhohasaclaimrightforbiddinghimfromdoingso.Likewise,ifa Adeedisanexampleofaclaimright
personhasaclaimrightagainstsomeoneelse,thenthatotherperson's inthesensethatitassertsarightto
libertyislimited.Forexample,apersonhasalibertyrighttowalkdowna ownland.Thisparticulardeeddates
sidewalkandcandecidefreelywhetherornottodoso,sincethereisno backto1273.
obligationeithertodosoortorefrainfromdoingso.Butpedestriansmay
haveanobligationnottowalkoncertainlands,suchasotherpeople's
privateproperty,towhichthoseotherpeoplehaveaclaimright.Soaperson'slibertyrightofwalkingextends
preciselytothepointwhereanother'sclaimrightlimitshisorherfreedom.

Positiveversusnegative

Inonesense,arightisapermissiontodosomethingoranentitlementtoaspecificserviceortreatmentfrom
others,andtheserightshavebeencalledpositiverights.However,inanothersense,rightsmayalloworrequire
inaction,andthesearecallednegativerightstheypermitorrequiredoingnothing.Forexample,insome
democraciese.g.theUS,citizenshavethepositiverighttovoteandtheyhavethenegativerighttonotvote
peoplecanchoosenottovoteinagivenelectionwithoutpunishment.Inotherdemocraciese.g.Australia,
however,citizenshaveapositiverighttovotebuttheydon'thaveanegativerighttonotvote,sincevotingis
compulsory.Accordingly:

Positiverightsarepermissionstodothings,orentitlementstobedoneunto.Oneexampleofapositiveright
isthepurported"righttowelfare."[4]
Negativerightsarepermissionsnottodothings,orentitlementstobeleftalone.Oftenthedistinctionis
invokedbylibertarianswhothinkofanegativerightasanentitlementtononinterferencesuchasaright
againstbeingassaulted.[4]

Thoughsimilarlynamed,positiveandnegativerightsshouldnotbeconfusedwithactiverights(whichencompass
"privileges"and"powers")andpassiverights(whichencompass"claims"and"immunities").

Individualversusgroup

Thegeneralconceptofrightsisthattheyarepossessedbyindividualsinthesensethattheyarepermissionsand
entitlementstodothingswhichotherpersons,orwhichgovernmentsorauthorities,cannotinfringe.Thisisthe
understandingofpeoplesuchastheauthorAynRandwhoarguedthatonlyindividualshaverights,accordingto
herphilosophyknownasObjectivism.[5]However,othershavearguedthattherearesituationsinwhichagroupof
personsisthoughttohaverights,orgrouprights.Accordingly:

Individualrightsarerightsheldbyindividualpeopleregardlessoftheirgroupmembershiporlackthereof.

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Grouprightshavebeenarguedtoexistwhenagroupisseenas
morethanamerecompositeorassemblyofseparateindividualsbut
anentityinitsownright.Inotherwords,it'spossibletoseeagroup
asadistinctbeinginandofitselfit'sakintoanenlargedindividual,
acorporatebody,whichhasadistinctwillandpowerofactionand
canbethoughtofashavingrights.Forexample,aplatoonofsoldiers
incombatcanbethoughtofasadistinctgroup,sinceindividual
membersarewillingtorisktheirlivesforthesurvivalofthegroup,
andthereforethegroupcanbeconceivedashavinga"right"whichis
superiortothatofanyindividualmemberforexample,asoldierwho Dogroupshaverights?Someargue
disobeysanofficercanbepunished,perhapsevenkilled,forabreach thatwhensoldiersbondincombat,
ofobedience.Butthereisanothersenseofgrouprightsinwhich thegroupbecomeslikeanorganism
peoplewhoaremembersofagroupcanbethoughtofashaving initselfandhasrightswhichtrump
specificindividualrightsbecauseoftheirmembershipinagroup.In therightsofanyindividualsoldier.
thissense,thesetofrightswhichindividualsasgroupmembershave
isexpandedbecauseoftheirmembershipinagroup.Forexample,
workerswhoaremembersofagroupsuchasalaborunioncanbethoughtofashavingexpandedindividual
rightsbecauseoftheirmembershipinthelaborunion,suchastherightstospecificworkingconditionsor
wages.Asexpected,thereissometimesconsiderabledisagreementaboutwhatexactlyismeantbytheterm
"group"aswellasbytheterm"grouprights."

Therecanbetensionbetweenindividualandgrouprights.Aclassicinstanceinwhichgroupandindividualrights
clashisconflictsbetweenunionsandtheirmembers.Forexample,individualmembersofaunionmaywisha
wagehigherthantheunionnegotiatedwage,butarepreventedfrommakingfurtherrequestsinasocalledclosed
shopwhichhasaunionsecurityagreement,onlytheunionhasarighttodecidemattersfortheindividualunion
memberssuchaswagerates.So,dothesupposed"individualrights"oftheworkersprevailabouttheproperwage?
Ordothe"grouprights"oftheunionregardingtheproperwageprevail?Clearlythisisasourceoftension.

TheAustrianSchoolofEconomicsholdsthatonlyindividualsthink,feel,andactwhetherornotmembersofany
abstractgroup.Thesocietyshouldthusaccordingtoeconomistsoftheschoolbeanalyzedstartingfromthe
individual.Thismethodologyiscalledmethodologicalindividualismandisusedbytheeconomiststojustify
individualrights.

Othersenses

Otherdistinctionsbetweenrightsdrawmoreonhistoricalassociationorfamilyresemblancethanonprecise
philosophicaldistinctions.Theseincludethedistinctionbetweencivilandpoliticalrightsandeconomic,social
andculturalrights,betweenwhichthearticlesoftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsareoftendivided.
Anotherconceptionofrightsgroupsthemintothreegenerations.Thesedistinctionshavemuchoverlapwiththat
betweennegativeandpositiverights,aswellasbetweenindividualrightsandgrouprights,butthesegroupingsare
notentirelycoextensive.

Politics
Rightsareoftenincludedinthefoundationalquestionsthatgovernmentsandpoliticshavebeendesignedtodeal
with.Oftenthedevelopmentofthesesociopoliticalinstitutionshaveformedadialecticalrelationshipwithrights.

Rightsaboutparticularissues,ortherightsofparticulargroups,areoftenareasofspecialconcern.Oftenthese
concernsarisewhenrightscomeintoconflictwithotherlegalormoralissues,sometimesevenotherrights.Issues
ofconcernhavehistoricallyincludedlaborrights,LGBTrights,reproductiverights,disabilityrights,patientrights
andprisoners'rights.Withincreasingmonitoringandtheinformationsociety,informationrights,suchastheright
toprivacyarebecomingmoreimportant.
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Someexamplesofgroupswhoserightsareofparticularconcerninclude
animals,[6]andamongsthumans,groupssuchaschildren[7]andyouth,
parents(bothmothersandfathers),andmenandwomen.[8]

Accordingly,politicsplaysanimportantroleindevelopingorrecognizing
theaboverights,andthediscussionaboutwhichbehaviorsareincludedas
"rights"isanongoingpoliticaltopicofimportance.Theconceptofrights
varieswithpoliticalorientation.Positiverightssuchasa"righttomedical
care"areemphasizedmoreoftenbyleftleaningthinkers,whileright
leaningthinkersplacemoreemphasisonnegativerightssuchasthe"right
toafairtrial". IntheUnitedStates,personswhoare
goingtobequestionedbypolice
Further,thetermequalitywhichisoftenboundupwiththemeaningof
whentheyareinpolicecustodymust
"rights"oftendependsonone'spoliticalorientation.Conservativesand
bereadtheir"Mirandarights".The
libertariansandadvocatesoffreemarketsoftenidentifyequalitywith
Mirandawarningrequirespolice
equalityofopportunity,andwantequalandfairrulesintheprocessof
officerstoreadastatementtopeople
makingthings,whileagreeingthatsometimesthesefairrulesleadto
beingarrestedwhichinformsthem
unequaloutcomes.Incontrast,socialistsoftenidentifyequalitywith
thattheyhavecertainrights,suchas
equalityofoutcomeandseefairnesswhenpeoplehaveequalamountsof
therighttoremainsilentandtheright
goodsandservices,andthereforethinkthatpeoplehavearighttoequal
tohaveanattorney.
portionsofnecessitiessuchashealthcareoreconomicassistanceor
housing.[9]

Philosophy
Inphilosophy,metaethicsisthebranchofethicsthatseekstounderstandthenatureofethicalproperties,
statements,attitudes,andjudgments.Metaethicsisoneofthethreebranchesofethicsgenerallyrecognizedby
philosophers,theothersbeingnormativeethicsandappliedethics.

Whilenormativeethicsaddressessuchquestionsas"Whatshouldonedo?",thusendorsingsomeethical
evaluationsandrejectingothers,metaethicsaddressesquestionssuchas"Whatisgoodness?"and"Howcanwe
tellwhatisgoodfromwhatisbad?",seekingtounderstandthenatureofethicalpropertiesandevaluations.

Rightsethicsisananswertothemetaethicalquestionofwhatnormativeethicsisconcernedwith.(Metaethics
alsoincludesagroupofquestionsabouthowethicscomestobeknown,true,etc.whichisnotdirectlyaddressed
byrightsethics).Rightsethicsholdsthatnormativeethicsisconcernedwithrights.Alternativemetaethical
theoriesarethatethicsisconcernedwithoneofthefollowing:

Duties(deontology)
Value(Axiology)
Virtue(virtueethics)
Consequences(consequentialism,e.g.utilitarianism)

Rightsethicshashadconsiderableinfluenceonpoliticalandsocialthinking.TheUniversalDeclarationofHuman
Rightsgivessomeconcreteexamplesofwidelyacceptedrights.

Criticism

Somephilosophershavecriticisedrightsasontologicallydubiousentities.Forinstance,althoughinfavourofthe
extensionofindividuallegalrights,theutilitarianphilosopherJeremyBenthamopposedtheideaofnaturallaw
andnaturalrights,callingthem"nonsenseuponstilts".[10]Further,onecanquestiontheabilityofrightstoactually
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bringaboutjusticeforall.

Etymology
TheModernEnglishwordrightderivesfromOldEnglishrihtorreht,inturnfromProtoGermanic*ritaz
meaning"right"or"direct",andultimatelyfromProtoIndoEuropean*regtomeaning"havingmovedina
straightline",inturnfrom*(o)reg'(a)meaning"tostraightenordirect".[11]InseveraldifferentIndoEuropean
languages,asinglewordderivedfromthesamerootmeansboth"right"and"law",suchasFrenchdroit,[12]
Spanishderecho,[13]GermanRecht.[14]andItaliandiritto.

Manyotherwordsrelatedtonormativeorregulatoryconceptsderivefromthissameroot,includingcorrect,[15]
regulate,[16]andrex[17](meaning"king"),whenceregal[18]andthenceroyal.[19]Likewisemanymoregeometric
termsderivefromthissameroot,suchaserect(asin"upright"),[20]rectangle(literally"rightangle"),[21]
straight[22]andstretch.[23]Likeright,theEnglishwordsrule[24]andruler,[25]derivingstillfromthesameroot,
havebothnormativeorregulatoryandgeometricmeanings(e.g.arulerasinaking,orarulerasinastraightedge).

Severalotherrootshavesimilarnormativeandgeometricdescendants,suchasLatinnorma,[26]whencenorm,[27]
normal,[28]andnormative[29]itself,andalsogeometricconceptssuchasnormalvectorsandlikewiseGreek
ortho[30]andLatinordo,[31]meaningeither"right"or"correct"(asinorthodox,meaning"correctopinion"[32])or
"straight"or"perpendicular"(asinorthogonal,meaning"perpendicularangle"[33]),andthenceorder,[34]
ordinary,[35]etc.

History
Thespecificenumerationofrightshasdifferedgreatlyindifferentperiods
ofhistory.Inmanycases,thesystemofrightspromulgatedbyonegroup
hascomeintosharpandbitterconflictwiththatofothergroups.Inthe
politicalsphere,aplaceinwhichrightshavehistoricallybeenanimportant
issue,constitutionalprovisionsofvariousstatessometimesaddressthe
questionofwhohaswhatlegalrights.

Historically,manynotionsofrightswereauthoritarianandhierarchical,
withdifferentpeoplegranteddifferentrights,andsomehavingmorerights
thanothers.Forinstance,therightofafathertorespectedfromhissondid TheMagnaCartaor"GreatCharter"
notindicatearightfromthesontoreceiveareturnfromthatrespectand wasoneofEngland'sfirstdocuments
thedivinerightofkings,whichpermittedabsolutepoweroversubjects,did containingcommitmentsbyakingto
hispeopletorespectcertainlegal
notleavealotofroomformanyrightsforthesubjectsthemselves.[36]
rights.Itreducedthepowerofthe
Incontrast,modernconceptionsofrightsoftenemphasizelibertyand monarch.
equalityasamongthemostimportantaspectsofrights,forexampleinthe
AmericanRevolutionandtheFrenchRevolution.

Importantdocumentsinthepoliticalhistoryofrightsinclude:

TheConstitutionofMedina(622ADArabia)institutedanumberofrightsfortheMuslim,Jewishand
pagancommunitiesofMedina,[37]establishingfreedomofworshipfornonMuslimsthesecurityofwomen,
asystemforgrantingprotectiontoindividuals,andajudicialsystem.

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TheMagnaCarta(1215England)requiredtheKingofEnglandto
renouncecertainrightsandrespectcertainlegalprocedures,andto
acceptthatthewillofthekingcouldbeboundbylaw,afterKing
Johnpromisedhisbaronshewouldfollowthe"lawoftheland".
WhileMagnaCartawasoriginallyasetofrulesthatthekinghadto
follow,andmainlyprotectedthepropertyofaristocraticlandowners,
todaytheMagnaCartaisseenasthebasisofcertainrightsfor
ordinarypeople,suchastherightofdueprocess.[38]
TheDeclarationofArbroath(1320Scotland)establishedtherightof
thepeopletochooseaheadofstate(seePopularsovereignty).
TheHenricianArticles(1573PolandLithuania)orKingHenry's
Articleswereapermanentcontractthatstatedthefundamental
principlesofgovernanceandconstitutionallawinthePolish
LithuanianCommonwealth,includingtherightsofthenobilityto
electtheking,tomeetinparliamentwhoseapprovalwasrequiredto
levytaxesanddeclarewarorpeace,toreligiouslibertyandtheright
torebelincasethekingtransgressedagainstthelawsoftherepublic
ortherightsofthenobility. TheDeclarationoftheRightsofMan
TheBillofRights(1689England)declaredthatEnglishmen,as andoftheCitizenin1789inFrance.
embodiedbyParliament,possesscertaincivilandpoliticalrightsthe
ClaimofRight(1689Scotland)wassimilarbutdistinct.
TheVirginiaDeclarationofRights(1776)byGeorgeMasondeclaredtheinherentnaturalrightsand
separationofpowers.
UnitedStatesDeclarationofIndependence(1776)succinctlydefinedtherightsofmanasincluding,butnot
limitedto,"Life,liberty,andthepursuitofhappiness"whichlaterinfluenced"libert,galit,fraternit"
(liberty,equality,fraternity)inFrance[39]ThephrasecanalsobefoundinChapterIII,Article13ofthe1947
ConstitutionofJapan,[40]andinPresidentHoChiMinh's1945declarationofindependenceofthe
DemocraticRepublicofVietnam.[41]Analternativephrase"life,libertyandproperty",isfoundinthe
DeclarationofColonialRights,aresolutionoftheFirstContinentalCongress.Also,Article3ofthe
UniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsreads,"Everyonehastherighttolife,libertyandsecurityof
person."
TheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandoftheCitizen(1789France),oneofthefundamentaldocuments
oftheFrenchRevolution,definedasetofindividualrightsandcollectiverightsofthepeople.
TheVirginiaStatuteforReligiousFreedom(1785UnitedStates)WrittenbyThomasJeffersonin1779,the
documentassertedtherightofmantoformapersonalrelationshipwithGodwithoutinterferencebythe
state.
TheUnitedStatesBillofRights(17891791UnitedStates),thefirsttenamendmentsoftheUnitedStates
Constitutionspecifiedrightsofindividualsinwhichgovernmentcouldnotinterfere,includingtherightsof
freeassembly,freedomofreligion,trialbyjury,andtherighttokeepandbeararmsforselfdefense.
TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(1948)isanoverarchingsetofstandardsbywhich
governments,organisationsandindividualswouldmeasuretheirbehaviourtowardseachother.The
preambledeclaresthatthe"...recognitionoftheinherentdignityandoftheequalandinalienablerightsofall
membersofthehumanfamilyisthefoundationoffreedom,justiceandpeaceintheworld..."
TheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights(1950Europe)wasadoptedundertheauspicesoftheCouncil
ofEuropetoprotecthumanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms.
TheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(1966),afollowuptotheUniversalDeclarationof
HumanRights,concernscivilandpoliticalrights.
TheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(1966),anotherfollowuptothe
UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,concernseconomic,socialandculturalrights.
TheCanadianCharterofRightsandFreedoms(1982Canada)wascreatedtoprotecttherightsofCanadian
citizensfromactionsandpoliciesofalllevelsofgovernment.
TheCharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnion(2000)isoneofthemostrecentproposedlegal
instrumentsconcerninghumanrights.
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Seealso
Outlineofrights
Contractualrights
Constitutionalism
Constitutionalliberalism
Constitutionaleconomics
Ruleaccordingtohigherlaw
Deed
Droit
Equalrights(disambiguation),variousmeanings
Exclusiverights
Freedom
Freedomofreligion
Freedomofspeech
Freedomofthepress
FundamentalLawsofEngland
Historyofcitizenship
Organisations:
AmnestyInternational
HumanRightsWatch
UnitedStatesCommissiononCivilRights
References
1."StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy".Stanford
University.July9,2007.Retrieved20091221.
"Rightsdominatemostmodernunderstandingsofwhat
actionsareproperandwhichinstitutionsarejust.
Rightsstructuretheformsofourgovernments,the
contentsofourlaws,andtheshapeofmoralityaswe
perceiveit.Toacceptasetofrightsistoapprovea
distributionoffreedomandauthority,andsotoendorse
acertainviewofwhatmay,must,andmustnotbe
done."
2.UNUDHRPreamble:"Whereasrecognitionofthe
inherentdignityandoftheequalandinalienablerights
ofallmembersofthehumanfamilyisthefoundationof
freedom,justiceandpeaceintheworld..."
3.Fagan,Andrew."HumanRights".InternetEncyclopedia
ofPhilosophyhttp://www.iep.utm.edu/humrts/#SH3b
4."StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy".Stanford
University.July9,2007.Retrieved20091221."A
distinctionbetweennegativeandpositiverightsis
popularamongsomenormativetheorists,especially
thosewithabenttowardlibertarianism.Theholderofa
negativerightisentitledtononinterference,whilethe
holderofapositiverightisentitledtoprovisionof
somegoodorservice.Arightagainstassaultisa
classicexampleofanegativeright,whilearightto
welfareassistanceisaprototypicalpositiveright."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rights
RightsWikipedia
Historyofcitizenship
Inheritance
Jurisprudence
Law
Socialcontract
WesleyNewcombHohfeld
Righttofood
Righttohousing
Righttowater
Righttoanadequatestandardofliving
Righttohealth
Righttosocialsecurity
5.AynRand(20091218)."TheVirtueofSelfishness:
IndividualRights".TheAynRandLexicon.Retrieved
20091218."Individualrightsarenotsubjecttoa
publicvoteamajorityhasnorighttovoteawaythe
rightsofaminoritythepoliticalfunctionofrightsis
preciselytoprotectminoritiesfromoppressionby
majorities(andthesmallestminorityonearthisthe
individual).seepage104.Seealso:Collectivized
'Rights"
6.KatePickert(Mar9,2009)."UndercoverAnimal
RightsInvestigator".TimeMagazine.Retrieved
20091221."Oneofthemostpowerfultoolsanimal
rightsactivistshaveisthevideofootageshotinside
placeslikepoorlyrundogkennels,animaltesting
facilitiesandfactoryfarms,usedasgrimevidenceof
thebrutalitythatcantakeplace.Buthowdoanimal
rightscrusadersactuallygetthosevideos?"
7.VictoriaBurnett(July26,2007)."HumanRightsWatch
saysmigrantchildrenareatriskinCanaryIslands".
TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved20091221."They
mustimmediatelycomeupwithaplantoclosethese
centers,"SimoneTroller,authorofthereportanda
children'srightsresearcherforHumanRightsWatchin
Europe,saidinatelephoneinterview."Whilethese
centerscontinuetoexist,webelievechildrencontinue
tobeatrisk."
8/10
2/9/2017 RightsWikipedia

8."SoapOperasBoostRights,GlobalEconomistSays".
NPR.October21,2009.Retrieved20091221."Many
oftheselocallyproducedprogramsfeaturestrong
femalecharacters.WhenRedeGlobobegan
broadcastinginitsnativeBrazilin1965theaverage
womanhadaboutsixchildrennowtheaveragewoman
hasnochildrenoronechild."
9.JohnE.Roemer(December14,2005)."Roemeron
equalityofopportunity".NewEconomist.Retrieved
20091221."Equalityofopportunityistobecontrasted
withequalityofoutcome.Whileadvocacyofthelatter
hasbeentraditionallyassociatedwithaleftwing
politicalphilosophy,theformerhasbeenchampioned
byconservativepoliticalphilosophy.Equalityof
outcomefailstoholdindividualsresponsiblefor
imprudentactionsthatmay,absentredress,reducethe
valuesoftheoutcomestheyenjoy,orforwiseactions
thatwouldraisethevalueoftheoutcomesabovethe
levelsofothers.Equalityofopportunity,incontrast,
levelstheplayingfield,sothatallhavethepotential
toachievethesameoutcomeswhetherornot,inthe
event,theydo,dependsuponindividualchoice."
10.Harrison,Ross(1995)."JeremyBentham".In
Honderich,Ted.TheOxfordCompaniontoPhilosophy.
OxfordUniversityPress.pp.8588.AlsoseeSweet,
William(11April2001)."JeremyBentham".The
InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Retrieved
7January2011.
11.wikt:right
12.wikt:droit
13.wikt:derecho
14.wikt:recht
15.wikt:correct
16.wikt:regulate
17.wikt:rex#latin
18.wikt:regal
19.wikt:royal
20.wikt:erect
21.wikt:rectangle
22.wikt:straight
23.wikt:stretch
24.wikt:rule
25.wikt:ruler
26.wikt:norma#latin
27.wikt:norm
28.wikt:normal
29.wikt:normative
30.wikt:ortho
31.wikt:ordo
32.wikt:orthodox
33.wikt:orthogonal
34.wikt:order
35.wikt:ordinary
36."DivineRightofKings".BBC.20071011.Retrieved
20091221."[...]theideathatakingwassacred,
appointedbyGodandabovethejudgmentofearthly
powers[...]wascalledtheDivineRightofKingsandit
enteredsopowerfullyintoBritishcultureduringthe
17thcenturythatitshapedthepompandcircumstance
oftheStuartmonarchs,imbuedthewritingof
Shakespeareandprovokedthepoliticalthinkingof
MiltonandLocke."
37.R.B.Serjeant,TheSunnahJami'ah,pactswiththe
YathribJews,andtheTahrimofYathrib:Analysisand
translationofthedocumentscomprisedinthesocalled
"ConstitutionofMedina".BulletinoftheSchoolof
OrientalandAfricanStudies,UniversityofLondon,Vol.
41,No.1.(1978),p.4.
38.Lepore,Jill(April20,2015)."TheRuleofHistory:
MagnaCarta,theBillofRights,andtheholdoftime.".
Newyorker.
39.Dyck,Rand(2000).CanadianPolitics:Critical
Approaches(3rdedition).ThomasNelson.ISBN978
0176167929.
40.http://history.hanover.edu/texts/1947con.html
41.http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1945vietnam.html

Externallinks
StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy(http://plato.stanford.edu/entrie
Lookuprightin
s/rights/),articlebyLeifWenar.
Wiktionary,thefree
WikiEdTeacher'sRights(http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.ph dictionary.
p/Teacher%E2%80%99s_rights)
InternationalFreedomofExpressionExchange(http://www.ifex.or
Wikiquotehasquotations
g/)
relatedto:Rights
ComparativeAnalysisofHumanRights(http://www.constitutionsari
stotle.com/)

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