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CHAPTER 1
Occupational education leadership in perspective

INTRODUCTION

At no time in our history has there been a greater demand for educational leadership.
Changing philosophies,legislative mandates,and technilogical developments are among the
many factors that have reinforced a need for competent persons the guide and direct
educational programs. As the nations largest employer,American education provides jobs for
approximately one-seventh of the nations work force. The magnitude of such an operation
dictates that persons be adequately prepared to provide leadership for programs in all
educational areas.

Although the various areas of education have much in common,they each reflect a
unique character. For example,elementary education and community college education share
some philosophical beliefs but tend to differ in terms of students served,facilities
provided,teaching strategies used,and intructional content. Thus,the preparation and
continued growth of educational leaders tends to focus on what is common to all leaders as
well as that which is unique to a particular educational area.

One such area is occupationaleducatin.although occupational education must deal

with student,teachers,support personnel,and the general public,the nature of this involvement
may sometimes be unique to the field. Similarly,programs,facilities,placement,and related
areas may present unique challeges to deal with. This book is directed toward both the
common and unique elements of contemporary occupational education leadership. It
encomphasses those administrative and supervisory activities and responsibilities that are
central to vocational,technical employment and training (i.e.,Departement of labor-sponsored
programs),occupational,and career education.

FONDATIONS OF OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION LEADERSHIP

Contempory occupational education leadership principles are draw from much the
same foundation as is all of todays education. Although detailed descriptions of
economic,social,historical,and psychological factors related to the growth of oppucational
education leadership are beyond the scope of this volume,it is important to examine at least
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briefly leaderships evolutionary nature. This overview should serve to provide a more
meaningful conceptual base for occupational education leadership it exists today.

Early leadership for occupational education

History reveals that the earliest from of organized occupational education consisted of
apprenticeship. Even as early as 2100 B.C.,apprenticeship served as a principal means of
providing education for work. Typically,the craftsman or master would take the apprentice
into his home and teach him all the mysteries of his craft including such recipes,rules,and
aplications of science,mathematics,and art as might be involved in the craft (bennett,1926).
During the apprenticeship period,which typically lasted two to seven years,the master was to
provide the apprentice with the same religious,moral,and civic instruction that the gave to his
own sons. In the context,the master served as a teacher-leader-worker. He had responsibility
for developing the total individual,one who was competent in a craft and would be a
contributing member of society. Obviously,the method and quality of leadership varied with
trades and masters,particulary due to different masters perceptions of commitment and the
profit motive. This variation resulted in some apprentices being ill prepared for their roles as
craftsmen and led a concem about the quality of goods produced and services rendered.

As apprenticeship continued through the middle ages,some merchants and craftsmen

established organizations called guilds for their mutual aid and protection. Guilds were
formed by various craftsmen (e.g.,bakers,tailors,silvesrmiths)to protect their interests. By
acting as a group they were able to set prices,and increase their profits. Although the
apprentice could become a journeyman in from two to seven years,the highest level of
excellence-master-could be achived only by passing an examination or producing a product
that would be judged worthy by masters in the guild. Although relying on group planning and
judgment,this process still involved very informal learning. Leadership did not extend beyond
the maintenance of a guild standards; fundamental responsibility for education remained
whitin the purview of individual masters.

Rise of formalized educational programs

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,various changing philosophies set the
stage for more formalized approaches to occupational education. One such philosophy had to
do with the nation that human senses from a basic for thought and also for knowledge.
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Ultimately,this emerged as the laboratory from of occupational instruction. A second

philosophy was the concept of learning by doing. Educators began to recognize the value of
working through a process,of making something with the hands or with tools,of doing
something skillfully,as a basic fpr rational thinking (bennett, 1926). Emerging from this
philosophy was the establishment of schools that provided practical,applied skill
development in realistic learning settings. Several philosophers took the lead in organizing
these types of shools on an experimental basis. Pestalozzis neuhof industrial school in
switzerland was designed to provide poor children with educational experiences that
combined study and work. Fellenbergs farm and trade school at hofwyl provided students
with a mix of academic study and manual labor which emphasized concrete applications of
knowledge in realistic setting. The followers of pestalozzi and fellenberg,such as
wehrli,froebel,and owen,built upon early experiments and refined the occupational education
process. Wehrli,for example,was so successful in the organization of agricultural schools that
they became a major factor in the high production rates of swiss farmers of that day.

One may note the aforementioned persons were explorers in the area of education for
work. They encountered success as well as failure in their search for greater educational
relevance. Central to these successes and failures was the business of management. For
example,pestalozzis problems at neuhof were at least partially attributed to the fact thatthe
was not a successful organizer or business man (bennett 1922). This and other early efforts to
formalized education for work were not greatly concerned with the qualifications of
educational leaders. However,at such an evolutionary stage,much was being learned about the
type of person that might best provide leadership for occupational education programs.

During the nineteenth century,vocational education programs and schools continued

to expand. Thecnical institutes,trade schools,and secondary schools of agriculture were
established in various parts of the united states to prepare ppersons to enter skilled
occupations or to upgrade their skills. These served as precursors of contemporary public
occupational education with regard to both organization and administration. Although the
schools were not part of a statewide or national scheme,they clearly demonstated that
program administration was a complex process that required highly qualified personnel.
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Increased demand for qualified educational leaders

Emerging from the industrial revolution was a tremendous demand for skilled
workers in business,industry,and agriculture. To meet this need,industrialists and legislators
supported relevsnt legeslation that would encourange states to establish vocational education
offerings. The result of this effort was passage of the smith-hughes act in 1917. Among other
things,this magna carta of vocational education provide funds for salary reimbursement of
supervisors and administrators of agriculture,trade and industrial,and home economics
programs. More recent legeslation has expanded support for administrative and supervisorry
personnel and has continued to emphasize the need for competent leadership at
federal,state,and local levels. For example,the education professions development act (1967)
provided support for potential and current occupational education leaders to develop and
update their administration and supervision skills.

The tremendous expansion of occupational education in the private sector also served
to create an increased demand for leadership. Realizing the need to provide employee
training,numerous large corporations established training or,more recently,human recource
development units. The staff in these units direct numerous ongoing programs for semiskilled
and skilled workers,technicians,sales personnel,engineers,and managers. The sheer
magnitude of training in this area has demonstrated the need for occupational education
leaders who can compete in the corporate invironment.

A similar sort of expansion occurred in the military sector. While experiences in world
war II taught military leaders many lessons in the area of tactics,they also presented a most
valid case for the improvement of military technology. Thus,the technological are gave rise to
more sophisticated military hardware. Inventories grew to include equipment such as turbine
engines,complex electronics gear,missiles,and laser range finders,and these items required
maintenance. Hence,military technical training evolved into an expansive operation which
today provides instruction to hundreds of thousands of service personnel each year in all
corners of the globe. Obviously,an operation of this scope calls for competent,sophisticated
management. Leadership for military technical training continues to be in demand,despite the
number of civilian and military education specialists who fill key positions.

The foregoing will serve to illustrate the continuing need for competent proffesionals
who can provide occupational education leadership in a variety of settings. As occupational
education continues to evolve,so will the roles of various leaders. However,the occupational
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leader will remain a keystone of the educational process. This perhaps more than anything
else should sustain the need for occupational education leaders.

THE SCOPE OF OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION LEADERSHIP

Occupational education leadership is derived from a broad conceptual base and

touches virtually everyone who is involved in the education leadership,it is necessary to
define leadership not only in general terms but in relation to all profesional personnel in the
educational environment. Once this has been accomplished,it will be much easier to view the
shared involvement that exists in leadership processes.