Coordinates: 35N 18E

Mediterranean Sea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

TheMediterranean Sea (pronounced

/mdtrenin si/)[a] is a sea connected to the Atlantic Mediterranean Sea[a]
Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost
completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern
Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on
the east by the Levant. The sea is sometimes considered a
part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified
as a separate body of water.

The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin

mediterraneus, meaning "inland" or "in the middle of land"
Map of the Mediterranean Sea
(from medius, "middle" and terra, "land"). It covers an
Coordinates 35N 18E
approximate area of 2.5 million km2 (965,000sqmi), but
its connection to the Atlantic (the Strait of Gibraltar) is only Type Sea
14km (8.7mi) wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow Primary Atlantic, Sea of Marmara, Nile,
strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the inflows Ebro, Rhne, Chelif, Po
Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Spain in
Europe from Morocco in Africa. In oceanography, it is Basincountries about 60
sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the Abkhazia (independence disputed,
European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from claimed by Georgia) Albania
mediterranean seas elsewhere.[3][4] Algeria Andorra Austria
Belarus Bosnia and
The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500m Herzegovina Bulgaria
(4,900ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267m
Burundi Chad Republic of
(17,280ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The sea
the Congo Croatia Cyprus
is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia, and in
the south by Africa. It is located between latitudes 30 and Czech Republic Egypt Eritrea
46 N and longitudes 6 W and 36 E. Its west-east length, Ethiopia France Georgia
from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, on Germany Gibraltar (UK)
the southwestern coast of Turkey, is approximately Greece Hungary Israel Italy
4,000km (2,500 miles). The sea's average north-south Kenya Kosovo (independence
length, from Croatias southern shore to Libya, is disputed, claimed by Serbia)
approximately 800km (500 miles). The Mediterranean Sea,
Lebanon Libya Liechtenstein
including the Sea of Marmara (connected by the
Macedonia Malta Moldova
Dardanelles to the Aegean Sea), has a surface area of
approximately 2,510,000 square km (970,000 square Monaco Montenegro
Morocco Niger Northern
miles).[5]
Cyprus (independence disputed,
The sea was an important route for merchants and claimed by Cyprus) Poland[1]
travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade and Romania Russia Rwanda
cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region. San Marino Serbia Slovakia
The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to
Slovenia South Ossetia
understanding the origins and development of many
(independence disputed, claimed by
modern societies.
Georgia) South Sudan Spain

The countries with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea are

The countries with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea are Sudan Switzerland Syria
Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Tanzania Transnistria
Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, (independence disputed, claimed by
Morocco, Monaco, Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Moldova) Tunisia Turkey
Tunisia and Turkey. In addition, Gaza Strip and the British
Uganda Ukraine Vatican City
Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia
have coastlines on the sea.
Surface area 2,500,000km2
(970,000sqmi)
Average depth 1,500m (4,900ft)
Contents
Max. depth 5,267m (17,280ft)
1 Name Water volume 3,750,000km3
2 History (900,000cumi)
2.1 Ancient civilisations
Residencetime 80-100 years[2]
2.2 Middle Ages and empires
2.3 21st century and migrations Islands 3300+
3 Geography
3.1 Extent Settlements Alexandria, Algiers, Athens,
3.2 Oceanography Barcelona, Beirut, Carthage,
3.3 Coastal countries Dubrovnik, zmir, Rome, Split,
3.4 Coastal cities Tangier, Tel Aviv, Tripoli, Tunis
3.5 Subdivisions (full list)
3.5.1 Other seas
3.5.2 Other features
3.6 10 largest islands by area
3.7 Climate
3.7.1 Sea temperature
4 Geology
4.1 Tectonics and paleoenvironmental
analysis
4.1.1 Messinian salinity crisis
4.1.2 Desiccation and exchanges of
flora and fauna
4.1.3 Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"
5 Paleoclimate
6 Ecology and biota
7 Environmental history
7.1 Natural hazards
7.2 Biodiversity
7.2.1 Invasive species
7.2.2 Arrival of new tropical Atlantic
species
7.3 Sea-level rise
7.4 Pollution
7.5 Shipping
7.6 Tourism on the Azure
7.7 Overfishing
7.8 Aquaculture
8 Gallery
 8 Gallery
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links

Name
The term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus,
meaning "amid the earth (note: earth in the sense "soil", not Planet
Earth)" or "between land" (medi-; adj. medius, -um -a "middle,
between" + terra f., "land, earth"): as it is between the continents of
Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios
(), is similarly from , "between" + , "land,
earth").[6] It can be compared with the Ancient Greek name
Mesopotamia (), meaning "between rivers".

The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names. For

example, the Carthaginians called it the "Syrian Sea" and latter
Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum (Latin, "Our Sea"), and
occasionally Mare Internum (Sallust, The Jugurthine War 17). With its highly indented coastline
and large number of islands,
In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible, it
Greece has the longest
was primarily known as the "Great Sea" ( , HaYam HaGadol,
Mediterranean coastline.
Numbers 34:6,7; Joshua 1:4, 9:1, 15:47; Ezekiel 47:10,15,20), or
simply "The Sea" (1 Kings 5:9; comp. 1 Macc. 14:34, 15:11); however,
it has also been called the "Hinder Sea" ( ) , due to its location on the west coast of Greater

Syria or the Holy Land, and therefore behind a person facing the east, sometimes translated as "Western
Sea", (Deut. 11:24; Joel 2:20). Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines" ( , Exod. 23:31),

from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites. The sea is also called the "Great
Sea" (Middle English: Grete See) in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has
also been called Bahr-i Sefid, meaning the "Pure White Sea".

In Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon () , "the Middle Sea", reflecting the
Sea's name in ancient Greek (Mesogeios), Latin (Mare internum), and modern languages in both Europe
and the Middle East (Mediterranean, etc.).

Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Bar [al-Abya] al-Mutawassi () ][ , "the

[White] Middle Sea", while in Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was referenced as Bar al-Rm (
), or "the Romaic/Byzantine Sea."

In Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz,[7] "the White Sea" since among Turks the white colour (ak) represents
the west.

History
Ancient civilisations

Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean

Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean
shores, and were greatly influenced by their proximity to the sea. It
provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food
(from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous
communities throughout the ages.[8]

Due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures
centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of Greek (red) and Phoenician
intertwined culture and history. (yellow) colonies in antiquity -
Circa the 6th century BCE.
Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical
antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians, both of
which extensively colonised the coastlines of the Mediterranean.
Later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans
referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea").

Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking

the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Darius's canal was wide enough
for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended, and required
four days to traverse.[9] The Roman Empire at its farthest
extent in AD 117.
Middle Ages and empires
The western Roman empire collapsed around AD 476. Temporarily
the east was again dominant as the Byzantine Empire formed from
the eastern half of the Roman empire. Another power arose in the 7th
century, and with it the religion of Islam, which soon swept across
from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled 75%
of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern
and southern shores.
The Battle of Lepanto, 1571,
ended in victory for the European Europe was reviving, however, as more organised and centralised
Holy League against the Ottoman states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance
Turks. of the 12th century.

Ottoman power continued to

grow, and in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the
Conquest of Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of the
sea in the 16th century and maintained naval bases in southern
France, Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, the famous Ottoman captain
is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of
Preveza. The Battle of Djerba marked the apex of Ottoman naval
domination in the Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the
European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in
the region when the Battle of Lepanto checked the power of the The Bombardment of Algiers by
Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily the Anglo-Dutch fleet, to support
between galleys. the ultimatum to release European
slaves, August 1816
The Barbary pirates of North Africa preyed on Christian shipping in
the Western Mediterranean Sea.[10] According to Robert Davis, from
the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.[11]
The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, all trade from the
The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, all trade from the
east had passed through the region, but now the circumnavigation of Africa allowed spices and other
goods to be imported through the Atlantic ports of western Europe.[12][13][14]

21st century and migrations

In 2013 the Maltese president described the
Mediterranean sea as a "cemetery" due to the
large amounts of migrants who drown there
after their boats capsize.[15] European
Parliament president Martin Schulz said that
Europe's migration policy has "turned the
Mediterranean into a graveyard", referring to the
number of drowned refugees in the region as a
direct result of the policies.[16] An Azerbaijani Satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea at night
official described the sea as "a burial ground ...
where people die".[17]

Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to strengthen the
national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising "Operation Mare Nostrum", a
military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of
immigrants.[18]

More than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean sea into Europe in 2015.[19]

Geography
The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the
Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known
in Homer's writings as the "Pillars of Hercules")
in the west and to the Sea of Marmara and the
Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus
respectively, in the east. The Sea of Marmara is
often considered a part of the Mediterranean
Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The
163km (101mi) long artificial Suez Canal in the
southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to
the Red Sea. A satellite image showing The Dardanelles strait in
the Mediterranean Sea. The Turkey. The north side is
Large islands in the Mediterranean include
Strait of Gibraltar can be Europe with the Gelibolu
Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios,
seen in the bottom left Peninsula in the Thrace
Kefalonia, Corfu, Limnos, Samos, Naxos and
(north-west) quarter of the region; the south side is
Andros in the Eastern Mediterranean; Sardinia,
image; to its left is the Anatolia in Asia.
Corsica, Sicily, Cres, Krk, Bra, Hvar, Pag,
Iberian Peninsula in Europe,
Korula and Malta in the central Mediterranean;
and to its right, the
and Ibiza, Majorca and Minorca (the Balearic
Maghreb in Africa.
Islands) in the Western Mediterranean.

The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, humid, and dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the
The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, humid, and dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the
region include olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork.

Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows:[20]

Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal
in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa and Asia, and is divided into
two deep basins:

Western Basin:
On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa).
On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. In the Strait of Messina a line joining the north
extreme of Cape Paci (1542'E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of Sicily. The
north coast of Sicily.
On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily (3747N 1222E), through
the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia).
Eastern Basin:
On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin.
On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (2611'E) and Cape Helles, the western entrance to
the Dardanelles.
On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal.
On the east: The coasts of Syria and Israel.

Oceanography

Being nearly landlocked affects conditions in the

Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are very
limited as a result of the narrow connection with
the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean is
characterised and immediately recognised by its
deep blue colour.

Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and

river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is
central to the water circulation within the
basin.[21] Evaporation is especially high in its
Predominant surface currents for June
eastern half, causing the water level to decrease
and salinity to increase eastward.[22] The salinity
at 5 m depth is 3.8%.[23]

The pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it
warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates
westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar.[24] Thus, seawater flow is eastward in the Strait's surface
waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct Mediterranean Intermediate
Water can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source.[25]

The temperature of the water in the deepest part of the Mediterranean Sea is 13.2C (55.8F).[23]
Coastal countries

The following countries have a coastline on the

Mediterranean Sea:

Northern shore (from west to east):

Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia,
Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Turkey.
Eastern shore (from north to south):
Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel.
Southern shore (from west to east):
Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.
Island nations: Malta, Cyprus. Map of the Mediterranean Sea
Several other territories also border the
Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): The British overseas territory of Gibraltar, the Spanish
autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands, the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus, and the
Gaza Strip.

Coastal cities

Major cities (municipalities) with populations larger than 200,000

people bordering the Mediterranean Sea are:

Country Cities
Algeria Algiers, Annaba, Oran
Egypt Alexandria, Port Said
France Marseille, Nice Barcelona, the largest
metropolitan area on the
Greece Athens, Piraeus, Patras, Thessaloniki
Mediterranean Sea and also the
Israel Ashdod, Haifa, Netanya, Rishon LeZion, Tel Aviv headquarters of the Union for the
Bari, Catania, Genoa, Messina, Naples, Palermo, Rome, Mediterranean.
Italy
Taranto, Trieste, Venice
Lebanon Beirut, Tripoli
Libya Benghazi, Khoms, Misrata, Tripoli, Zawiya, Zliten
Morocco Ttouan, Tangier
Palestine Gaza City, Khan Yunis
Alicante, Badalona, Barcelona, Cartagena, Mlaga, Palma,
Spain
Valencia.
Syria Latakia
Tunisia Sfax, Sousse, Tunis The Acropolis of Athens with the
Turkey Antalya, Adana, zmir, Mersin Mediterranean Sea in the
background.
Subdivisions

According to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), the Mediterranean Sea is subdivided into
a number of smaller waterbodies, each with their own designation (from west to east):[20]
 the Strait of Gibraltar;
the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco;
the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic
Islands;
the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy);
the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and
Sicily;
the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece;
the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and The ancient port of Jaffa in Israel:
Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania; according to the Bible, where the
the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey. character Jonah set sail before
being swallowed by a whale.[26]
Other seas

Although not recognised by the IHO treaties, there are some other
seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times,
or in the present:

the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a

part of the Balearic Sea
the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia,
the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete,
In the Aegean Sea,
Alexandria, one of the largest cities
the Thracian Sea in its north, on the Mediterranean
the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the
Peloponnese,
the Sea of Crete north of Crete,
the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios
the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus
the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediterranean

Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and
derive their names from these associations.

Other features
Catania, Sicily, with Mount Etna in
In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are also the background.
recognised:

the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon

the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria
the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria.
the Minet el-Beida ("White Harbour") bay near ancient Ugarit, Syria
the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain
from Morocco
the Bay of Gibraltar, at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula
the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal
the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelion
peninsula
 the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth Canal
and the Mirtoan Sea
the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the
northern Greek region of Macedonia
the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia
the Gulf of Lion, south of France
the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain
the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the toe of Italy
the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy
the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy zmir, the third metropolis of
the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy Turkey after Istanbul and Ankara.
the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy
the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy
the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy
the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy
the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania
the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel
the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya) and
Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)
the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia
the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy Africa (left, on horizon) and
the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica Europe (right), as seen from
the Gulf of skenderun, between skenderun and Adana (Turkey) Gibraltar.
the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya
(Turkey)
the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and south-
eastern Croatia
the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta
the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo

10 largest islands by area

Country Island Area in km2 Population Positano, Tyrrhenian Sea.

Italy Sicily 25,460 5,048,995
Italy Sardinia 23,821 1,672,804
Cyprus Cyprus 9,251 1,088,503
France Corsica 8,680 299,209
Greece Crete 8,336 623,666
Greece Euboea 3,655 218.000
Spain Majorca 3,640 869,067
Greece Lesbos 1,632 90,643
Greece Rhodes 1,400 117,007
View of the Saint George Bay, and
Greece Chios 842 51,936
snow-capped Mount Sannine from
the Corniche, Beirut
Climate
 The Port of Marseille seen from
L'Estaque

The climate map of the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, according
to Kppen climate classification.

Sea temperature

Sarand, Albania is situated on an

open sea gulf of the Ionian sea in
the central Mediterranean.

The Adriatic Sea contains over

1200 islands and islets.

The two biggest islands of the

Mediterranean: Sicily and Sardinia
(Italy)
 Mean sea temperature (C)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Marseille[27] 13 13 13 14 16 18 21 22 21 18 16 14 16.6
Gibraltar[28] 16 15 16 16 17 20 22 22 22 20 18 17 18.4
Mlaga[29] 16 15 15 16 17 20 22 23 22 20 18 16 18.3
Athens[30] 16 15 15 16 18 21 24 24 24 21 19 18 19.3
Barcelona[31] 13 13 13 14 17 20 23 25 23 20 17 15 17.8
Heraklion[32] 16 15 15 16 19 22 24 25 24 22 20 18 19.7
Venice[33] 11 10 11 13 18 22 25 26 23 20 16 14 17.4
Valencia[34] 14 13 14 15 17 21 24 26 24 21 18 15 18.5
Malta[35] 16 16 15 16 18 21 24 26 25 23 21 18 19.9
Alexandria[36] 18 17 17 18 20 23 25 26 26 25 22 20 21.4
Naples[37] 15 14 14 15 18 22 25 27 25 22 19 16 19.3
Larnaca[38] 18 17 17 18 20 24 26 27 27 25 22 19 21.7
Limassol[39] 18 17 17 18 20 24 26 27 27 25 22 19 21.7
Antalya 17 17 17 18 21 24 27 28 27 25 22 19 21.8
Tel Aviv[40] 18 17 17 18 21 24 26 28 27 26 23 20 22.1

Geology
The geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex.
Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was once
thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys
Ocean; it is now known to be a structurally younger basin,
called the Neotethys, which was first formed by the
convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the
Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it is a near-
landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the
Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the
precipitation of evaporites. The Messinian salinity crisis
started about six million years ago (mya) when the
Mediterranean became landlocked, and then essentially
dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on the
bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic A submarine karst spring, called vrulja, near
kilometresin some places more than three kilometres Omi; observed through several ripplings of an
otherwise calm sea surface.
thick.[41][42]

Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than two years by
the Zanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now
called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude (one thousand
times) larger than the current flow of the Amazon River.[43]
The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500m (4,900ft) and the deepest recorded point is
The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500m (4,900ft) and the deepest recorded point is
5,267m (17,280ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46,000km
(29,000mi). A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of
Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850
thousandkm2 (330 thousandmi2); and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1.65 millionkm2 (640
thousandmi2). A characteristic of the coastal Mediterranean are submarine karst springs or vruljas, which
discharge pressurised groundwater into the coastal seawater from below the surface; the discharge water
is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.[44][45]

Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis

The Mediterranean basin and sea system was
established by the ancient African-Arabian continent
colliding with the Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia
drifted northward, it closed over the ancient Tethys
Ocean which had earlier separated the two
supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana. At about
that time in the middle Jurassic period a much smaller
sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys, was formed shortly
before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western
(Arabian) end. The broad line of collisions pushed up
a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in
Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran in an episode of
mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine
orogeny. The Neotethys grew larger during the Messinian salinity crisis before the Zanclean flood
episodes of collisions (and associated foldings and
subductions) that occurred during the Oligocene and
Miocene epochs (34 to 5.33 mya); see animation:
Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia. Accordingly, the
Mediterranean basin consists of several stretched
tectonic plates in subduction which are the
foundation of the Eastern part of the Mediterranean
Sea. Various zones of subduction harbour and form
the deepest and most majestic oceanic ridges, east of
the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean. The Central
Indian Ridge runs East of the Mediterranean Sea
South-East across the in-between of Africa and the
Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean.
Nevertheless, while man-made geopolitical turmoil
and chaos have governed the coastlines of many
Animation: Messinian salinity crisis
various Mediterranean nations throughout the
courses of ancient, modern, present and foreseeable
history, the Plate tectonic status of nations bordering the Mediterranean Sea will find sharing the same
geological concerns and fate.

Messinian salinity crisis

During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest corner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the
Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa. There the development of the
intramontane Betic and Rif basins led to creating two roughly-parallel marine gateways between the
Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors, they progressively
Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors, they progressively
closed during middle and late Miocene times; perhaps several times.[46] During late Miocene times the
closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the so-called "Messinian salinity crisis" (MSC), when the
Mediterranean almost entirely dried out. The time of beginning of the MSC was recently estimated
astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some 630,000 years until about 5.3 mya;[47] see
Animation: Messinian salinity crisis, at right.

After the initial drawdown and re-flooding there followed more episodesthe total number is debated
of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-
flooded the basincreating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean floodat the end of the
Miocene (5.33 mya). Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may
have repeated several times, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt
deposition.[48][49] Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely
from a geodynamic point of view. [50][51]

Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna

The present-day Atlantic gateway, i.e. the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via the
Zanclean Flood. As mentioned, two other gateways preceded Gibraltar: the Betic Corridor across
southern Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco. The former gateway closed about six (6)
mya, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the latter or possibly both gateways closed during the
earlier Tortonian times, causing a "Tortonian salinity crisis" (from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), which occurred well
before the MSC and lasted much longer. Both "crises" resulted in broad connections of the mainlands of
Africa and Europe, which thereby normalised migrations of flora and faunaespecially large mammals
including primatesbetween the two continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and
replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and
overland migrations of new species;[52] see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal migrations),
at right.

The near-completely enclosed configuration of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic
gateways to dominate seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin.
Circulation patterns are also affected by several other factorsincluding climate, bathymetry, and water
chemistry and temperaturewhich are interactive and can induce precipitation of evaporites. Deposits of
evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene, and the
adjacent Red Sea Basin (during the Late Miocene), and in the whole Mediterranean basin (during the MSC
and the Messinian age). Diatomites are regularly found underneath the evaporite deposits, suggesting a
connection between their geneses.

Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by
precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher
than that of the Atlanticso much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters
incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Gibraltar strait: that is, an outflow
submarine current of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of
less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. Herman Srgel's Atlantropa project proposal in the
1920s proposed a hydroelectric dam to be built across the Strait of Gibraltar, using the inflow current to
provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was as well intended to
support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Marghreb part of Africa (compare Eurafrika for
the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid).[53]
Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"

The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin. Fossil evidence
from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer
supporting laurel forests. The shift to a "Mediterranean climate" occurred largely within the last three
million years (the late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased. The subtropical laurel forests
retreated; and even as they persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and
North Africa, the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and
sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry
summers. Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of
years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a
heavily wooded region.

Paleoclimate
Because of its latitudinal position and its land-locked configuration, the Mediterranean is especially
sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary
record. Since the Mediterranean is involved in the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry
periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-
bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in
reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to
constrain the time of past geomagnetic reversals.[54] Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these
paleoclimatic records has improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past.

Ecology and biota

As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis,[55] the marine biota of the
Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder
and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt
to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded.

The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and
Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of bottlenose dolphins in the Western
Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean, and is the most
important feeding grounds for loggerhead sea turtles in Europe. The Alboran sea also hosts important
commercial fisheries, including sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean
Sea in Greece. In 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing
endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals.

Environmental history
For 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and the
"humanisation of the landscape" overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean climate.[56]
The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean Paradise on Earth in
antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations dates back to at least the 18th century and was for
centuries fashionable in archaeological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g.
historical documents, analysis of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and further
archaeometric analyses and population studies, Alfred Thomas Grove and Oliver Rackham's work on "The
Nature of Mediterranean Europe" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a "Lost
Nature of Mediterranean Europe" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a "Lost
Eden", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by
human mismanagement.[56] The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up
to the imaginary past of the classics as idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern
Enlightenment.[56]

The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to
the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the
deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in the Roman age large enterprises as
the Latifundiums took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with
the end of the empire. Some assume that the major deforestation took place in modern times the later
usage patterns were also quite different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has usually
been unstable and showing various ancient and modern "Little Ice Ages",[57] and plant cover
accommodated to various extremes and became resilient with regard to various patterns of human
activity.[56]

Humanisation was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it.[56] The wide ecological
diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human behavior, as it is and has been
closely related human usage patterns.[56] The diversity range was enhanced by the widespread exchange
and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade
relations, and the interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use. The greatest human-induced
changes, however, came after World War II, respectively in line with the '1950s-syndrome'[58] as rural
populations throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham
suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural patterns towards taking a role as scenery-setting
agents for the then much more important (tourism) travelers. This resulted in more monotonous, large-
scale formations.[56] Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are
overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via
the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations.[56]

Natural hazards
The region has a variety of geological hazards which have closely
interacted with human activity and land use patterns. Among
others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Thera eruption, dated to
the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that some
experts hypothesise devastated the Minoan civilisation on the
nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this
may have been the catastrophe that inspired the Atlantis
legend.[59] Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the
European mainland, while others as Mount Etna and Stromboli are
to be found on neighbouring islands. The region around Vesuvius Stromboli volcano in Italy
including the Phlegraean Fields Caldera west of Naples are quite
active[60] and constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world and eruptive event may
occur within decades.[61]

Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive (Plinian) eruptions.[62]
It is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of
Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the international
The large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the international
level with cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons.[63] The
GreekTurkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to improved
relations of traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in zmir and Athens 1999. The European
Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European
solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe.[64] The largest amount of fund requests in the
EU is being directed to forest fires, followed by floodings and earthquakes. Forest fires are, whether man
made or natural, an often recurring and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region.[63] Also, tsunamis
are an often underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami
took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the most deadly natural disasters in
modern Europe.

Biodiversity
Unlike the vast multidirectional Ocean currents in open Oceans within their respective Oceanic zones;
biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of
currents which affects favorably, even the smallest macroscopic type of Volcanic Life Form. The stable
Marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for
life in the deep sea to flourish while assuring a balanced Aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external
deep oceanic factors.

Invasive species

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water
passage between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The Red Sea is
higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a tidal
strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter
Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the
canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the
Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes
gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration
was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun
to colonise the Eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally
The reticulate whipray is one of
saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea
the species that colonised the
species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and
Eastern Mediterranean through the
nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species
Suez Canal as part of the ongoing
invade the Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon
Lessepsian migration.
is known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps,
the French engineer) or Erythrean invasion. The construction of the
Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt
from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and
worsening the impact of the invasive species.

Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious
impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic Mediterranean species. A
first look at some groups of exotic species show that more than 70% of the non-indigenous decapods and
about 63% of the exotic fishes occurring in the Mediterranean are of Indo Pacific origin,[65] introduced
into the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal as the first pathway of arrival of

"alien" species into the Mediterranean. The impacts of some lessepsian species have proven to be
"alien" species into the Mediterranean. The impacts of some lessepsian species have proven to be
considerable mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species
and becoming a "familiar sight".

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition, as well as Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-
native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are outside their normal area of distribution
which is the Indo-Pacific region. When these species succeed in establishing populations in the
Mediterranean sea, compete with and begin to replace native species they are "Alien Invasive Species", as
they are an agent of change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, "introduction"
refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural
range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (man made) canal, is a human agency.
Lessepsian migrants are therefore "introduced" species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever wording is
chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous
to this sea. In recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and
widen the canal have raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the
invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, facilitating the crossing of the canal for yet additional
species.[66]

Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species

In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become a noticeable feature.
Whether this reflects an expansion of the natural area of these species that now enter the Mediterranean
through the Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the water caused by global warming; or an
extension of the maritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an
open question. While not as intense as the "lessepsian" movement, the process may be scientific interest
and may therefore warrant increased levels of monitoring.

Sea-level rise

By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to 61cm (1.2 to 24.0in) as a result
of the effects of climate change.[67] This could have adverse effects on populations across the
Mediterranean:

Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt water
levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water.[68]
A 30cm (12in) rise in sea level would flood 200 square kilometres (77sqmi) of the Nile Delta,
displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.[69]

Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the
Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east-west
movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas.[70] Sea
level rise for the next century (2100) could be between 30cm (12in) and 100cm (39in) and
temperature shifts of a mere 0.05-0.1C in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in
species richness and functional diversity.[71]

Pollution

Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment
Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment
Programme has estimated that 650,000,000t (720,000,000 short tons) of sewage, 129,000t (142,000
short tons) of mineral oil, 60,000t (66,000 short tons) of mercury, 3,800t (4,200 short tons) of lead and
36,000t (40,000 short tons) of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year.[72] The
Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the
marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.'[73] Many marine
species have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution. One of them is the Mediterranean
monk seal which is considered to be among the world's most endangered marine mammals.[74]

The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around
the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average
of 1,935 items per km2. Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of which 94% was plastic bags.[75]

Shipping
Some of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean
Sea. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 merchant vessels of
more than 100 tonnes cross the Mediterranean Sea each yearabout
one third of the world's total merchant shipping. These ships often
carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to
the marine environment.

The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also

A cargo ship cruises towards the
represent a significant source of marine pollution. The Mediterranean
Strait of Messina
Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives
17% of global marine oil pollution. It is estimated that every year
between 100,000t (98,000 long tons) and 150,000t (150,000 long tons) of crude oil are deliberately
released into the sea from shipping activities.

Approximately 370,000,000t (360,000,000 long tons) of oil are transported annually in the
Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250-300 oil tankers crossing the sea
every day. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill
could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.[71]

Tourism on the Azure

The Mediterranean Sea is arguably among the safest and most culturally diverse block basin sea regions in
the world, renowned formostly for the Majestic Azure colour. With a unique combination of pleasant
climate, beautiful coastline, rich history and various cultures the Mediterranean region is the most popular
tourist destination in the worldattracting approximately one third of the world's international tourists.

Tourism is one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries regardless of
the man-made geopolitical conflicts that harbour coastal nations. In that regard, authorities around the
Mediterranean have made it a point to extinguish rising man-made chaotic zones that would affect the
economies, societies in neighboring coastal countries, let alone shipping routes. Naval and rescue
components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered one of the very best due to the quick
intercooperation of various Naval Fleets within proximity of each other. Unlike the vast open Oceans, the
closed nature of the Mediterranean Sea provides a much more adaptable naval initiative among the
coastal countries to provide effective naval and rescue missions, considered the safest and regardless of
any man-made or natural disaster.
Tourism also supports small communities in coastal areas and islands
Tourism also supports small communities in coastal areas and islands
by providing alternative sources of income far from urban centers.
However, tourism has also played major role in the degradation of
the coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been
encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large
numbers of tourists visiting the region each year. But this has caused
serious disturbance to marine habitats such as erosion and pollution
in many places along the Mediterranean coasts.

Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a

serious threat to the habitats of endangered Mediterranean species Antalya on the Turkish Riviera
such as sea turtles and monk seals. Reductions in natural wealth may (Turquoise Coast) received more
than 11 million international
reduce incentives for tourists to visit.[71]
tourist arrivals in 2014.

Overfishing
Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says
that more than 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheriessuch as albacore
and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet and sea breamare threatened.

There are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many areas
larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches.

Large open water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the
stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published a report revealing that the amount of
bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government
scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse.

Aquaculture

Aquaculture is expanding rapidlyoften without proper

environmental assessmentand currently accounts for 30% of the
fish protein consumed worldwide. The industry claims that farmed
seafood lessens the pressure on wild fish stocks, yet many of the
farmed species are carnivorous, consuming up to five times their
weight in wild fish.

Mediterranean coastal areas are already over exposed to human

influence, with pristine areas becoming ever scarcer. The aquaculture
sector adds to this pressure, requiring areas of high water quality to
Aquaculture in western Greece
set up farms. The installation of fish farms close to vulnerable and
important habitats such as seagrass meadows is particularly
concerning.

Gallery
Beach of Hammamet, Tunisia The beach of la Courtade in Sardinia's south coast, Italy
the les d'Hyres, France

Pretty Bay, Malta Panoramic view of Piran, Slovenia Panoramic view of Cavtat,
Croatia

A view of Sveti Stefan, Ksamil Islands, Albania

Montenegro
View of Neum, Bosnia and
Herzegovina

Navagio, Greece Marmaris, Turquoise Paphos, Cyprus

Coast, Turkey
 Burj Islam Beach, Latakia, A view of Raouch off A view of Haifa, Israel
Syria the coast of Beirut,
Lebanon

Coast of Alexandria, view

From Bibliotheca
Alexandrina, Egypt Old city of Ibiza Town, Spain Les Aiguades near Bjaa, Algeria

El Jebha, a port town in Europa Point, Gibraltar

Morocco
 Panoramic view of La Condamine, Monaco

Sunset at the Deir al-Balah

beach, Gaza Strip

See also

Babelmed, the site of the Mediterranean Mediterranean diet

cultures Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly Mediterranean Games
Familial Mediterranean fever Mediterranean race
History of the Mediterranean region Mediterranean sea (oceanography)
Holy League (Mediterranean) Piri Reis - Early cartographer of the
List of islands in the Mediterranean Mediterranean
List of Mediterranean countries Seto Inland Sea - also known as the Japanese
Mediterranean Basin Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean climate Suez Canal
Tyrrhenian Basin
Union for the Mediterranean

Notes
a. In the local languages:
Albanian: Deti Mesdhe [dti ms]
Arabic: , tr. l-Bar l-bya l-Mutawassi [albar alabjad almutawasit]
Catalan: Mar Mediterrni(a) [ma mitrani()]
French: Mer Mditerrane [m me.di.te.a.ne]
 Modern Greek: , tr. Mesgeios Thlassa [mesoos alasa]
Hebrew: , tr. Haym Hatikhn [hajam hatikon]
Italian: Mar Mediterraneo [mar mediterraneo]
Latin: Mare Nostrum, [mar nostr]
Maltese: Baar Mediterran [br mdtrn]
Serbo-Croatian: Sredozemno more, [srdozemno mre]
Slovene: Sredozemsko morje [srdzmsk mrj]
Spanish: Mar Mediterrneo [mar meiteraneo]
Tunisian Arabic: Bar il-wosani [br lwostni]
Turkish: Akdeniz [akdeniz]

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External links
Mediterranean Sea Microorganisms: 180+ images of Foraminifera (http://www.foraminifera.eu/quer
ydb.php?area=Mediterranean+Sea&aktion=suche)

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