Proceedings of GT2006

Proceedings
ASME Turbo Expo 2006: of Land,
Power for ASME Sea
Turbo
andExpo
Air 2006
Power of Land, Sea,
May 8-11, 2006, Barcelona, Spainand Air
May 8-11, 2006, Barcelona, Spain
GT2006-90932
GT2006-90932

Comparative Evaluation of Advanced Gas Turbine Cycles

With Modified Blade Cooling Models

Arian Tabari Hiwa Khaledi

Graduate Student Research Assistant
School of Mechanical Engineering Sharif Energy Research Institute (SERI)
Sharif University of Technology Sharif University of Technology
Tehran, 11365-9567, Iran Tehran, 11365-9567, Iran
Email: tabari@mehr.sharif.edu Email: khaledi@mehr.sharif.edu

Ali Hajilouy Benisi

Associate Professor
School of Mechanical Engineering
Sharif University of Technology
Tehran, 11365-9567, Iran
Email: Hajilouy@ sharif.edu

ABSTRACT c length of cooled interval

Advanced gas turbine cycles use advanced blade cooling C absolute velocity
technologies to reach high turbine inlet temperature. Accurate Cp specific heat at constant pressure (kJ/kg.K)
modeling and optimization of these cycles depend on blade DP pressure drop
cooling model. In this study, different models have been used f fuel air ratio (mass basis)
to simulate gas turbine performance. The first model is the h specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
continuous model and the second is stage-by-stage model with k thermal conductivity
alternative methods for calculating coolant, stagnation pressure Kcomb pattern factor
loss and SPR. Variation of specific heat and enthalpy with LHV lower heating value (kJ/kg)
temperature are included in both models. The composition of m mass flow rate (kg/s)
gas stream in turbine is changed step by step due to air cooling. N number of stages
These models are validated by two case study gas turbine Ma Mach number
results, which show good agreement with manufacture's data. MW molecular weight
Then using these models, a comparison between continuous n mole
and stage by stage models is done. Results show that the stage p pressure (bar)
by stage model can be improved to use in variable CPR by PWR coefficient in equation (17)
changing number of turbine stages. Also, the number of film Q heat
cooled rows and coated rows change the number of cooled R gas constant (kJ/kmol.K)
rows. This also increases power, efficiency and TET, while s specific entropy (kJ/kg.K)
reduces coolant mass flow. For high TIT and with current blade S factor of efficiency deterioration
cooling technology, efficiency seems to have no increase
relative to lower TIT. St Stanton number
CAP increases power but decreases efficiency, where with T temperature (K)
FP efficiency also increases, while power increases too. t coating thickness
tct coating thickness parameter
NOMENCLATURE U blade pitchline speed
A area W rotor-relative velocity
ARC coefficient in equation (17) Y momentum loss parameter
B stage by stage dimensionless coolant
parameter Abbreviations
Bi Biot number CPR compressor pressure ratio

1 Copyright 2006 by ASME

 CAP cooling air precooling This paper is a formal framework for thermodynamic
CMF coolant mass flow modeling air-cooled gas turbine cycles and deals with the
CPR compressor pressure ratio detailed specification of cooling flow rates and losses with
DP Pressure Drop more comprehensive calculations of gas turbine performance
FP fuel preheating using an improved code, developed in FORTRAN. A semi-
PLM pressure loss model perfect gas model is used to allow the specific properties of all
RPE reduced polytropic efficiency gas mixtures to be expressed in terms of composition (N2, O2,
SPR stage pressure ratio Ar, H2O, and CO2) and temperature only. The influence of
TBC thermal barrier coating presence of products of incomplete combustion is considered
TIT turbine inlet temperature with definition of combustion chamber efficiency.
TET turbine exhaust temperature The objective of the present paper is to modify, develop and
compare two conceptually different thermodynamic models for
Greek symbols cooled gas turbine. The two models will be referred to as A,
absolute flow angle which is the modified continuous model based on model
specific heat ratio presented in Bolland and stadaas [9] and El-Masri [4] and B,
compactness factor which was the new stage by stage model based on model
c cooling effectiveness described and employed by Jordal [10] and El-Masri [5].
coolant coefficient Throughout the present paper, in all calculations, it will be
ad adiabatic wall film cooling effectiveness assumed that the compressor is operating at its design point
p polytropic efficiency with constant polytropic efficiency and coolant extraction
cc combustion chamber efficiency points are at appropriate pressures.
fuel to air mole fraction
continuous dimensionaless coolant parameter MODELING OF GAS TURBINE CYCLE
stage pressure ratio A standard gas turbine cycle is considered for the present
flow coefficient analysis. The cycle consists of a compressor, a combustion
load coefficient chamber and an air-cooled turbine. Modeling of gas turbine
cycle is presented below.
Subscripts
b blade - COMPRESSOR
bu blade uniform Using the concept of polytropic efficiency, final exit
c coolant or compressor temperature, T2, can be determined by integration with Newton-
cc combustion chamber Raphson's method as [11]:
ct coating T2 c P , g dT g R P2 dP
e exit T1 Tg
=
pc
P1 P
(1)
et exit turbine
g gas By integrating this equation, exit condition can be specified,
i inlet but the compressor work consumption can not be determined
it inlet turbine until the location of cooling air extraction and its quantity is
m mechanical determined.
r reduced (in ptr)
rr rotor-relative - COMBUSTION CHAMBER
t turbine Inlet fuel (natural gas) is composed of CH4, C2H6, C3H8 and
w wall C4H10. Exit temperature of combustion chamber is an input to
the model and then fuel consumption is calculated. Combustion
INTRODUCTION equation can be written as [11]:
Raising turbine inlet temperature increases efficiency and (aCx1H y1 + bCx 2 H y 2 + cCx3 H y3 + dCx 4 H y 4 ) +
specific power of gas turbine cycles. Due to material strength ( yO2 O2 + yN2 N 2 + y Ar Ar + yCO2 CO2 + yH2O H 2O)
limitation, hot sections of the turbine should be cooled. In air- (2)
cooled turbines, mixing the spent cooling air with the main ( yCO2 + nt )CO2 + ( yH2O + 0.5nt ) H 2O
flow causes losses in both stagnation temperature and pressure.
Since the cooling flows are usually extracted from several bleed + yN2 N 2 + y Ar Ar + ( yO2 B )O2
sources in the compressor, thereby influencing compressor a, b, c and d are molar ratios of inlet fuel composition to the
work and flow rate as well as combustor flow rate. combustion chamber, yi is the molar ratio of inlet air, nt and nt
The cooling of high-temperature gas turbines has been the are sum of the carbon and hydrogen moles in the fuel. B is nt +
subject of intensive work over the past 50 years, and there is
0.25nt, and finally, (fuel air ratio) is determined using first
substantial literature on the subject. Early models for cooled
law of thermodynamics [11].
turbine were developed by Rohsenow [1], Hawthorne [2] and
To consider heat flux between combustion chamber and the
Ainely [3]. In the past 20 years up to now, many models was
environment and also incomplete combustion, combustion
applied for turbine modeling with consideration of blade
chamber efficiency is introduced as the ratio of theoretical fuel
cooling such as El-Masri [4-5], Consonni [6], Young and
consumption (complete and adiabatic combustion) to actual
Wilcock [7], Torbidoni and Horlock [8].

2 Copyright 2006 by ASME

fuel consumption. A correct value for state-of-art of gas to coolant injection in hot gas flow is taken into account by
turbines is between 0.99 and 0.999 [11]. means of the following equation:
Molar ratio of combustion products and mass flow entering dP dm&
turbine are determined at the exit of combustion chamber. = c Ma 2Y (8)
p m& g
- COOLED TURBINE
Control Volume dW
Because of the importance of cooled turbine, many methods
of analysis where established before. In this paper we compare
two main and structurally different methods, A and B, for mg, Tg, hg, Pg (mg+mc), Pout, hmix, Tout
simulating cooled turbine: dQ
Coolant Injection
A-CONTINUOUS MODEL
A description of the continuous model is given by El-Masri
[4] and Bolland and Stadaas [9]. In this model, the process of mc, Tc, Pc, hc
work extraction from the expanding gases is modeled as Figure 1 - Element of the cooled expansion path for continuous model
continuous rather than discrete stages. The turbine is treated as
an expander whose walls continuously extract work. The B- NEW STAGE BY STAGE MODEL
expansion path is divided into a large number of steps, with the The stage by stage model is a realistic model for the detailed
sequence of adiabatic expansion, total temperature and total calculation of the performance. This model addresses the
pressure loss, both due to mixing of coolant and hot gases. The cooling of each blade row separately, as point out in [5]. The
stagnation temperature of gas relative to those walls is required number of turbine stages will be determinate by
approximated by a very close to continuously varying function, Ln (Pit Pet )
N =
Ln ( max )
rather than the stepwise variation of a real machine. The key (9)
parameter governing cooling losses is shown to be the ratio that
scales heat to work fluxes to the expansion path walls. The where only the integer part of the right-hand side of equation
connection between this idealize model of expansion path and (9) is considered for N, and then the corrected pressure ratio, ,
the real machine is accomplished by setting its work flux equal is recalculated that is similar for all stages [12-13]. Otherwise,
to the machine stage average. The stage work is proportional to the SPR may be found with assuming the same stage work for
the local gas-flow rate and square of pitchline velocity where each stage with N obtained before. Therefore, in the new
the proportionality constant is load (work) coefficient. For the model, both constant pressure expansion and constant work
element of the expansion path as shown in Figure 1, the work extraction expansion are considered.
extracted through the walls is given by: The cooling effectiveness, defined as:
dW& = m& g dhg Tg ,max Tb ,max
(3) c = (10)
The exit temperature of each step is found by solving the Tg ,max Tci
following equation with Newton-Raphson's method. The temperature nonuniformity in combustor outlet flow is
T2 c P , g dTg P2 dP taken into account by specifying a combustion pattern factor for
T1 Tg
=
P1
R pt
P
(4) each blade row, as:
Tg ,max = Tg + K comb .Tcomb (11)
where pt is uncooled, turbine polytropic efficiency and cPg is a
function of temperature. where Tcomb is the temperature rise through the combustor [7].
By combining the relations between work extraction and A general formulation for coolant mass flow prediction is as
heat transfer for an element, the required coolant mass flow for follows:
each step is found as: mc C
dh g (T g Tb ) g = . Pg (12)
d m& c mg C Pc
= (5)
m& g T 0 ( hb h c ) c is the coolant coefficient that is the ratio of coolant/gas
where is the parameter that characterizes the relative heat to heat capacity. Here two different methods to predict coolant
work loadings on the machines surfaces and found by: coefficient are considered. The first method is the one used in
St ( Ab , stage Ag ) Holland and Thake [14] and extended by Jordal [10] and
= (6) Torbidoni and Massardo [15] which defines the coolant mass
( 1) Ma 02 c flow as:
In equation (6), is load coefficient and depends on the Aw
stage geometry and velocity triangles. Ma0 is pitchline Mach = B .St g . (13)
number referred to ambient temperature T0. The cooling Ag
efficiency c is In equation (13), B is found from semi-empirical
T Tc ,i correlations (B-c curves) that are presented in Mukherjee [16],
c = c ,e (7)
Tb Tc ,i Haselbacher [17] and Holland [18]. A new correlation for film
cooled models is described in Torbidoni and Massardo [15]. Stg
Total temperature loss due to mixing coolant and hot gases
is usually a constant number (0.005) [4].
can found by energy and mass balances. Total pressure loss due

3 Copyright 2006 by ASME

 In this model, cooling effectiveness is calculated using
uniform blade temperature (Tbu) instead of Tb,max [10]. Tbu is
defined as:
Tbu = Tb,max Tb (14)
Tb must be specified by user. One option to estimate Tb,max
is a linear equation between gas temperature and material
temperature found by means of Geipel diagram [19].
Tb,max = 0.3338Tg + 691.12 (15)
The coolant exit temperature is calculated when the cooling
efficiency is known. The cooling efficiency may be found
from:
c ad
c = (16)
( B ad )(1 c )
where ad is the adiabatic cooling efficiency which equals zero
for convective cooling. For film cooling, it is estimated from
Haji-Sheikh correlation [20] or from apparent convective
cooling efficiency that is defined by Torbidoni and Massardo
[15].
In this model, the work extraction in rotor is considered after
stator cooling and mixing coolant and hot gases. The rotor work
extraction is divided into two sections with equal work ratio.
Between these sections, heat transfer to coolant (and then
mixing for film cooled blades) appears. The mixing process for
convectively cooled blades is done after both work extractions
at the end of rotor (figure 2, dashed lines).
Another method for required coolant estimation is El-
Masri's model [5] which the parameter is calculated as:
PWR
c
= ARC (17)
c
is asymptotic value of cooling effectiveness at large
coolant flow rates. The theoretical value of is 1 for film
cooling and 1/(1+Bi) for convective cooling where Bi is the
Biot number based on blade skin conduction. For film cooling,
ARC is taken as 0.05 for the stator and 0.04 for the rotor and for
convective cooling ARC is taken 0.064 and 0.0576,
respectively. PWR is 1.25 for purely convective cooling and 0.9
for film cooling [21].
Actually there are two different mechanisms to consider loss
effects on expansion path; Reduced Polytropic Efficiency
(RPE) and Pressure Loss Model (PLM) which are shown in
figure 2. The first model affects expansion path with reducing
P, while the second model reduces adiabatic expansion
pressure ratio. The PLM shows that the real expansion is better
than the PRE, especially where different coolants used for
blade cooling [5].
The losses caused by the injection of cooling air into the hot
gas stream is taken into account by using an empirical
correction to the polytropic efficiency and the reduced
polytropic efficiency (PRE) proposed by Traupel [22] and
modified by Jordal [10] become
Pit P M& c
ptr = pt Ln
P P M& S (18)
Pet it et g by squared of blade speed) the rotor inlet absolute flow angle 2
The value of S depends on the turbine configuration and is
0.1 to 0.5 [10].
The PLM for calculating the mixing pressure losses obtained
by specifying a momentum loss parameter Y for each cooled
element [5],
P n MW c
= Y c 1 + (19)
P ng MW g
For stator, the value of Y is in the range of 0.15-0.4 and for
the rotor is in the range of 0.2-0.45.
Expansion path in El-Masris model is different from
previous models. In this case, the main gas in the rotor expands
in one step and mixing of the rotor coolant and main flow is
done at rotor exit as shown in figure 2 by dotted lines. So, there
is no difference between convective and film cooling, although
the expansion phenomena is not the same. Dividing expansion
path to more than one step causes exact consideration of
cooling effects on mid part of the rotor. Heat transfer
(convective cooling) or mixing (film cooling) of the coolant
with main gas in mid path of expansion includes the effects of
coolant on the chord wise of the blade (coolant temperature is
the mean value of entrance and outlet of the blade). Therefore,
the new model divides the expansion path to two segments with
equal pressure ratio to consider the difference between
convective and film cooling expansion.
In this model, cooling efficiency is calculated from equation
(16) where for film cooling, the effect of ad included in B and
again apparent cooling efficiency will be used.
First Model
T Second Model
New Model
s
(a) Convective cooling
T First Model
Second Model
New Model
s
(b) Film cooling
Figure 2 - Expansion path for one turbine stage (RPE and PLM)
In the new model, the PLM method is adopted for pressure
losses estimation. For every part of the stage where mixing of
air and main gas occurs, new mole fractions are recalculated
respect to the previous values. This helps in more detail and
comprehensive calculations.
To determine of velocity triangles, the flow coefficient ,
blade speed U and rotor exit absolute flow angle 3 at the
pitchline of each turbine stage are needed as input data. For a
specified work coefficient (the work done in each stage divided
was found from [23]:
= (tan 2 + tan 3 ) (20)
The velocity triangles at other radii are computed by free-
vortex design criteria [24].
4 Copyright 2006 by ASME
 Calculation of rotor cooling flow requires knowledge of the constant number of stages, coolant mass flow, power and
gas rotor relative total temperature. This is found from the rotor efficiency vary from continuous to stage by stage model.
relative total enthalpy which is related to its absolute value by
( )
hrr = hb C 22 W22 2 (21)
Table 1: Manufacture's data for gas turbine [11]
Wnet TET min c
Gas Turbine CPR TIT net
One disadvantage of the first model is estimation of Tb. (MW) (K) (kg/s)
Using the new model which only needs Tb,max, we can predict GE 5371 PA 10 1273 28.7 26.13 761 122.1
coolant mass flows and gas turbine performance and then use GE 9351 FA 15.85 1600 37.5 256 879 629.25
these quantities to derive Tb for the first model. Table 2: Model validation
The effect of Thermal Barrier Coating on coolant demand is Gas Wnet TET
obtained through the results and simplified empirical fits of Model mc/min_c net
Turbine (MW) (K)
reference [25]. For film cooling one gets:
( )
GE 5371 PA 9.3 28.9 26.9 769
TBC = . 1 (113 813 ).t ct3 / 4 (22)
New Model
GE 9351 FA 12.4 38.1 258.1 865
And for convection cooling: GE 5371 PA 6.6 28.9 26.9 749
Continuous
GE 9351 FA 11.3 37.9 260.7 870
c 1/ 2
TBC = . 1 20 + 4 . 16 .t (23)
1 c ct Table 3: Main parameters for calibration in validation process
is the ratio of height of model internal channel to length of Gas Turbine
GE 5371 PA GE 9351 FA
cooled interval and enhancement multiplier for internal heat Parameters
transfer and tct is coating thickness parameter p,c 0.894 0.90

(
t ct = (t c ). k g k ct ) (24)
p,t
Tb (continuous)
0.875
1010 K
0.92
1123 K
kct, coating thermal conductivity is assumed to vary linearly (continuous) 0.42 0.20
TBC Film
between 0.72 W/m.K at 289 K and 2.73 W/m.K at 1770 K based Stage
rows rows
3 0 0 3 2 3
on reference [26]. kg, gas thermal conductivity can be U (linear increase:0.1) 450 m/s 500 m/s
approximated as proportional to T2/3 [5]. 0.5 0.6
3 (linear decrease:0.5) 20 20
MODEL CALIBRATIONS AND VALIDATIONS st rt 0.4 0.45 0.3 0.35
In this section, appropriateness of the program is verified by Tb,max,st1 Tb,max,rt1 1050 K 1020 K 1110 K 1090 K
simulating performance of real gas turbines. To use the Tb,max,st2 Tb,max,rt2 1020 K 980 K 1100 K 1080 K
Tb,max,st2 Tb,max,rt2 980 K 950 K 1050 K 1000 K
program routine, specified data are needed. Two current gas Kcomb1 Kcomb2 Kcomb3 0.02 0.01 0 0.08 0.02 0.01
turbines from large capacity high-performance engines to small
scale engines which have sufficient data are selected as in Table 4: Reference gas turbine input data
Table 1. pc 0.91 Pc 1% Fuel CH4
Table 2 shows the results of two different models for two
aforementioned gas turbines. Some of the main parameters and pt 0.90 Pcc 4% Tfuel 288 K
their values of each gas turbine are listed in Table 3 which are
m 0.99 Pet 3% Blade speed 400 m/s
used for model calibration, while errors of efficiency, power
and TET are minimized. The inputs for DP are: DPinlet=0.01, cc 0.99 Disk cooling 10% 2
DPc.c. =0.04, DPexh=0.02 for all turbines. The agreement
between prediction results and engine data is satisfactory. Yst 0.15 max 2.5 0.6
Tb,max Absolute exit
Yro 0.20 1123 K 20
MODELS CAMPARISON (1st stator) angle
Due to characteristics of continuous model that has no need Kcomb Tb,max Hub to tip
0.08 1098 K 0.8
(1st stator)4 (1st rotor) ratio
to define the number of stages, we compare the effect of the Kcomb Tb,max
number of turbine stages in new stage by stage model with 0.01 1093 K Bi 0.2
(1st rotor)5 (rear stators)
simple continuous model. First, we assume a reference gas Kcomb
0.02
Tb,max
1068 K TTBC / c 0.008
turbine for comparison of different models, and then in the next (1st stator)4 (rear rotors)
section we use this reference to study the effect of
First, we describe the results of stage by stage model with
modifications on gas turbine cooling technologies and coolant
constant number of stages. Figures 3 and 4 show the differences
properties. The input data for calculating the reference gas
between reference gas turbine (continuous model) with new
turbine are listed in Table 4.
As described in [11], [27] and [28], continuous model is model for a three and four stages turbine, respectively. In three
stages case, with increasing CPR, efficiency difference between
suitable for study of how variation of CPR and TIT affects gas
two models decreases while, power, cooling air mass flow and
turbine cycle performance, While the stage by stage model is
TET differences increase. For four stages turbine, the trend is
not suitable for these studies because of its high inputs and
quite inversed and efficiency difference increases with increase
complexity. A reason for this problem is need to determination
in CPR, but power, cooling air mass flow and TET differences
of the number of stages and this quantity will hold constant
decrease. It can be concluded that varying CPR in stage by
through CPR variations. A solution for this problem is to use
stage model with constant number of stages, causes large
equation (9) to estimate the number of turbine stages with
difference between actual and calculated data, while with
variation in CPR. In reference [28], it has been shown that with
change in number of stages with increase in CPR, the average

5 Copyright 2006 by ASME

difference will be constant or less. Therefore, this model can be
1450 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K
used in parametric analysis while detail information is 9
1900 K 1750 K 1600 K 1450 K
0

presented for gas turbine.

Coolant Flow Ratio Variations (%)

8

Turbine Exhaust Temperature

-10
7
1450 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K -20
1900 K 1750 K 1600 K 1450 K 6
13 25

Variations (K)
5
-30
Coolant Flow Ratio Variations (%)

11 20

Turbine Exhaust Temperature

4
9 15
-40
3
7 10

Variations (K)
2 -50
5 5
1
3 0 -60
0
1 -5
-1 -70
-1 -10 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34

-3 -15 Compressor Pressure Ratio

-5 -20
(a) TET and CMF variations for four stages from continuous
-7 -25
1450 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K
6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34
1900 K 1750 K 1600 K 1450 K
8 15
Compressor Pressure Ratio
7
(a) TET and CMF variations for three stages from continuous 6
5

Power Variations (kJ/kg)

1450 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K

Efficiency Variations
1900 K 1750 K 1600 K 1450 K 5
4 40 -5

3.5 4

30 3 -15
3
Power Variations (kJ/kg)
Efficiency Variations

2
2.5
20 -25
2 1

1.5 10 0
-35

1 -1

0 -2 -45
0.5
6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34
0 Compressor Pressure Ratio
-10
-0.5 (b) Power and efficiency Variations for four stages from continuous
-1 -20 Figure 4 - The comparison of continuous and stage by stage model for
6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 different TITs and CPRs
Compressor Pressure Ratio

(b) Power and efficiency Variations for three stages from continuous 1950 1800
Figure 3 - The comparison of continuous and stage by stage model for
different TITs and CPRs 1700
1800
1600
Form equation (9), increase in CPR causes to increase in 1650

Temperature (K)
Temperature (K)

1500
number of stages. Usually for CPR higher than 15-16, number 1500 1400
of stages will increase from 3 to 4. The net effect is that in these
1350 1300
cases, variations of all the above differences are kept as low as
1200
possible with variation in CPR. This enables us to use new 1200
stage by stage model in thermodynamic evaluation with CPR 1100
1050
variation. Using this model, can help to estimate how different 1000

methodologies can influence gas turbine performance. 900 900

For stage by stage model, with reduction the number of 1.21 1.24 1.27
Entropy (kJ/kg.K)
1.3 1.33 1.17 1.2
Entropy (kJ/kg.K)
1.23 1.26

stages, both power and efficiency increase. This effect in higher

(a) TIT=1900 K, CPR=22 (b) TIT=1750, CPR=18
TIT is clearer. As the number of stages decrease, the inlet Figure 5 - Expansion paths in turbine with 3 film and coating rows
temperature to rear stages reduces. This effect may discount the
turbine cooling air, which means higher efficiency and power. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Furthermore, the higher thermal load (due to fewer turbine The results are presented in two groups: first, improvement
stages) leads to slightly lower stage efficiency. But the in blade cooling technology and second improvement in
important parameter which governs the stage performance is coolant properties.
the loading factor (h/U2) rather than the stage load (h). With
augmentation in blade speed (increasing rotational speed or - IMPROVEMENT IN BLADE COOLING TECHNOLOGY
mean radius) the performance remains constant with decreasing Figure 6 shows the effect of increasing the number of film
the number of stages. Due to decreasing coolant mass flow, cooled rows (from 2 to 3) on major parameters of gas turbine
compressor outlet mass flow and work and consequently fuel cycle. There are interesting differences between high and
mass flow increase, but the turbine work increases further medium TITs effects on power, efficiency, CMF and TET.
because of increase in turbine inlet mass flow and decrease in Increase in CPR has two major effects on CMF. First, it
losses due to cooling [29]. increases cooling air temperature and therefore, CMF will be
Figure 5 shows the expansion path calculated with new higher. Second effect is increasing SPR which decreases the
stage by stage model for two different TITs and CPRs and three rear stage inlet temperature and consequently, CMF.
stages. For TIT=1900 K, there is a temperature drop about 120 Furthermore, in constant TIT and higher CPR, for the rear
K due to cooling of first stator which shows the importance of stage, CMF decreases while for the first stage increases, which
losses and cooling flow in this section. causes more decreases in the inlet temperature of rear stages. In

6 Copyright 2006 by ASME

medium TIT (1600 K), the first effect overcomes the second with increasing CPR, due to more CMF reduction relative to
one, so total CMF increases with increase in CPR. This trend three rows film cooling, the first effect has less influence and
will be inversed for high TIT (1900 K) and CPR in the range of second effect dominates for all TITs and all CPRs (in contrast
10-14. In this case, SPR has higher effect, because in a constant with three film rows that for TIT=1600 K first effect dominates
SPR, due to widening of constant pressure curves, temperature and for TIT=1900 K only in CPRs between 10-14 CMF
difference for higher TIT is greater than medium TIT. For decreases). Therefore increasing CPR always reduces CMF in
higher CPR, CMF will remain constant. Also with increase in all TITs for two TBC rows cooling.
TIT, the effect of three rows film cooled blade will be more in
respect to two rows. TET increases with blade cooling 3
1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K
40
improvement and it is higher for high TIT.

Coolant Flow Ratio Variations (%)

2 35

Turbine Exhaust Temperature

1 30

1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 0 25

3 20

Variations (K)
-1 20
Coolant Flow Ratio Variations (%)

Turbine Exhaust Temperature

15
2 -2 15

10 -3 10
1

Variations (K)
-4 5
5
-5 0
0
0 -6 -5

-1 -7 -10
-5 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34

-2
Compressor Pressure Ratio
-10

(a) TET and CMF variations

-3 -15
6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K
2 60
Compressor Pressure Ratio
1.8 50
(a) TET and CMF variations
1.6

Power Variations (kJ/kg)

1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 40

Efficiency Variations
1 25
1.4
30
0.9
20 1.2
0.8 20
Power Variations (kJ/kg)

15 1
Efficiency Variations

0.7 10
0.8
10
0.6
0
0.6
0.5 5
0.4 -10
0.4
0
0.3 0.2 -20
-5 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34
0.2 Compressor Pressure Ratio
-10
0.1 (b) Power and efficiency Variations
0 -15 Figure 7 - The effect of addition 2 coated rows respect to 2 film rows for
6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34
different TITs and CPRs
Compressor Pressure Ratio

(b) Power and efficiency Variations In this case, the cooling flow for the rear stages increases,
Figure 6 - The effect of increase the number of film cooled rows from 2 to 3
for different TITs and CPRs therefore the compressor work decreases, but this augmentation
is not too high to increase the total cooling flows because the
Change in the number of film cooled rows does not change reduction in required cooling flow in high pressure order (at
the total number of cooled rows, while CMF changes. In end of compressor) is dominant.
CPR=14, for lower and upper bound, number of cooled rows It can be seen that although two rows TBC with three film
decrease from 5 to 4 and 6 to 5, respectively. rows reduces CMF more, but with increase in TIT, this effect
Figure 6b shows that increasing film cooled rows improve will be lower and it can be concluded that in higher TIT than
power, significantly for high TIT and this improvement 1900 K, there will be no considerable reduction in CMF with
decreases with decrease in TIT. Similar to CMF trend, for two TBC row cooled. TET again increases with blade cooling
TIT=1600 K, power decreases due to increase in cooling air improvement.
mass flow and in TIT=1900 K, it increases significantly from Figure 7b again shows different trend with figure 6b. For all
10 to 14 and then remains approximately constant. Similar to TITs, power has increased very much relative to reference, but
other cases, improvement in efficiency is higher for high TIT. now for TIT=1900 K, the highest steep occurs in CPR in the
In TIT=1600 K, power decreases with CPR growth, also CMF range of 14 to 18. Using TBC, CMF decreases too much, so the
increases (combustion chamber flow decreases) and efficiency rear stage inlet temperature increases and for CPR=10-14, the
remains constant over a wide range of CPR. For TIT=1900 K, number of cooled rows reduces from 6 to 5 (stage 3 has
power increases (or remains constant in higher CPR), also CMF adiabatic or uncooled expansion). It is why the steepest
decreases (or remains constant), so efficiency improves with reduction in CMF also occurs between 14 and 18. Of course
increase in CPR (or remains constant). again in CPR=14-18 efficiency has the highest increase.
As shown, increasing the number of film rows does not Figure 8 shows the effect of three rows TBC on cycle
change power and efficiency significantly, therefore use of performance relative to two film rows. CMF reduces again, but
TBC is necessary for the first stage. First we consider two rows not significantly. The trend for increase in CPR and TIT is
with TBC (figure 7). In figure 7a, it is interesting to note that similar for CMF, TET, power and efficiency. In this case,
change in the number of cooled rows with CPR again occurs in

7 Copyright 2006 by ASME

the range of 14-18 for 1900 K. Therefore, three coated rows do CMF noticeably relative to 1750 K and percentage of CMF
not change gas turbine structure respect to two coated rows. variation for 1900 K is lower than 1750 K.
Figures 10 and 11 show that with increasing CAP, power
2
1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K
45
increases in the same manner and in high CPR, this effect is
1 clearer. But due to increase in combustion chamber fuel mass
Coolant Flow Ratio Variations (%)

Turbine Exhaust Temperature

0
35
flow, efficiency decreases. For these cases, efficiency decreases
-1
25
with increase in CPR and the minimum occurs between 22 and

Variations (K)
-2 26, then it increases. But the efficiency variation does not
-3 15
change for different TIT significantly. It is because with
-4
5
increase in TIT, CMF does not decrease with the rate of power
-5
increment.
-6

-7
-5
With FP using waste heat of CAP, as shown in figure 12,
-8 -15
power increases similar to CAP alone. But due to increase fuel
6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34
temperature, efficiency increases in all CPR.
Compressor Pressure Ratio

(a) TET and CMF variations 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K
4 10
1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K

Coolant Flow Ratio Variations (%)

3 65 8
3

Turbine Exhaust Temperature

6
55
2.5 2
4
Power Variations (kJ/kg)

Variations (K)
45
Efficiency Variations

1
2
2
35 0 0

1.5 25 -2
-1
-4
15 -2
1
-6
5 -3
-8
0.5
-5 -4 -10
6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34
0 -15
Compressor Pressure Ratio
6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34
Compressor Pressure Ratio
Figure 9 - Variations of CMF and TET due to 200 K CAP for different
(b) Power and efficiency Variations TITs and CPRs
Figure 8 - The effect of increase the number of coated rows from 2 to 3 for
different TITs and CPRs
1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K
0.04

Although with three TBC rows, for higher than 1900 K 0.02 12

TITs, reduction in CMF will be stopped (or not change 0

Power Variations (kJ/kg)

considerably). Therefore in these TITs, new ideas for cooling
Efficiency Variations

-0.02 7

must be considered. -0.04

-0.06
2
- IMPROVEMENT IN COOLANT PROPERTIES -0.08

In equation (12), if we replace with one of the equations -0.1

(13) or (17), then the final extension will be as: -0.12

-3

mc Tg ,max Tb
-0.14
C
= .. Pg (25) -0.16 -8

m g Tb Tci C Pc 6 10 14 18 22
Compressor Pressure Ratio
26 30 34

where and are functions of Stg, area ratio, cooling efficiency Figure 10 - Variations of efficiency and power due to 100 K CAP for
different TITs and CPRs
and cooling technology. For each gas turbine they are constant
values.
1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K
For constant cooling technology, flame temperature and 0.1 25

maximum material temperature, the only two ways to decrease 0.05 20

CMF is reduction in Tci or specific heat ratios. With change in

Power Variations (kJ/kg)

0 15
Efficiency Variations

coolant type from air to steam, ratio of specific heats reduces

-0.05 10
significantly; also Tci may reduce relative to dry air coolant. It
usually reduces CMF about 50 % [11]. -0.1 5

Decreasing Tci without change in coolant type is a more -0.15 0

straight way to decrease CMF. Although Cpc decreases with -0.2 -5

CAP and the ratio of specific heats increases, but the effect of -0.25 -10
decreasing coolant enthalpy is dominant. The net effect is
-0.3 -15
decrease in CMF. 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34
Compressor Pressure Ratio
Figure 9 shows the effect of precooling on CMF and TET
Figure 11 - Variations of efficiency and power due to 200 K CAP for
for three rows TBC air-cooled turbine. With increase in CPR, different TITs and CPRs
for all TITs, CAP has more effect on CMF due to increase in
Tci with increase in CPR. But as can be seen, for high
TIT=1900 K, CAP with 200 K precooling does not reduce

8 Copyright 2006 by ASME

 1600 K 1750 K 1900 K 1600 K
1 25
0.9
0.8
Efficiency Variations
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
6 10 14 18 22 26
Compressor Pressure Ratio
Figure 12 - The effect of 200 k CAP with FP on efficiency and power for
different TITs and CPRs
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, different models for cooling of gas turbine
blades are presented, including continuous and different stage
by stage models. Two stage by stage models are analyzed and a
new model having advantages of both previous models is
developed. The new model validated with manufactures data.
Main achievements of this research are:
In constant number of stages, varying CPR increase
differences between real and calculated data of gas
turbine performance. With varying number of stages
with CPR, the average difference remains constant or
decreases.
Increasing the number of film cooled rows and TBC
layer causes better performance for gas turbine but the
effect of TBC on efficiency and especially power is
clearer.
Increasing CPR with constant number of stages has
two different effects on CMF. First, increasing air
cooling temperature, increases CMF, second
increasing SPR decreases it.
With three film cooled rows, in medium TIT (1600 K),
the first effect overcomes the second one, so total
CMF increase relative to two film row with increase in
CPR. This trend will be inversed for high TIT (1900
K) and CPR in the range of 10-14.
Use of three film rows and TBC cooled blades, may be
change the number of cooled rows.
For high TIT (more than 1900 K), current
modifications in blade cooling technology can not
improve efficiency, significantly.
Precooling the coolant air alone, increases power,
significantly but reduce efficiency. Thus, FP with
cooling air will increase efficiency, too. The effect of
CAP on power in higher CPR is more.
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10 Copyright 2006 by ASME